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NIREENIGNE G TEM R YGOLO



NIREENIGNE G TEM R YGOLO



E YGOLORTEM GNIREENIGN

1. TPECNOC OF EM A US R EME N T

lareneG tpecnoc – dezilareneG tnemerusaem metsys - stinU dna s at sdradn - nirusaem g stnemurtsni - isnes it ytiv , badaer i til y , gnar e o f a cc ur yca , cerp isi no -

ts a cit a dn anyd m ci esnopser - tilibataeper y- citametsys na d odnar m e rorr s- aegnahcretni ,noitarbilac ,noitcerroc b .ytili

2. EMERUSAEM RALUGNA DNA RAENIL N T oitinifeD n fo ygolortem -Li raen nirusaem g urtsni m ne t :s ,reinreV m orci met re ,

avretni l tnemerusaem , ilS p eguag s na d fissalc i noitac , efretni r mo rete y, tpo ci al stalf , mil it seguag - srotarapmoC : lacinahceM , itamuenp c na d el ce tri ac l t sepy ,

ppa l aci t noi s. alugnA r stnemerusaem : - niS e rab , acitpo l be ev l orp t car tor , a gn le rekceD – paT emerusaem re n .st

3. EMERUSAEM MROF N T nemerusaeM t o f ercs w sdaerht - aerhT d seguag , aolf t ni g ca rr i ga e m emorci ter- nemerusaem t of sraeg - toot h ssenkciht - natsnoc t c oh rd and ab se ta gn en t met doh -

G nosael aeg r gnitset ma enihc – r suida me stnemerusa - ecafrus hsinif , saem ssendnuor dna ssentalf ,ssenthgiarts u emer nts.

4. M NI SECNAVDA DNA RESAL RTE OL YGO noisicerP tnemurtsni s desab no resal - selpicnirP - resal retemorefretni -a pp il cation

ygolortem loot enihcam dna stnemerusaem ralugna ,raenil ni etanidrooC gnirusaem ihcam en )MMC( - lanoitcurtsnoC aef t seru – t sepy ,

snoitacilppa – secived latigid - epsni dedia retupmoc c oit n. 5. REPMET DNA WOLF ,REWOP FO TNEMERUSAEM ATU ER

P DETALER R EPO R SEIT ,ecroF ,euqrot :rewop - ,lacinahcem ,citamuenp ciluardyh dna lacirtcele epyt -

wolF usaem nemer t: ,irutneV ,ecifiro ,retemator totip ebut – erutarepmeT : cillatemib ,pirts erusserp ,sretemomreht ,selpuocomreht lacirtcele ser ist cna e

ht e tsimr er . TXET OB O SK

1. uP annahK ,”ygolorteM gnireenignE“ ,.K.R niaJ b hsil e 4991 ,sr 2. alA n S. sirroM , hT“ e ssE cne e of aeM s ”tnemeru , P citner e H la l of

dnI ai 7991 , SECNEREFER

1. 4891 ,snoitacilbuP iar tapnahD ,”ygolorteM gnireenignE“ ,C.S atpuG 2. ayaJ l K.A , oitatnemurtsnI“ n na d acinahceM l usaeM rem ”stne , G la og it a

0002 snoitacilbuP 3. htiwkceB ,G.T dna .N siweL kcuB , lacinahceM“ stnemerusaeM ”,

1991 ,yelseW nosiddA

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CO AEM FO TPECN S STNEMERU

ortnI 1.1 ducti :ygolorteM ot no golorteM y row d is evired d orf m two eerG k w dro s s cu h as rtem o

cihw h naem s nemerusaem t na d gol y cihw h naem s ecneics . golorteM y is ht e cneics e of icerp s oi n aem s tnemeru . hT e eenigne r ac n as y it is ht e

cneics e of nemerusaem t o f htgnel s na d elgna s na d la l etaler d eititnauq s li ek htdiw , htped , etemaid r na d senthgiarts s w ti h hi hg ca c ru ca y.

golorteM y dnamed s rup e gdelwonk e of iatrec n isab c itamehtam cal na d acisyhp l selpicnirp . hT e nempoleved t of ht e rtsudni y legral y dneped s on

t eh nireenigne g golortem y. golorteM y is enrecnoc d tiw h ht e ,tnemhsilbatse noitcudorper dna noitavresnoc dna refsnart fo stinu fo stnemerusaem dna rieht .sdradnats tcepserrI evi fo eht hcnarb of

gnireenigne , la l reenigne s luohs d onk w uoba t uoirav s tnemurtsni s na d .seuqinhcet

ortnI 2.1 d :tnemerusaeM ot noitcu

nemerusaeM t is enifed d as ht e secorp s of ciremun al oitaulave n of a noisnemid ro eht ssecorp fo nosirapmoc htiw s adnat dr aem s niru g

i tsn rum .stne ehT tnemele s of m rusae i gn syst me dulcni e ht e noitatnemurtsni , oitarbilac n sdradnats , tnemnorivne al ecneulfni , namuh

otarepo r atimil t noi s na d erutaef s of ht e krow - eceip . hT e isab c ia m of nemerusaem t in eirtsudni s is to cehc k wh ehte r a nenopmoc t ah s neeb

on ro noitacificeps a fo tnemeriuqer eht ot derutcafunam t.

3.1 sepyT fo :ygolorteM .3.1 1 lageL ygolorteM . em fo trap taht si 'ygolortem lageL' t or l hw ygo ci h

tre sta tinu s of stnemerusaem , dohtem s of erusaem m ne ts na d t eh nirusaem g stnemurtsni , in oitaler n to ht e acinhcet l a dn agel l

re uq i .stnemer eht fo seitivitca ehT s :era 'ygolorteM lageL' fo ecivre

(i) lortnoC ;stnemurtsni gnirusaem fo ( ii ) fo sledom/sepytotorp fo gnitseT em urtsni gnirusa m ;stne ( iii ) Exa noitanim fo a m ae rus i gn nemurtsni t to firev y ti s

imrofnoc t yrotutats eht ot y r .cte stnemeriuqe 2.3.1 cimanyD ygolorteM . cimanyD' 'ygolortem si eht euqinhcet fo

nirusaem g lams l noitairav s o a f uounitnoc s .erutan hT e uqinhcet e sah evorp d rev y elbaulav , na d a rocer d o f uounitnoc s aem s tnemeru , evo r a

ecafrus , of r ecnatsni , ah s uoivbo s navda at ges evo r laudividni m carahc detalosi na fo stnemerusae t .re

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3.3.1 citsinimreteD golortem y. citsinimreteD ygolortem si a en w hp li yhposo in hw ci h rap t em tnemerusa si ecalper d yb secorp s

nemerusaem t. hT e en w euqinhcet s cus h as 3D orre r oitasnepmoc n by CNC retupmoC( laciremuN )lortnoC smetsys dna trepxe smetsys era

deilppa , nidael g to lluf y vitpada e lortnoc . ihT s golonhcet y si esu d rof yrev hgih noisicerp gnirutcafunam yrenihcam dna tnoc lor smetsys ot

eveihca orcim ygolonhcet dna ygolonhcetonan .seicarucca

ejbO 4.1 cti fo sev M :ygolorte guohtlA h ht e isab c vitcejbo e o a f nemerusaem t is t o divorp e ht e

eriuqer d carucca y at a uminim m tsoc , golortem y ah s ehtruf r evitcejbo s in enigne nredom a sepahs tnereffid htiw tnalp gnire w :era hcih

1. n fo noitaulave etelpmoC e .stcudorp depoleved ylw 2. eseht taht erusne dna seitilibapac ssecorp eht fo noitanimreteD a er

retteb naht eht tnaveler tnenopmoc .secnarelot 3. noitanimreteD fo eht gnirusaem murtsni tne seitilibapac dna

rusne e taht eht y era uq ite ffus ic ei tn of r ieht r evitcepser .stnemerusaem

4. tneiciffe dna evitceffe yb noitcepsni fo tsoc eht gniziminiM use fo elbaliava .seitilicaf

5. nicudeR g ht e soc t of tcejer s na d rower k guorht h oitacilppa n fo ilauQ lacitsitatS t seuqinhceT lortnoC y .

6. T s o t dradna i :sdohtem gnirusaem eht ez 7. am oT int nia t eh a .tnemerusaem fo seicarucc 8. f noitcepsni laiceps dna seguag lla rof sngised eraperp oT ixt .seru

I dna ytisseceN 5.1 m :ygolorteM fo ecnatrop

1 ehT cnatropmi e fo eht ecneics fo tnemerusaem sa a loot of r fitneics ic craeser h b( y cihw h tarucca e na d lbailer e oitamrofni n

ac n be deniatbo ) aw s ezisahpme d b y eli1aG o na d G ehtev . ihT s is aitnesse l of r nivlos g somla t la l acinhcet l melborp s in ht e leif d of

gnireenigne ni ,lareneg dna ni noitcudorp gnireenigne na d p ni ngised latnemirepxe a ralucitr . reenigne ngised ehT luohs d on t

ylno kcehc sih ngised morf eht tniop fo weiv fo htgnerts or acimonoce l noitcudorp , ub t h e luohs d sla o eek p i n nim d oh w ht e noisnemid s iceps eif d ac n be ekcehc d o r aem s deru . yletanutrofnU ,

a lbaredisnoc e nuoma t fo nireenigne g row k is s lit l nieb g etucexe d uohtiw t nizilaer g ht e cnatropmi e o f oitcepsni n na d tilauq y ortnoc l

rof nivorpmi g t eh nuf itc no fo cudorp t na d niveihca g ht e lacimonoce dorp .noitcu

2 rehgiH ytivitcudorp dna ycarucca si dellac rof yb eht erp s ne t gnirutcafunam .seuqinhcet sihT tonnac eb deveihca sselnu eht

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ecneics of ygolortem i s dootsrednu , decudortni na d eilppa d ni i tsudn ir .se gnivorpmI eht ytilauq fo noitcudorp issecen etat s

roporp it no al im vorp eme tn of t eh em a us ir gn ycarucca , dna nikram g uo t o f tnenopmoc s rofeb e ninihcam g na d ht e ni - ssecorp

dna tsop ssecorp lortnoc fo eht lanoisnemid dna acirtemoeg l eicarucca s of ht e tcudorp . eporP r eguag s s luoh d be ed s engi d na d

esu d rof dipar dna evitceffe .noitcepsni oslA noitamotua dna citamotua ,lortnoc hcihw era eht medom sdnert rof rutuf e empoleved n st , ra e esab d on emerusaem nt. naeM s of r itamotua c

niguag g as lew l as of r op s oiti n na d id s emecalp nt aem s nemeru t f htiw e oc kcabde .dedivorp eb ot evah lortn

6.1 sdohteM fo :stnemerusaeM

erusaem ni desu nosirapmoc fo sdohtem eht era esehT m .ssecorp tne poda era tnemerusaem fo sdohtem suoirav tnemerusaem noisicerp nI et d

nidneped g opu n ht e carucca y eriuqer d na d ht e nuoma t of lbissimrep e .rorre

fissalc eb nac tnemerusaem fo sdohtem ehT i :sa de l . Dire dohtem tc .2 ridnI ce t tem doh

.3 o etulosbA r F dohtem latnemadnu .4 evitarapmoC dohtem

.5 Tra dohtem noitisopsn .6 ecnedicnioC dohtem

.7 noitcelfeD dohtem yratnemelpmoC.8 dohtem

.9 tcatnoC m dohte 01 . tcatnoC ssel dohtem

1. tceriD dohtem fo :tnemerusaem sihT si a elpmis dohtem of

tnemerusaem , in cihw h ht e ulav e of ht e titnauq y to b e aem s eru d is eniatbo d ltcerid y uohtiw t na y aluclac t snoi . oF r elpmaxe , tnemerusaem s

reinrev ,selacs gnisu yb srepillac , morcim e sret , otcetorp leveb r .cte Thi s ohtem d is som t lediw y esu d in noitcudorp . ihT s ohtem d is on t rev y

etarucca esuaceb ti sdneped no namuh ssenevitisnesni ni nikam g j gdu m .tne .2 tceridnI dohtem fo :tnemerusaem v eht dohtem tceridni nI la eu fo

ytitnauq ot eb derusaem si deniatbo yb gnirusaem rehto eititnauq s hcihw era yllanoitcnuf detaler ot eht deriuqer .eulav g.e . elgna

tnemerusaem b y nis e rab , emerusaem nt of s erc w hctip retemaid yb rht e riw e e m .cte dohte

.3 ohtem latnemadnuF ro etulosbA :d tI si desab no eht tnemerusaem

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fo eht esab seititnauq desu ot enifed eht .ytitnauq roF elpmaxe , nirusaem g a titnauq y ltcerid y i n cnadrocca e tiw h ht e oitinifed n o f aht t

ytitnauq , or nirusaem g a titnauq y ltceridni y by cerid t nemerusaem t of eht tnauq seiti deknil htiw eht noitinifed fo eht ytitnauq ot eb .derusaem

.4 evitarapmoC :dohtem fo eulav eht dohtem siht nI t ytitnauq eh t eb o m eht fo eulav nwonk htiw derapmoc si derusae s rehto ro ytitnauq ema

aler yllacitcarp ytitnauq t de t ti o . ohtem siht ni ,oS aived eht ylno d it sno morf a retsam eguag era ,denimreted ,.g.e laid ,srotacidni ro rehto

.srotarapmoc .5 psnarT o dohtem noitis : It i fo dohtem a s m tcerid yb tnemerusae

nosirapmoc ni hcihw eht eulav fo eht ytitnauq aem s deru si srif t ecnalab d by a n itini al wonk n eulav A of ht e mas e ytitnauq , eht n ht e

ulav e of ht e titnauq y erusaem d is up t i n calp e o f iht s wonk n ulav e na d is ecnalab d iaga n b y ehtona r onk wn eulav B. I f ht e oitisop n o f ht e

nemele t nitacidni g uirbiliuqe m is ht e mas e i n tob h esac s , ht e ulav e of ht e titnauq y to be aem s eru d is . oF r elpmaxe , oitanimreted n of a

ssam yb snaem fo a ecnalab dna nwonk ,sthgiew gnisu eht suaG s buod l gnihgiew e

6. cnedicnioC e dohtem : It i s a aitnereffid l ohtem d o f nemerusaem t ni cihw h a rev y lams l cnereffid e eb eewt n ht e ulav e of ht e titnauq y t o be

erusaem d na d ht e cnerefer e is enimreted d by ht e bo s oitavre n of ht e cnedicnioc e o f iatrec n enil s or langis s. oF r elpmaxe , nemerusaem t yb

ev rni .retemorcim repillac re .7 feD l :dohtem noitce fo eulav eht dohtem siht nI t ytitnauq eh t eb o

derusaem si yltcerid detacidni yb a noitcelfed fo a retniop no a detarbilac .elacs

.8 yratnemelpmoC :dohtem ytitnauq eht fo eulav eht dohtem siht nI to nauq emas eht fo eulav nwonk a htiw denibmoc si derusaem eb tit .y ehT

si noitanibmoc si seulav owt eseht fo mus eht taht detsujda os e lauq to rp e eulav nosirapmoc denimreted .. roF ,elpmaxe noitanimreted fo eht

ulov m fo e a l yb dilos i uq i d d i .tnemecalps .9 us yb tnemerusaem fo dohteM b :noitutits . d fo dohtem a si tI ir ce t

osirapmoc n in cihw h the ulav e of a titnauq y to be aem s eru d is ecalper d by a wonk n ulav e of ht e s ma e ytitnauq , so s etcele d aht t ht e tceffe s

era seulav owt eseht yb ecived gnitacidni eht ni decudorp t .emas eh 01 . dohteM fo llun emerusaem nt: tI si a dohtem fo tnereffid ial

saem nemeru t. I n iht s ohtem d ht e cnereffid e eewteb n ht e ulav e o f ht e titnauq y ot eb erusaem d na d ht e wonk n ulav e o f ht e s ma e titnauq y w ti h

ti hcihw i .orez ot thguorb si derapmoc s

dezilareneG 7.1 tnemerusaeM metsyS dna sdradnatS : ehT ret m dradnats si desu to etoned yllasrevinu detpecca snoitacificeps of r

7

AB



ecived s. stnenopmoC ro sessecorp hcihw erusne ytimrofnoc dna int ytilibaegnahcre uohguorht t a alucitrap r rtsudni y. A dradnats

edivorp s a cnerefer e of r ningissa g a aciremun l ulav e t a o aem s eru d titnauq y. caE h isab c lbarusaem e titnauq y ah s a ss etaico d tiw h i t an tamitlu e dradnats . nikroW g sdradnats , soht e esu d in oitcnujnoc n w hti

ht e uoirav s nemerusaem t nikam g ni s tnemurt s. hT e anoitan l tutitsni e o f dradnats s na d golonhcet y TSIN( ) lremrof y ellac d N anoita l B aeru u of dradnatS s ,)SBN( i t aw s es ilbat s eh d b y a n ca t of ergnoc ss i n ,1091 na d ht e een d of r cus h dob y ah d eeb n eton d b y ht e rednuof s o f eht

oitutitsnoc n. nI redro ot tniam a ni ,ycarucca sdradnats ni a sav t airtsudni l elpmoc x sum t b e baecart le to a s lgni e ecruos , cihw h am y

eb slanoitan .sdradnats ehT niwollof g si ht e oitazilareneg n fo nolehce s of dradnats s ni ht e

sys tnemerusaem lanoitan tem. 1. noitarbilaC sdradnats 2. ygolorteM sdradnats 3. lanoitaN sdradnats

1. noitarbilaC s :sdradnat dnats gnikroW ro lairtsudni fo sdra evog rnm latne l .seirotaroba

2. golorteM y :sdradnats ecnerefeR sdradnats fo lairtsudni ro latnemnrevoG .seirotarobal

3. taN i lano radnats d :s tI ni lc du es pytotorp e na d larutan metsyS( lS fo nonemonehp s )lanoitanretnI , eht diw dlrow e ys ets m

dna thgiew fo m .sdradnats serusae oitacilppA n o f sicerp e nemerusaem t ah s aercni se d so hcum , aht t a

elgnis lanoitan yrotarobal to mrofrep yltcerid lla eht rbilac a snoit dna oitazidradnats n eriuqer d yb a gral e rtnuoc y tiw h gih h acinhcet l

nempoleved t. ah tI s el d to ht e ilbatse s nemh t of a noc s lbaredi e ebmun r of gnizidradnats seirotarobal ni yrtsudni dna ni suoirav rehto .saera A

radnats d edivorp s cnerefer a e ro of mutad r gningissa a aciremun l ulav e to a erusaem d ytitnauq . hT e wt o radnats d metsys s of aenil r aem s tnemeru s ar ( dray e E gn il )cirtem( retem dna )hs .

nil roF e su era sdradnats suoirav stnemerusaem ra e .d

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eniL 1.7.1 s :dradnat hT e nemerusaem t of cnatsid e am y be dam e eewteb n two ellarap l

enil s or wt o secafrus . nehW , ht e htgnel , nieb g aem s deru , is erpxe ss ed as a cnatsid e eewteb n ht e retnec s of wt o evargne d enil s as in a s eet l elur , it is wonk n as nil e aem s tnemeru . niL e dradnats s ra e esu d of r cerid t tgnel h

osirapmoc n na d eht y vah e no railixua y ecived s. raY d or etem r is ht e nil e dnats ra d. raY d o r etem r i s enifed d as ht e cnatsid e teb w ee n s ebirc d senil

on a ab r of atem l ednu r iatrec n nemnorivne tal noitidnoc . sehT e ra e ht e l .sdradnats lage

1.1.7.1 :reteM It is ht e cnatsid e eewteb n ht e etnec r noitrop s o f wt o enil s ehcte d

on a op ehsil d cafrus e of a ab r of rup e unitalp m olla y %09( ) or udirri m olla y )%01( . tI sah larevo l htdiw na d tped h of 1 6 mm cae h na d is pek t ta

ron rednu dna C°0 m .erusserp cirehpsomta la

hT e ab r ah a s gniw - kil e noitces , w ti h a we b ohw s e s cafru e l eni s ra c on t tuen eh r sixa la . dray dna retem neewteb pihsnoitaler ehT i g s i ,yb nev

1 m dray 16390.1 = rete

9



2.1.7.1 :draY

raY d is a znorb e ab r tiw h rauqs e orc ss -s oitce n na d 3 8 ehcni s gnol . A ab r of 38 ehcni s nol g ah s a nuor d ecer ss of .0 5 ehcni s etemaid r na d .0 5

ehcni s peed . A nuor d secer s i s 1 cni h awa y orf m ht e tw o dne s A . log d ulp g of .0 1 cni h retemaid , nivah g erht e enil s is ehcte d nart s rev s le y dna

wt o enil s evargne d llanidutignol y ra c etresni d tni o eht s e eloh s. hT e dray is eht n cnatsid e eewteb n wt o artnec l srevsnart e enil s o n ht e gulp s w neh

rab fo erutarepmet eht i 26 ta s ° .F 1 dray = 4419.0 retem

radnatS eniL fo scitsiretcarahC 3.1.7.1 d :s ahc ehT r :woleb nevig era dradnats enil fo scitsiretca

1. selacs eht no gnivargne etaruccA tluciffid si ti tub enod eb nac to t uf eka l ycarucca siht fo egatnavda l . ur leets a ,elpmaxe roF l ac e n

d eurt fo mm 2.0± tuoba ot daer eb emi .noisn 2. ot rekciuq dna reisae si tI u r ediw a revo elacs a es a gn e. 3. raew ot tcejbus ton era sgnikram elacs ehT s hguohtla i ng i tnacif

raew no gnidael dne sdael ot rednu .gnizis 4. erehT i on s tliub' 'ni mutad i ysae wolla dluow hcihw elacs a n

niaga siht ,tnemerusaem fo sixa eht htiw tnemngila elacs t sdael o rednu .gnizis

5. fe xallarap eht ot detcejbus era selacS ob fo ecruos a ,tcef t h .srorre gnidaer evitagen dna evitisop

6. cnujnoc ni tpecxe( tnemerusaem htgnel ecnarelot esolc roF it no eb ot tneinevnoc ton era selacs )sepocsorcim htiw use .d

01



tS dnE 2.7.1 a :dradn nE d sdradnats , in ht e rof m of ht e rab s na d s il p seguag , ra e ni

areneg l su e i n oisicerp n nireenigne g as w le l as i n radnats d eirotarobal s eht sa hcus N lanoitaN( L.P. P arobaL lacisyh t noitacilppa rof tpecxE .)yro s

rehw e epocsorcim s ac n b e desu , elacs s ra e on t llareneg y neinevnoc t rof ht e cerid t rusaem neme t o f nireenigne g tcudorp s , w aereh s ils p eguag s ra e

i n adyreve y su e i n loot - smoor , spohskrow , na d ni s oitcep n tnemtraped s uohguorht t ht e dlrow . A redom n ne d radnats d noc sists atnemadnuf lly of

colb a k o r rab o f leets llareneg y enedrah d ohw se ne d ecaf s ra e eppal d alf t na d ellarap l t o ihtiw a n ef w lim l tnoi h of a mc . B y ht e ecorp ss o f gnippal , tI s zis e ot o ac n be ellortnoc d rev y tarucca e yl . hguohtlA , orf m mit e to

emit , uoirav s epyt s o f ne d ab r vah e eeb n noc s detcurt , s mo e nivah g alf t na d mos e acirehps l secaf , ht e talf , llarap e l ecaf d ab r is lmrif y es ilbat s eh d

erusaem dne fo dohtem lacitcarp tsom eht sa m ne t. radnatS dnE fo scitsiretcarahC 1.2.7.1 ds :

.1 erusaem ecnarelot esolc ot detius llew dna etarucca ylhgiH em nt .s .2 emiT - oc n .esu ni gnimus .3 oisnemiD b nac mm 5000.0 sa llams sa ecnarelot lan e bo iat ne .d .4 jbuS e .secaf gnirusaem rieht no raew ot detc .5 era skcolb fo spuorg eht ,ezis nevig a edivorp oT "gnurw" .rehtegot

rw ytluaF i gn i gn el .egamad ot sda .6 hT e er i a s tliub" - "ni ceb ,sdradnats dne ni mutad em rieht esua a rus i gn

a no detacol ylevitisop eb nac dna lellarap dna talf era secaf mutad .ecafrus

.7 no sdneped esu rieht sA 'reef" ton era yeht s bu je xallarap eht ot tc effe .tc

dnE :srab yramirP dne sdradnats yllausu noc sist fo srab of obrac n eets l uoba t 20 mm i n etemaid r na d dam e i n s ezi s niyrav g orf m 10

mm to 021 0 mm . sehT e ra e enedrah d at ht e dne s ylno . ehT y ra e used rof fo tnemerusaem eht w .sezis regral fo kro

ilS p seguag : pilS eguag s desu era as sdradnats o f aem s nemeru t in citcarp a yll reve y sicerp oi n gnireenigne krow s in ht e dlrow . sehT e rew e

,detnevni yb .E.C mosnahoJ of nedewS ylrae ni eht neserp t yrutnec . sehT e ra e dam e of hgih - darg e sac t eets l na d ra e ah r ened d ht r tuohguo . htiW eht tes fo pils ,seguag noitanibmoc fo s pil eguag elbane s

rusaem tneme s t o be dam e i n eht ' gnar e of 200.0 5 to 01 0 m m ub t in noitanibmoc s tiw h tgnel/dne h rab s nemerusaem t gnar e tpu o 021 0 mm is

.elbissop :etoN ehT ycarucca fo enil dna dne sdradnats si detceffa yb

rutarepmet e egnahc s na d tob h ra e llanigiro y rbilac a et d a t 20 ± C°½ . Al os rac e is ekat n in rutcafunam e t o ne s ru e aht t gnahc e o f s pah e tiw h emit ,

troporp elbigilgen ot decuder ,si ,egnahc raluces i .sno

11



gneL evaW 3.7.1 t :dradnatS h I n 9281 , enqcaJ s tenibaB , a cnerF h rehposolihp , etseggus d aht t

evaw shtgnel fo tamorhconom ic thgil thgim eb desu sa larutan dna lbairavni e tinu s of htgnel . It aw s lraen y a rutnec y etal r aht t ht e tneveS h

lareneG ecnerefnoC fo sthgieW dna serusaeM ni siraP devorppa ht e oitinifed n of a radnats d of tgnel h vitaler e t o ht e etem r i n ret ms of ht e

tgnelevaw h of ht e er d oitaidar n of muimdac . guohtlA h iht s aw s on t ht e no laes eht tes ti ,htgnel fo dnats lagel wen a fo tnemhsilbatse w hcihw kro

un a rof gniog no tpek m .sraey fo reb � airetaM l dradnats s era elbail to sed t cur it no a dn ht ie r

dim snoisne gnahc e lthgils y tiw h emit . uB t w ti h t eh citamorhconom thgil ew evah eht egatnavda fo natsnoc t

tgnelevaw h na d cnis e ht e tgnelevaw h is on t a yhp s aci l eno , it een d on t b e erp s devre . ihT s is lbicudorper e radnats d of tgnel h

na d ht e orre r of udorper oitc n ac n be of ht e edro r of 1 rap t ni 001 snoillim . I t is suaceb e o f iht s aer so n aht t noitanretnI la

dradnats serusaem eht retem ni smret fo htgnelevaw fo 68 notpyrk ( .)68 rK

� hgiL t tgnelevaw h dradnats , of r mos e emit , ah d to be etcejbo d suaceb e of ht e tilibissopmi y of nicudorp g rup e

itamorhconom c hgil t a s tgnelevaw h dneped s opu n ht e nuoma t fo epotosi ytirupmi ni eht ,stnemele tuB won htiw ipar d

tnempoleved ni cimota ygrene ,yrtsudni erup sepotosi of arutan l emele nts vah e eeb n .decudorp notpyrK ,58 yrucreM

891 na d uimdaC m 411 ra e op ss lbi e s ecruo s o f oitaidar n of elbatius htgnelevaw a gnel fo dradnats larutan s t .h

vdA 1.3.7.1 a gneL evaW fo segatn t :h ehT niwollof g era ht e egatnavda s o f nisu g tgnelevaw h s radnat d sa

irp enifed ot tinu cisab m dradnats yra :s 1. tI si ton ecneulfni yb stceffe fo snoitairav fo nemnorivne tal

erutarepmet , erusserp , tidimuh y na d niega g suaceb e it is on t a lairetam .dradnats

2. ednu ti erots ot deen on si erehT r tiruces y na d uht s reht e is aef on r fo ti t ni sa deyortsed gnieb s dna dray esac eh me et r.

3. rotarobal ,sesuoh gnizidradnats lla ot elbaliava ylisae si tI i se a dn i tsudn ir .se

4. tI c sdradnats rehto ot derrefsnart ylisae eb na . 5. Thi etats evitarapmoc gnikam rof desu eb nac dradnats s m tne

m ehgih hcu r .ycarucca 6. tI si e ylisa .elbicudorper

21



adnatS fo noitacifissalC 8.1 r :sd oT niatniam ycarucca dna ytilibaegnahcretni ti si yrassecen aht t

sdradnatS ot eb elbaecart ot a elgnis ,ecruos yllausu eht anoitaN l sdradnatS fo eht ,yrtnuoc hcihw era rehtruf deknil ot itanretnI ano l

S at sdradn . hT e carucca y o f anoitaN l dradnatS s is nart s erref d t o w nikro g dradnats s guorht a h iahc n of emretni d ai te dradnats s i a n ennam r evig n

.woleb � anoitaN l radnatS ds � radnatS ecnerefeR lanoitaN ds � radnatS gnikroW ds � cnerefeR yrotarobaL tnalP tS e a sdradn � atS gnikroW yrotarobaL tnalP n ad r sd � F pohS l oo r radnatS ds

yltnedivE , reht e i s oitadarged n of ca c caru y i n nissap g orf m eht ninifed g dradnats s to ht e s oh p oolf r dradnats s. hT e carucca y of alucitrap r radnats d dneped s on a oitanibmoc n of ht e un ebm r of emit s i t ah s eeb n erapmoc d tiw a h radnats d in a ehgih r nolehce , ht e cneuqerf y of s hcu

snosirapmoc , ht e rac e tiw h cihw h it aw s enod , na d ht e s tilibat y of ht e ap tr esti sdradnats raluci l .f

dna eniL fo scitsiretcarahC evitaleR 9.1 E atS dn n :sdrad

A tceps atS eniL n ad rd tS dnE a dradn

erutcafunaM dna iS mpl dna e l wo xelpmoC ssecorp dna tsoc fo tnempiuqe .hgih

ycaruccA ni iL tim mm2.0± ot de I . n rof etarucca yreV nemerusaem t redro t o a gih eveihc h tnemerusaem fo esolc

,ycarucca cs sela evah ot tpu secnarelot o eb desu ni noitcnujnoc .mm100.0±

htiw im .sepocsorc T mi fo e kciuQ dna ysae emiT con gnimus m tnemerusae

effE c esu fo t elacS sgnikram ton gnirusaeM secaf teg s bu j eht tub raew ot tce uo nrow t . erac ekat oT

dne fo elacs si nrow . uhT s nac seceip dne siht fo ti m ffid eb ya i t tluc o ah eb r ,dened

as sa elacs fo orez emus orp t epyt gnitce . tliuB - utad m. divorp si mutad ni e .d

31



Ot srorre reh The xallarap eb nac er g yam srorrE e t

orre r eud decudortni t o pmi fo gnignirw repor

seguag pils . emoS b yam srorre e desuac

i egnahc ot eud n otarobal r y

.erutarepmet

:stnemerusaeM fo ycaruccA 01.1 hT e soprup e o f nemerusaem t is to nimreted e ht e urt e noisnemid s

rap a fo t . ca yletulosba edam eb nac tnemerusaem on tuB cur eta erehT . is yawla s mos e rorre . hT e nuoma t of orre r dneped s opu n ht e niwollof g

:srotcaf � ehT ycarucca dna ngised fo eht gnirusaem tnemurtsni � fo lliks ehT the po era rot � dohteM detpoda rof tnemerusaem � eT v erutarepm ari ta i sno � fo noitamrofed citsalE tnemurtsni ro trap eht te .c

suhT , ht e urt e oisnemid n of ht e rap t onnac t b e enimreted d ub t ac n lno y ppa yb r xo i ulav eurt eht htiw eulav derusaem eht fo tnemeerga ehT .etam e

fo eht derusaem ytitnauq si dellac .ycarucca fI eht tnemerusaem of noisnemid s of a rap t etamixorppa s rev y lesolc y to ht e urt e ulav e of aht t noisnemid , it is ias d to be etarucca . uhT s ht e ret m carucca y etoned s ht e

ssenesolc fo eht derusaem eulav htiw eht eurt .eulav ehT cnereffid e neewteb eht derusaem eulav dna eht eurt eulav si eht e rorr of

nemerusaem t. el ehT s res t arucca eht si erom ,rorre eh c .y 1.01.1 P :noisicer ehT smret noisicerp dna ycarucca era desu ni

noitcennoc htiw eht ecnamrofrep fo eht .tnemurtsni noisicerP si ht e ytilibataeper fo eht gnirusaem .ssecorp tI srefer ot eht puorg fo tnemerusaem s of r ht e mas e rahc tca re i scits at nek ednu r lacitnedi

noitidnoc s idni tI . c tnetxe tahw ot seta ht e llacitnedi y demrofrep tnemerusaem s erga e tiw h cae h rehto . If ht e nemurtsni t is on t icerp se it

liw l vig e nereffid t lediw( y gniyrav ) ser tlu s of r ht e mas e nemid s oi n w eh n erusaem d iaga n na d niaga . hT e es t o f noitavresbo s liw l s ettac r uoba t ht e

aem n. hT e ettacs r of seht e aem s tnemeru s i s etangised d as σ , ht e s dradnat oitaived n. tI i s esu d a s a n edni x o f noisicerp . ehT sel s ht e nirettacs g rom e

sicerp e i s ht e ni s tnemurt . suhT , rewol , ht e ulav e o f σ , ht e rom e sicerp e is t urtsni eh m .tne

41



2.01.1 ccA u :ycar ycaruccA i s ht e erged e to cihw h ht e aem s eru d v ula e fo eht ytilauq citsiretcarahc seerga htiw eht eurt .eulav ehT cnereffid e

eewteb n ht e urt e ulav e na d ht e aem s eru d ulav e i s wonk n a s orre r of nemerusaem t. It is llacitcarp y luciffid t t o rusaem e ltcaxe y ht e urt e ulav e

na d rofereht e a es t o f itavresbo no s is dam e w oh s e aem n ulav e i s ekat n as o eulav eurt eht f t ytilauq eh m .derusae

P neewteb noitcnitsiD 3.01.1 er :ycaruccA dna noisic ycaruccA si yrev netfo desufnoc htiw noisicerp hguoht cum h

di ff erent. ehT noitcnitsid neewteb eht noisicerp dna ycarucca w li l emoceb raelc yb eht

51



wollof i gn ex ma elp . oc a no edam era stnemerusaem lareveS m yb tnenop nereffid t epyt s o f stnemurtsni A( , B na d C vitcepser e yl ) na d ht e tluser s

ar olp e tt nI .de a dividni eht ,stnemerusaem fo tes yn erusaem lau m ne t era s woh seifingis noisicerp eht dna ,naem eht tuoba derettacs w suoirav eht lle

stnemerusaem demrofrep yb emas tnemurtsni no eht emas tilauq y itsiretcarahc c erga e tiw h cae h rehto . hT e cnereffid e eewteb n ht e aem n fo

es t o f gnidaer s on ht e mas e tilauq y siretcarahc tic na d ht e urt e ulav e is dellac sa rorre . eht si etarucca erom rorre eht sseL i sn t ur em nt. rugiF e wohs s aht t ht e ni s nemurt t A is sicerp e cnis e ht e tluser s of ebmun r

of tnemerusaem s ra e solc e ot ht e gareva e eulav . revewoH , ereht is a gral e cnereffid e )rorre( eewteb n ht e urt e eulav ht dna e egareva cneh eulav e ti is

on t etarucca . hT e gnidaer s ekat n by ht e tnemurtsni s ra e erettacs d cum h orf m ht e gareva e ulav e na d cneh e i t is on t sicerp e ub t tarucca e as reht e is

b ecnereffid llams a dna eulav egareva eht neewte t av eur l .eu

rusaem eht fo ycarucca eht gnitceffa srotcaF 4.01.1 i s gn y :mets vif eht era noitaulave ycarucca na fo stnenopmoc cisab ehT e

gnirusaem a fo stnemele s :sa hcus metsy � gnitceffa srotcaF t .sdradnats noitarbilac eh � F eht gnitceffa srotca wor p k i .ece � gnitceffa srotcaF t ehni eh r .tnemurtsni eht fo scitsiretcarahc tne � ep eht gnitceffa srotcaF r nemerusaem eht tuo seirrac ohw ,nos t ,s � gnitceffa srotcaF t ivne eh r no m .tne

.1 :dradnatS eht gnitceffa srotcaF m tI a a eb y ffe etc :yb d - fo tneiciffeoc t reh m ,noisnapxe la - noitarbilac ,lavretni - ytilibats htiw ,emit - citsale ,seitreporp - cirtemoeg ytilibitapmoc

.2 srotcaF gnitceffa eht kroW :eceip esehT :era - d ecafrus ,hctarcs ,ssenivaw ,hsinif ecafrus ,ssenilnaelc efe ,.cte stc - neddih ,yrtemoeg - citsale ,seitreporp - etauqeda mutad no eht krow ,eceip - arra ,eceip krow gnitroppus fo tnemegn - lamreht noitazilauqe .cte

.3 hc tnerehni eht gnitceffa srotcaF a I fo scitsiretcar n nemurts t: - cejbo ycarucca rof noitacifilpma etauqeda it ,ev - elacs ,rorre - tcirf fo tceffe i ,rorre tfird orez ,siseretsyh ,hsalkcab ,no

61



- noitamrofed ni gnildnah ro ,esu nehw yvaeh krow seceip ra e ,derusaem

- noitarbilac ,srorre - strap lacinahcem ( aw ediug ,sedils y mele gnivom ro s ent ,)s - ytilibataeper dna ,ytilibadaer - tcatnoc yrtemoeg rof htob krow eceip dna .dradnats

.4 srep gnitceffa srotcaF o : n - ,gniniart sk li ,l - aicerppa noisicerp fo esnes ti ,no - ts dna stnemurtsni gnirusaem tceles ot ytiliba a dn a ,sdr - soc gnirusaem fo noitaicerppa elbisnes t, - eveihca ycarucca lanosrep sdrawot edutitta em nt ,s - ninnalp g nemerusaem t euqinhcet s of r minim u m tsoc , noc sis net t

cerp htiw i nois r .cte stnemeriuqe .5 srotcaF gnitceffa :tnemnorivnE

- t uh ,erutarepme m ,.cte ytidi - v muminim dna gnidnuorrus naelc i ahne noitarb ,noisicerp ecn - etauqeda ,noitanimulli - erutarepmet noitazilauqe neewteb ,dradnats krow ,eceip dna

i tsn rum ,tne - morf noitaidar taeh ot eud stceffe noisnapxe lamreht il hg t ,s - gnitaeh ,stnemele thgilnus dna ,elpoep - m t ecudortni osla yam gnildnah launa snapxe lamreh i .no

ud rorre fo secruos eht lia ,fi ylno deveihca eb nac ycarucca rehgiH e to s gnirusaem eht ni stnemele evif evoba eht y dezylana era mets a spets dn

nekat to etanimile .meht hT e voba e isylana s o f evif isab c golortem y desopmoc eb nac stnemele int ynorca eht o m.

IWS P ,E nevnoc rof i ,erehw ecnerefer tne S - S AT ADN RD

W- W IPKRO E EC I - RTSNI UME TN P-PE SR ON

E – EN ORIV N TNEM

tisneS 5.01.1 ivi :yt fo tnemecalpsid fo etar eht sa denifed eb yam ytivitisneS the

dni i tcepser htiw ,tnemurtsni na fo ecived gnitac uq derusaem eht ot an tit .y row rehto nI d elacs eht fo oitar eht si tnemurtsni na fo ytivitisnes ,s

sivid elacs eht ot gnicaps i av no l ,elpmaxe roF .eu i acidni laid a no f t ,ro ,mm 10.0 si eulav noisivid elacs eht dna mm 0.1 si gnicaps elacs eht the n

itisnes 001 si ytiv . dellac osla si tI a lpma s i oitar gniraeg ro rotcaf noitacif . gnidaer tnemurtsni fo egnar lluf eht revo ytivitisnes redisnoc won ew fI

71



hs sa seititnauq derusaem ot tcepser htiw o isnes eht erugiF ni nw it v ti y

ta yna eulav of y = erehw dx dna yd era stnemercni x fo dna ,y nekat

fo epols eht si ytivitisnes eht ,elacs tnemurtsni lluf eht revo t a evruc eh t yna eulav .y fo

hT e tivitisnes y am y be natsnoc t or lbairav e nola g ht e s elac . In ht e tsrif esac ew teg raenil imsnart ss noi na d ni eht dnoces non - aenil r

tra noissimsn . . tivitisneS y refer s t o ht e tiliba y o f nirusaem g cived e to ceted t lams l ecnereffid s i a n titnauq y nieb g derusaem . giH h tivitisnes y

stnemurtsni yam dael ot stfird eud ot lamreht ro rehto ,stceffe dna snoitacidni yam eb ssel elbataeper. ro ssel esicerp naht taht fo ht e

urtsni m es rewol fo tne n .ytivitis badaeR 6.01.1 ili :yt

daer eht hcihw htiw esac eht ot srefer ytilibadaeR i fo sgn a m urtsnI gnirusae m daer eb nac tne . rusaem a fo ytilibitpecsus eht si tI i gn

ecived ot evah sti snoitacidni detrevnoc otni lufgninaem rebmun . eniF badaer eht evorpmi yliranidro senil noitaudarg decaps ylediw dna li it .y fI

eb lliw elacs eht ,decaps ylenif yrev era senil noitaudarg eht m ero yb elbadaer u ht htiw ,revewoh ,epocsorcim eht gnis eht eye dekan e w ytilibadaer li b l e roop . era yeht elbadaer erom sretemorcim ekam oT iw dedivorp t v h e nr i gnisu yb devorpmi eb osla nac tI .elacs re m nga i yf i gn

.secived laC 7.01.1 ibr ta i :no

hT e oitarbilac n of na y nirusaem g nemurtsni t is ecen ss ra y to aem s ru e ht e titnauq y ni mret s of radnats d tinu . tI si eht secorp s of nimarf g ht e lacs e of

ht e nemurtsni t by niylppa g mos e ezidradnats d s langi s . oitarbilaC n is a erp - nemerusaem t ssecorp , llareneg y eirrac d uo t by rerutcafunam s. It si

eirrac d nikam yb tuo g ujda tnemts s s cu h aht t ht e aer d uo t cived e ecudorp s

81

dy dx



orez tuptuo rof orez derusaem .tupni alimiS r ,yl ti dluohs yalpsid an nk eht ot tnelaviuqe tuptuo o elacs lluf eht raen tupni derusaem nw i tupn

ulav e. ehT ycarucca fo eht tnemurtsni sdneped nopu eht arbilac t noi . eht stceffa stnemurtsni fo esu tnatsnoC i a r cc ru ca y. fI the eb ot si ycarucca

deniatniam , ht e tnemurtsni s sum t eb ekcehc d na d acer li arb ted i f rassecen y. hT e ludehcs e of s cu h rbilac a oit n dneped s opu n ht e tireves y of

,esu atnemnorivne l snoitidnoc , cca caru y of nemerusaem t eriuqer d cte . A s raf sa elbissop noitarbilac dluohs eb demrofrep rednu tnemnorivne a l

noitidnoc s cihw h ra e rav y solc e to ht e noitidnoc s ednu r cihw h autca l tnemerusaem s ra e eirrac d tuo . I f ht e uptuo t of a nirusaem g sys et m si

a raenil c ti ,elbataeper dn a b n e ae detarbilac ylis . ngaM 8.01.1 ifi tac i :no

nI edro r to rusaem e ams ll ecnereffid s in dim snoisne eht tnemevom fo eht gnirusaem pit ni tcatnoc htiw eht krow tsum eb

eifingam d. oF r iht s ht e uptuo t angis l orf m a nirusaem g ni s nemurt t is to eb .deifingam sihT noitacifingam snaem gnisaercni eht edutingam fo

tuptuo langis fo gnirusaem tnemurtsni ynam semit ot ekam ti rom e lbadaer e. hT e erged e of cifingam a oit n esu d luohs d aeb r mos e oitaler n to

eht ycarucca fo tnemerusaem derised dna uohs dl ton eb regral aht n rassecen y. yllareneG , ht e etaerg r ht e ifingam c noita , ht e ellams r i s ht e

gnar e of nemerusaem t on ht e ni s nemurt t na d etaerg r ht e een d of r rac e in gnisu ti ehT . m nga ifi eb yam tnemurtsni gnirusaem ni deniatbo noitac

lacinahcem , cele t ir ac l, le tce inor c, po cit ,la itamuenp c elpicnirp s or noitanibmoc fo .eseht lacinahceM noitacifingam si eht tselpmis dna

acimonoce l dohtem . I t is eniatbo d by naem s of revel s or aeg r niart s. nI acirtcele l noitacifingam , ht e gnahc e i n ht e cnatcudni e o r icapac cnat e of

irtcele c tiucric , dam e b y gnahc e i n ht e titnauq y nieb g aem s eru d is use d to filpma y ht e uptuo t of ht e nirusaem g ni s tnemurt . inortcelE c oitacifingam n

i s eniatbo d yb ht e su e o f sevlav , rotsisnart s o r SCI . acitpO l oitacifingam n esu s ht e lpicnirp e of oitcelfer n na d itamuenp c acifingam t oi n ekam s use

yfilpma rof ria desserpmoc fo i o tuptuo eht gn f m .tnemurtsni gnirusae bataepeR 9.01.1 ili :yt

It is ht e tiliba y o f ht e nirusaem g nemurtsni t to aeper t ht e s ma e tluser s f ro ht e tnemerusaem s of r ht e mas e nauq ytit , ehw n ht e

tuo deirrac era tnemerusaem - yb t ,revresbo emas eh - iw t h t ,tnemurtsni emas eh - rednu eht emas ,snoitidnoc - tuohtiw yna egnahc ni ,noitacol - tuohtiw egnahc ni eht dohtem fo tnemerusaem - dna eht stnemerusaem era deirrac tuo ni trohs tni slavre fo .emit

yam tI ht fo noisrepsid fo smret ni ylevitatitnauq desserpxe eb e .stluser

91



bicudorpeR 01.01.1 ili yt ytilibicudorpeR si eht ycnetsisnoc fo nrettap fo noitairav in

tnemerusaem e.i . ssenesolc fo eht emeerga nt neewteb eht stluser of erusaem tnem s of ht e mas e ytitnauq , ehw n audividni l aem s emeru nts era

deirrac :tuo - sbo tnereffid yb e vr e ,sr - tnereffid yb tem ,sdoh - ffid gnisu e tner i sn t ur m ,stne - rednu tnereffid ,snoitidnoc ,snoitacol semit .cte

It am y sla o b e esserpxe d titnauq a vit ely in mret s o f ht e id s rep s oi n of ht e re .stlus

11.01.1 etsisnoC n :yc (i) It is ehtona r itsiretcarahc c of ht e aem s niru g ni s tnemurt . It is

ht e cnetsisnoc y of ht e nidaer g on ht e ni s nemurt t elacs . ehW n t fo rebmun derusaem si noisnemid emas eht mi .se

( ii ) It tceffa s ht e cnamrofrep e of ht e aem s niru g ni s nemurt t dna fo ycarucca eht ni ecnedifnoc etelpmoc t .ssecorp eh

1.1 1 srorrE ni :stnemerusaeM

op reven si tI s ot elbis em si ereht noisnemid a fo eulav eurt eht erusa a yawla s mos e rorre . hT e orre r i n emerusaem nt i s ht e ffid cnere e teb w nee

d derusaem eht fo eulav eurt eht dna eulav derusaem eht mi sne i .no tnemerusaem ni rorrE = av derusaeM l eu - eulav eurT

na sa rehtie detaulave ro desserpxe eb yam tnemerusaem ni rorre ehT orre etulosba r ro a .rorre evitaler a s

Ab :rorrE etulos urT e tulosba e re ror: I t i s ht e iarbegla c cnereffid e teb w ee n eht

luser t of nemerusaem t na d ht e anoitnevnoc l urt e ulav e of ht e titnauq y .derusaem

nerappA t tulosba e re ror: If ht e eires s of aem s nemeru t ra e dam e eht n ht e arbegla ic cnereffid e eewteb n no e of the er s tlu s of aem s nemeru t

osba tnerappa sa nwonk si naem lacitemhtira eht dna lut e e .rorr aleR ti :rorrE ev

rorre etulosba eht fo tneitouq eht si tI a o eulav eht dn f nosirapmoc osba taht fo noitaluclac ro esu lut .rorre e sihT eulav fo nosirapmoc yam eb

ht e rt ue eulav , ht e anoitnevnoc l urt e ulav e o r ht e temhtira ic aem n of r seires fo .tnemerusaem

nopu sdneped rorre eht ecneh dna ,tnemerusaem fo ycarucca ehT so m :sa hcus ,srotcaf yna

- noitarbilac dradnats - oW r p k i ece

02



- urtsnI me tn - nosreP - norivnE em cte tn . sa ydaerla .debircsed No ettam r oh w redom n i s ht e nirusaem g tnemurtsni , oh w uflliks l si

ht e rotarepo , oh w tarucca e ht e nemerusaem t ecorp ss , reht e w luo d la w sya eb emos .rorre tI si erofereht detpmetta ot iminim ze eht .rorre To

ziminim e ht e rorre , lausu l a y ebmun r of bo s noitavre s ra e dam e na d ieht r gareva e is ekat n as ht e ulav e o f aht t aem s emeru nt. I f seht e noitavresbo s

ra e dam e ednu r acitnedi l noitidnoc s .e.i , mas e revresbo , mas e ni s nemurt t na d alimis r nikrow g noitidnoc s nitpecxe g of r emit , neht , it is ellac d sa

lpmaS elgniS' e eT .'ts fI ,revewoh detaeper stnemerusaem fo a nevig ytreporp us ni g

etanretla tset ,snoitidnoc hcus sa tnereffid revresbo ro/dna nereffid t nemurtsni t ra e edam , ht e rudecorp e is ellac d as 'M itlu - lpmaS e 'tseT . hT e

itlum - lpmas e set t diova s nam y lballortnoc e srorre ,.g.e anosrep l rorre , nemurtsni t rez o orre r cte . hT e itlum - lpmas e set t is eiltsoc r aht n ht e lgnis e

lpmas e cneh dna tset e ht e etal r is i n diw e .esu citcarp nI e doog ebmun r fo noitavresbo s is dam e ednu r lgnis e lpmas e t se t na d citsitats al euqinhcet s

ra e eilppa d to eg t tluser s cihw h luoc d b e tamixorppa e t o soht e lbaniatbo e tlum morf i- pmas l .tset e

1.11.1 sepyT fo :srorrE .1 tametsyS i :rorrE c rorre ,srorre noitarbilac edulcni rorre esehT

ni noitairav ot eud the rehpsomta tcatnoc ni noitairaV noitidnoc ci erusserp cte . ,dezylana ylreporp fI the dna denimreted eb nac srorre es

ballortnoc dellac osla ecneh detanimile neve ro decuder l e e srorr . llA s rehto y cxe esnes dna edutingam ni dellortnoc eb nac srorre citamets e tp

ep r os rorre lan . orre esehT r si taht erudecorp ralugerri morf stluser s tnetsisnoc ni noitca . an ni evititeper era srorre esehT t o era dna eru f

tnatsnoc dna ralimis .mrof .2 aR n :rorrE mod o noitisop ni noitairav ot eud desuac era srorre esehT f

gnittes dradnats na d krow - eceip srorre . euD to tnemecalpsid of evel l stnioj fo ,stnemurtsni eud ot hsalkcab dna ,noitcirf eht se rorre ra e ecudni d. ificepS c esuac , dutingam e na d snes e o f eht se rorre s onnac t be

enimreted d orf m ht e gdelwonk e of aem s niru g sys et m or oitidnoc n of nemerusaem t. esehT srorre era non - tnetsisnoc dna ecneh eht man e

ra .srorre modn 3. latnemnorivnE :rorrE esehT srorre era desuac eud ot tceffe of

gnidnuorrus ,erutarepmet erusserp dna ytidimuh no eht nirusaem g i tsn rum .tne lanretxE srotcaf ekil elcun ra dar ia it ,no vi arb it sno a dn

itengam c leif d sla o dael s to rorre . rutarepmeT e yalp s an natropmi t lor e rehw e gih h oisicerp n is deriuqer . g.e . lihw e nisu g ils p eguag s, ud e ot

nildnah g ht e ils p eguag s am y riuqca e amuh n dob y erutarepmet , aerehw s

12



ht e row k is at C°02 . A 03 0 mm tgnel h liw l g o i n orre r b 5 y norcim s cihw h is tiuq a e elbaredisnoc rorre . To iova d rorre s of iht s dnik , lla

m smoor dradnats dna seirotarobal ygolorte w era ediwdlro m .C°02 ta deniatnia 4. tnemngilA rorrE enisoC( )rorrE : sihT rorre is desab no sebbA

lpicnirp e o f nemngila t cihw h etats s aht t ht e nil e o f nemerusaem t o f ht e nirusaem g nenopmoc t luohs d dicnioc e tiw h ht e aem s niru g s lac e or ixa s

fo eht gnirusaem .tnemurtsni esehT srorre era uac s de eud ot non - tnemngila fo gnirusaem elacs to eht eurt enil fo noisnemid gnieb

erusaem d. nisoC e rorre s liw l be epoleved d llareneg y lihw e nemerusaem t boj nevig a fo i s gnisu ro eguag laid gnisu tuo deirrac s t ur lee l .e

hT e ixa s or nil e of aem s nemeru t o f ht e aem s eru d oitrop n luohs d ltcaxe y dicnioc e tiw h ht e nirusaem g lacs e or ht e ixa s of nirusaem g tnemurtsni ,

ehw n ht e voba e niht g eod s on t eppah n eht n oc s ni e orre r liw l rucco . To rusaem e ht e autca l zis e o f ht e oj b L, us ni g s eet l lur e it i s ecen ss ra y taht

ht e eets l lur e ixa s or nil e o f aem nemerus t s luoh d be amron l t o ht e ixa s of ht e oj b as s oh wn i n erugiF . uB t emitemos s ud e to non - emngila nt of s leet

sixa elur tiw h eht oj b sixa , ht e s zi e fo oj 1 b aem s eru d is nereffid t aht n ht e lautca ezis fo boj ,L sa nwohs ni .erugiF

22



rF rugiF mo e ,)b( L = autca l zis e fo boj , I= erusaem d zis e fo ,boj e = orre r decudni eud ot non - .tnemngila

e = l - L morf eroferehT t oeg eh tem ,yr

cos q =

L = l cos q sa tuB

e = l -L e = l -l co s q e = l (l -co s q)

hT e oitauqe n of orre r sisnoc t of nisoc e tcnuf noi , cneh e orre r is dellac nisoc e rorre . I n iht s pyt e o f srorre , ht e tgnel h aem s eru d is la w ya s in

ca ro tcaxe eht fo ssecxe t lau l gne t .h 5. itsalE c oitamrofeD n o r roppuS t :rorrE noL g rab s ud e to vorpmi e

roppus t or ud e to les f w hgie t am y grednu o oitcelfed n o r am y dneb . As nwohs ni erugiF , eud ot ssel ro gih h cnatsid e eewteb n ht e troppus , A nol g

rab sdnet ot .mrofed

roppus eht neewteb ecnatsid eht fi decuder eb nac srorre hcuS t op i si tn hs sa rab fo ecnatsid latot eht fo 775.0 sa tpek o F ni nw .erugi

.6 triD :rorrE oor noitcepsni eht ni retne nac selcitrap trid ,semitemoS m odniw eht dna rood eht hguorht ws . d llams etaerc nac selcitrap esehT i tr

32

L l



fo emit eht ta srorre aem us r .tneme esehT srorre nac eb decuder yb ,foorp tsud gnikam al rotarob ei .s

.7 :rorrE tcatnoC ssenkciht esohw erugiF ni wohs sa sgnir ehT i s t b o e erusaem d . rebmuN fo ,semit eht tcatnoc fo swaj htiw krow eceip syalp na

ohs krow ro yrotarobal ni erusaem elihw elor tnatropmi ps . gniwollof ehT elpmaxe s e tcatnoc eht swoh rorr . aj eht fI w decalp era tnemurtsni eht fo s

' rorre eht erugiF ni nwohs sa e roop fo esuaceb si hcihw ,depoleved si ' tcatnoc .ylno

8. allaraP x orrE r (R ae d ni g )rorrE : hT e oitisop n of ht e bo s evre r at ht e

mit e of nikat g a nidaer g o( n elacs ) ac n taerc e rorre s in aem s tnemeru . roF iht s wt o noitisop s of ht e bo s revre s ra e s oh wn (X na d Y), w cih h w li l eb

ht e cefed t nitareneg g op s snoiti . oitisoP n Z wohs s ht e cerroc t op s oiti n fo ht e evresbo r e.i . h e luohs d kat e gnidaer s by niweiv g ye e op s oiti n caxe lt y ep r .elacs eht ot ralucidnep

1.1 2 laC ibr ta i :no rbilac ot laitnesse hcum yrev si tI at e eht nemurtsni t os t sa o iatniam n

ti s ycarucca . I n sac e ehw n ht e aem s niru g na d ht e s ne s ni g etsys m ra e

42



nereffid t i t is rev y luciffid t to rbilac ate ht e etsys m as a n w eloh , s o in aht t ekat ot evah ew esac int tnuocca o t hcae fo seitreporp gnicudorp rorre eh

nenopmoc t. oitarbilaC n is llausu y eirrac d uo t by nikam g ujda s nemt t cus h aht t ehw n ht e nemurtsni t is nivah g rez o erusaem d upni t eht n it luohs d aer d uo t rez o na d ehw n ht e nemurtsni t i s nirusaem g mos e oisnemid n ti

dluohs aer d ti t o ti s olc s se t tarucca e eulav . i tI s rev y cum h natropmi t aht t noitarbilac fo yna gnirusaem metsys dluohs eb demrofrep rednu ht e

atnemnorivne l noitidnoc s aht t ra e cum h esolc r t o aht t ednu r w cih h ht e era stnemerusaem lautca u kat eb ot yllaus e .n

noitarbilaC si eht ssecorp fo gnikcehc eht nemid s noi dna ecnarelot s of a eguag , o r ht e carucca y of a aem s emeru nt ni s nemurt t by nirapmoc g it to ht e guag/tnemurtsni e aht t ah s eeb n fitrec ied as a s radnat d

of wonk n ycarucca . oitarbilaC n of na nemurtsni t is nod e evo a r oirep d of emit , cihw h is ediced d nidneped g opu n ht e gasu e of ht e ni s nemurt t o r no

ht e lairetam s o f ht e trap s orf m cihw h it i s edam . hT e noisnemid s na d ht e ht fo secnarelot emoc nac ew taht os dekcehc era eguag/tnemurtsni e to

ehtehw r ht e nemurtsni t ac n be use d iaga n b y arbilac t ni g it o r is it w ae r reted ro tuo i ro ta o tuo nworht si ti neht os si ti fI .eulav timil eht evoba de r

i t i .depparcs s If ht e guag e or ht e nemurtsni t is yltneuqerf us de , eht n it w lli

eriuqer erom ecnanetniam dna tneuqerf .noitarbilac noitarbilaC of ihtiw si ti taht yfirev ot sdrawretfa dna esu sti ot roirp enod si tnemurtsni n

ht e cnarelot e imil t or ton . oitacifitreC n is evig n by nikam g irapmoc son eb eewt n ht e guag/tnemurtsni e tiw h ht e refere ecn s at dradn sohw e

taN detpecca ot elbaecart si noitarbilac i s lano t dna a .dr

nI 31.1 t udor itc :ecnareloT cirtemoeG dna lanoisnemiD ot no .31.1 1 areneG l :stcepsA In ht e gised n na d rutcafunam e of nireenigne g

tcudorp s a aerg t aed l o f oitnetta n ah s t o be iap d t o ht e gnitam , lbmessa y dna gnittif fo suoirav .stnenopmoc nI eht ylrae syad fo acinahcem l

nireenigne g nirud g ht e tneetenin h ec nt ,yru t eh tirojam y of cus h stnenopmoc erew yllautca detam ,rehtegot rieht snoisnemid nieb g

detsujda litnu eht deriuqer epyt fo tif saw .deniatbo esehT sdohtem ednamed d ihsnamstfarc p of a gih h edro r na d a aerg t aed l of rev y nif e

krow saw .decudorp tneserP yad sdradnats fo ytitnauq noitcudorp , int ,ytilibaegnahcre na d uounitnoc s ssa me bly of nam y lpmoc e x

sdnuopmoc , luoc d on t sixe t ednu r cus h a sys met , ehtien r luoc d nam y of eht gnitcaxe ngised stnemeriuqer fo nredom senihcam eb ellifluf d

uohtiw t ht e gdelwonk e aht t iatrec n noisnemid s ac n be ecudorper d w ti h oisicerp n no na y ebmun r of oc mp neno t .s doM e nr acinahcem l

oitcudorp n nireenigne g is esab d on a sys et m o f timil s na d stif , hcihw ,

52



lihw e on t lno y lesti f nirusne g ht e ecen ss ary eicarucca s of utcafunam re, hcihw ot snoitacificeps ro eludehcs a smrof m .erehda nac srerutcafuna

redro nI a taht s eb yam stif dna stimil fo metsy s gniwollof ,lufsseccu snoitidnoc m fluf eb tsu li l :de

1 hT e gnar e o f ezis s erevoc d by ht e etsys m sum t be neiciffus t of r prup tsom o .ses

2 tI tsum eb desab no emos s dradnat s. os taht dobyreve y dnatsrednu s kila e na d a g evi n oisnemid n ah s ht e s ma e ninaem g

ta lla .secalp 3 oF r na y isab c zis e it sum t be lbissop e to s cele t orf m a lluferac y

dengised egnar fo tif eht tsom elbatius eno rof a evig n .noitacilppa

4 caE h isab c zis e o f loh e na d fahs t sum t vah e a gnar e of cnarelot e f tnereffid eht fo hcae rof seulav ti .s

5 ehT metsys tsum edivorp rof htob etalinu r la dna aretalib l sdohtem fo gniylppa eht ecnarelot .

6 It tsum eb elbissop of r a erutcafunam r to su e ht e s etsy m to ylppa ehtie r a eloh - esab d or a tfahs - esab d sys et m as hi s nirutcafunam g

re uq i .deen yam stnemer 7 hT e etsys m luohs d evoc r row k orf m gih h salc s oot l na d guag e

w yrev erehw krow i l ed mi .elbissimrep era sezis fo sti emiD cisaB dna eziS lanimoN 2.31.1 nsi :sno

animoN l ezis : A lanimon' 'ezis si eht size hcihw si used of r up r op se fo areneg l acifitnedi t .noi uhT s ht e animon l s zi e of a loh e na d

fahs t lbmessa y is 60 mm , eve n guoht h ht e ab sic s zi e of ht e loh e am y be 06 m dna m t .mm 5.95 tfahs eht fo ezis cisab eh

cisaB :noisnemid A cisab' 'noisnemid si eht nemid s ,noi as uo dekrow t b y lerup y gised n noc s edi r noita .s cniS e eht aedi l noitidnoc s fo

nicudorp g isab c noisnemid , do on t tsixe , ht e ab sic nemid s noi s ac n eb detaert sa eht laciteroeht ro lanimon ,ezis dna ti sah ylno ot be

ppa r xo i detam . A duts y of oitcnuf n of nihcam e rap t luow d arever l aht t it is rassecennu y to iatta n oitcefrep n suaceb e mos e noitairav s in nemid s noi ,

evewoh r llams , ac n be etarelot d zis e of uoirav s strap . It si , uht s, areneg l citcarp e t o ficeps y a ab s ci emid n ois n na d tacidni e b y elot r ecna s as to

oh w cum h oitairav n i n ht e isab c id m ne s oi n ac n be etarelot d w uohti t nitceffa g ht e ninoitcnuf g of ht e lbmessa y tni o cihw h iht s rap t liw l eb

esu d . .31.1 3 . feD initi :sno

ehT snoitinifed nevig woleb era desab no esoht nevig ni 919:SI oitadnemmoceR n of r timiL s na d tiF s of r eenignE r ,gni cihw h is in nil e

htiw t r OSI eh ce o mm .noitadne

62



:tfahS hT e mret tfahs refer s on t lno y to etemaid r of a alucric r tfahs ot yna lanretxe noisnemid no a .tnenopmoc

oH l :e srefer mret sihT no ton l y ot t loh ralucric a fo retemaid eh e yna ot tub int .tnenopmoc a no noisnemid lanre

4.31.1 scisaB fo :tiF

A if t or imil t etsys m noc sists of a eires s of ecnarelot s egnarra d to ius a t ificeps c gnar e o f ezis s na d snoitcnuf , s o aht t timil s of s zi e yam . eb

etceles d dna nevig ot nitam g nopmoc tne s to ne s ru e s ificep c alc ss es o f tif . sihT s :sisab gniwollof eht no degnarra eb yam metsy

1. b eloH asi metsys s 2. b tfahS a sis s .metsy loH e isab s ys s met : loH' e isab s metsys ' is no e i n cihw h ht e timil s

on ht e loh e ra e pek t natsnoc t na d ht e noitairav s cen se sar y to iatbo n ht e yb degnarra era tif fo sessalc v gniyra t eht no esoh s .tfah

fahS t isab s etsys m : fahS' t isab s metsys ' is no e in cihw h ht e timil s o n ht e fahs t ra e pek t natsnoc t na d ht e noitairav s rassecen y ot

tif fo sessalc eht niatbo a er a .seloh eht no stimil eht gniyrav yb degnarr In neserp t ad y airtsudni l ecitcarp loh e isab s etsys m is use d uaceb se a

taerg ynam seloh era decudorp yb dradnats ,gniloot rof elpmaxe , remaer s sllird , .cte , sohw e s zi e i s on t ujda s elbat . ltneuqesbuS y ht e fahs t

ezis s ra e rom e lidaer y lbairav e uoba t ht e isab c s zi e by naem s o f ninrut g or nidnirg g snoitarepo . uhT s eht eloh isab s sys et m tluser s in noc s lbaredi e

oitcuder n i n remaer s na d ehto r oisicerp n loot s as erapmoc d t a o fahs t isab s etsys m suaceb e in fahs t ab is s ys s et m ud e t o non - ujda s lbat e rutan e

o f sremaer , llird s cte . aerg t teirav y o( f sezis ) o f eht s e loot s ra e eriuqer d rof gnicudorp tnereffid sessalc fo seloh rof eno alc ss fo tfahs of r

if tnereffid gniniatbo t .s

72



eloT gniyficepS fo smetsyS 5.31.1 ranc :se hT e cnarelot e o r ht e orre r ettimrep d in nirutcafunam g a alucitrap r

oisnemid n am y b e ewolla d t o rav y ehtie r on no e dis e o f ht e isab c s zi e ro on ehtie r dis e of ht e isab c ezis . lgnidroccA y wt o ys s met s of niyficeps g tol .tixe secnare

1. inU l s lareta y ts me 2. etsys laretaliB m.

nI t eh u laretalin s metsy , ot l ni ylno deilppa si ecnare eno .noitcerid

+ 40.0 - 20.0 selpmaxE : 0.04 or 0.04

+ 20.0 - 40.0

nI t eh alib t metsys lare fo w tir i gn to el ra dettimrep si noisnemid a ,secn yrav ot i n t .snoitcerid ow

+ 20.0 selpmaxE : 0.04

- 40.0 • alinU et metsys lar deilppa yllacitsilaer dna ylirotcafsitas erom si to

niatrec gninihcam sessecorp erehw ti si nommoc egdelwonk taht snoisnemid lliw som t ylekil etaived i n no e .noitcerid ,rehtruF i n iht s

etsys m ht e narelot ce ac n be esiver d uohtiw t nitceffa g ht e olla w cna e ro am neewteb snoitidnoc ecnaraelc it strap gn .i e . wi epyt eht gnignahc tuoht

fo f ti . This etsys m si som t lnommoc y u des in lbaegnahcretni e stif noisicerp erehw yllaicepse erutcafunam a .deriuqer ,er

si tI • op ton s ni ,elbis laretalib metsys , ot niater eht emas tif nehw tol snemid ezis cisab ehT .deirav si ecnare i am eht fo htob ro eno fo no it gn

ap tr degnahc eb ot evah osla lliw s . raelc metsys sihT l eht tuo stniop y setacidni dna ezis derised yllaciteroeht the elbaborp dna elbissop

b fo edis hcae no detcepxe eb nac taht snoitaived asi ezis c .

82



tes enihcam ni pleh secnarelot laretaliB it ra dna gn e elacs egral ni desu rutcafunam e.

1.1 4 ytilibaegnahcretnI : It i s ht e lpicnirp e eyolpme d to nitam g trap s or

pmoc tneno s. ehT strap era dekcip ta ,modnar gniylpmoc htiw ht e detalupits snoitacificeps dna anoitcnuf l stnemeriuqer of ht e sa s .ylbme

ehW n lno y a ef w eilbmessa s ra e to be edam , ht e cerroc t tif s teb w ee n trap s ra c dam e b y nillortnoc g ht e ezis s w lih e ninihcam g ht e trap s , by

nihctam g eht m tiw h ieht r nitam g strap . hT e autca l ezis s of ht e trap s am y lbmessa ot ylbmessa morf yrav y ot hcus na taht tnetxe a nevig trap nac if t

lno y i n ti s wo n as ylbmes . ohtem a hcuS d fo rutcafunam e ekat s rom e mit e na d liw l rofereht e saercni e ht e oc st. rehT e liw l la s o be melborp s ehw n

strap cra dedeen ot eb .decalper nredoM noitcudorp si desab no eht pecnoc t of nahcretni g ibae l yti . ehW n no e nenopmoc t elbmessa s ylreporp

tiw h na y nitam g tnenopmoc , tob h nieb g ohc se n at modnar , eht n iht s is int elbaegnahcre rutcafunam e. tI si ht e timrofinu y fo ezis of eht

tnenopmoc s ecudorp d cihw h erusne s baegnahcretni i ytil . hT e egatnavda s fo int :swollof sa cra ytilibaegnahcre

1. hT e lbmessa y o f gnitam trap s i s reisae . cniS e na y nenopmoc t ekcip d u p rf om ti s ol t liw l lbmessa e w ti h na y ehto r nitam g trap morf a n a on the gninihcam dna gnittif lanoitidda tuohtiw tol r .

2. tI e .etar noitcudorp eht secnahn 3. hT e oitazidradnats n o f nihcam e trap s na d nirutcafunam g dohtem s

si .dediced 4. d sgnirb tI o a eht nw ss acitsard tsoc gnilbme ll .y 5. niriapeR g of nitsixe g enihcam s or tcudorp s is s eifilpmi d uaceb se

sae eb nac strap tnenopmoc il .decalper y 6. fo tnemecalpeR w .ysae si strap tuo nro

92



L UGNA DNA RAENI L STNEMERUSAEM RA

.2 I gnirusaeM raeniL n murts :stne

aeniL r nemerusaem t eilppa s to nemerusaem t of shtgnel , ,retemaid thgieh s na d senkciht s nidulcni g anretxe l na d anretni l stnemerusaem . hT e

nil e nirusaem g tnemurtsni s vah e eires s of letarucca y ecaps d enil s dekram on eht m g.e . cS ela . hT e noisnemid s to be erusaem d ra e engila d w ti h ht e

snoitaudarg fo eht .elacs raeniL gnirusaem stnemurtsni era dengised ehtie r of r nil e tnemerusaem s or ne d stnemerusaem . In ne d nirusaem g

stnemurtsni , ht e nemerusaem t is ekat n eewteb n wt o ne d s ecafru s a s in im ls ,sretemorc cte seguag pi .

stnemurtsni ehT u :sa deifissalc eb nac stnemerusaem raenil rof des 1. riD e tc m stnemurtsni gnirusae 2. dnI ire tc m gnirusae i stnemurtsn

m tceriD ehT e urtsni gnirusa m :sepyt owt fo era stne 1. etaudarG d .2 noN detaudarG

hT e etaudarg d tnemurtsni s dulcni e selur , einrev r repillac s, reinrev srotacidni laid ,sretemorcim ,seguag htped reinrev ,seguag thgieh cte . T eh

n o etaudarg d tnemurtsni s dulcni e srepillac , slemmart , elet s poc ic ,seguag cafrus e seguag , hgiarts t segde , w ri e eguag s , s erc w ctip h eguag s , uidar s

g pils ,seguag ssenkciht ,seguag a gu e cte s . fissalc eb osla nac yeht i sa de 1. ac ,elur leets sa hcus stnemurtsni noisicerp noN ill e srep tc 2. oisicerP n nirusaem g stnemurtsni , cus h as einrev r ni s tnemurt s,

im d ,sretemorc i .cte seguag la ’reenignE1.2 s S :eluR leet

An 'reenigne s eets l lur e is la so onk wn sa 'elacS' na d is a nil e nirusaem g .ecived It is a oisicerp n aem s niru g ni s nemurt t na d sum t eb

etaert d as hcus , na d pek t in a lecin y ilop s eh d noitidnoc . It krow s o n ht e isab c nirusaem g uqinhcet e of moc nirap g a n wonknu n htgnel , to ht e no e

lsuoiverp y .detarbilac It noc sists fo irts p o f ah r ened d s leet nivah g nil e noitaudarg s ehcte d o r evargne d a t avretni l o f oitcarf n o f a s radnat d inu t

fo .htgnel gnidnepeD nopu eht lavretni ta hcihw eht snoitaudarg era edam , ht e lacs e ac n b e erutcafunam d i n nereffid t ezis s na d s elyt s. ehT elacs si elbaliava ni 051 ,mm 003 ,mm 006 mm dna .shtgnelmm0001

emoS selacs era dedivorp htiw emos emhcatta n st dna laiceps serutaef ot ekam rieht esu rev s elita ,.g.e yrev llams elacs s yam be edivorp d tiw h a eldnah , use i t yltneinevnoc . ehT y am y be dam e in edlof d

rof m so aht t eht y ac n be pek t i, n ekcop t osla . nirhS k elur s ra e ht e elacs s esu( d i n rdnuof y na d rettap n nikam g s spoh ) cihw h kat e tni o nuocca t ht e

egaknirhs fo slairetam fa ret .gnilooc

03



era gniwolloF t eh elbarised seitilauq fo a leets :elur 1. dooG ytilauq gnirps .leets 2. ylraelC devargne .senil 3. detupeR .ekam 4. cirteM no owt .segde 5. Thi ssenkc s .muminim eb dluoh

esU fo elacS : oT teg doog stluser ti si yrassecen aht t iatrec n t acs a gnisu elihw dewollof eb tsum euqinhce l .e

1. ehT ne d o f eht elacs tsum even r be es t w ti h ht e gde e o f ht e rap t to be erusaem d suaceb e llareneg y ht e s lac e i s row n uo t at ht e dne s

dna osla ti si yrev tluciffid ot enil pu eht dne fo eht lacs e yletarucca htiw eht trap fo eht egde ot eb .derusaem

2. hT e lacs e luohs d even r be ial d alf t on ht e rap t t o b e aem s eru d esuaceb ti si tluciffid ot daer eht tcerroc .noisnemid

tcerroC u elacS fo es ehT elpicnirp fo nommoc utad m s’ dluohs eb pme deyol lihw e

nisu g a lacs e or elur . hT e lpicnirp e is wohs n i n F erugi ,)a( ht e es t up nitacidni g ht e cerroc t ohtem d o f nirusaem g ht e tgnel h o a f tnenopmoc . A

cafrus e talp e is esu d as a utad m caf e na d ti s soprup e is t o divorp e a ommoc n oitacol n o r oitisop n orf m cihw h ht e nemerusaem t ac n be edam .

It am y b e eton d aht t tob h ht e lur e na d ek y ra e at hgir t elgna s t o ht e gnikrow ecafrus fo eht ecafrus etalp dna eht esu fo na elgna talp e

seifilpmis eht tes - pu . hT e eerged of ycarucca hcihw nac be deniatbo w elih nikam g

:nopu sdneped elacs ro elur leets a htiw stnemerusaem 1. ur eht fo ytilauQ el a dn 2. eht fo llikS use .r

hT e cerroC t uqinhcet e of nidaer g ht e lacs e is s lpmi y ulli s etart d in rugiF e ( )b . It i s natropmi t ehw n nikam g aem s tnemeru s w ti h reenigne 's

lur e ot vah e eht ye e ltcerid y tisoppo e na d at 09 ° to ht e mar k on ht e ow rk, siwrehto e reht e w li l be a n rorre - wonk n as allarap' x '- cihw h i s ht e er s lu t

13



of na y yawedis s ninoitisop g of ht e oitcerid n o f s gnithgi . I n giF . .3 2 ht e niop t A tneserper s ht e ram k on th e w ro k w oh s e oitisop n is eriuqer d to be

derusaem yb snaem fo a elur dial edisgnola .ti ehT snoitaudarg of nemerusaem t ra e on ht e eppu r caf e of ht e s lac e o r s eet l elur . If ht e ye e is

ecalp d nola g ht e nithgis g nil e P-A, cihw h is at 09 ° t o ht e row k cafruS e, a urt e nidaer g liw l be eniatbo d at 'p' , of r it i s eht n ltcerid y oppo s eti ' A'. If

,revewoh ht e ye e is ton on iht s nithgis g enil , ub t id s ecalp d to ht e thgir , as noisivid eht 'Q, ta 'q' etisoppo eb ot raeppa lliw elacs detaudarg eht no A' ’

dna na nI oc tcerr gnidaer lliw eb .deniatbo ylralimiS fi eht eye is ecalpsid d to tfel eht , as at R' ' , a n cerrocni t nidaer g on ht e tisoppo e s di e as iw 'r 'ta l user l tl .

eR a acS fo gnid le raC e o f ht e lacs e o r s eet l elur : A oog d lacs e o r s eet l lur e luohs d

be ekool d etfa r lluferac y to neverp t gamad e to ti s dne s as eht se divorp e tnemerusaem hcihw morf ,s’mutad eht s reven dluohs tI .nekat era u eb sed

as eparcs r o a r evird r na d it luohs d even r be esu d t o vomer e sw ra f orf m ht e nihcam e oot l lbat e eeT' ' tols; s. etfA r su e ht e lur e luohs d be w epi d

r tneverp ot deliO ylthgil dna naelc u .gnits

.2 2 . AC LIP SRE epilaC r is a n nemurtsni t use d of r m usae r ni g id s cnat e eewteb n or

evo r ecafrus s nirapmoc g noisnemid s o f wor k eceip s tiw h cus h s adnat rds as ulp g seguag , g etaudar d elur s .cte I n redom n oisicerp n nireenigne g

eht y ra e on t eyolpme d on nihsinif g noitarepo s rehw e gih h carucca y is laitnesse , ub t in elliks d dnah s eht y iamer n lemertxe y lufesu . No no e ac n

neverp t ht e nirps g of ht e gel s nitceffa g ht e aem s tnemeru , na d ujda s nemt t fo mrif eht - oj i tn epyt nac eb edam ylno yb gnippat a gel ro eht daeh uhT . s

tluser s eniatbo d b y nisu g repilac s neped d rev y legral y o n ht e erged e to snes a depoleved sah resu eht hcihw e fo t uo c . .h

23



moS e mrif - nioj t repilac s a s s oh w n i n rugiF e vah e an ujda s nit g wercs hcihw selbane renif dna erom dellortnoc tnemtsujda naht is

elbissop yb gnippat .sdohtem suhT ta )e( ni erugiF si s oh wn ht e 'htimskcalb s epilac r dam e tiw h rif m tnioj s na d a nol g ldnah e ht e ettal r

nilbane g ht e nemerusaem t o f oh t grof gni s uohtiw t id s trofmoc . hT e gnol ra m is su e of r ht e retaerg , na d ht e s lam l ra m of r ht e s ellam r o r inruf s eh d

ezis . At (f) is ohs w n a diw e ewaj d epilac r su e in guor h nemerusaem t fo eht sretemaid fo dedaerht .secalp roF gnirusaem ronim sretemaid a

epilac temos si stniop denniht yllaiceps htiw r i .desu sem

mriF - tnioJ Ca il pe sr si tI w no srepilac esu ot esiwnu o .ehtal a ni gnivlover kr noc eno fI at tc niop t o f ht e epilac r ehcuot s nivlover g krow , ht e ehto r is lekil y t o be

yb ti revo nward dna gnurps rf itci .no

.2 3 . REINREV C EPILA R :S .3.2 1 . ortnI ducti :no

ehT ve nr ei r urtsni em nts genera yll desu in pohskrow dna gnireenigne ygolortem vah e vitarapmoc e yl ol w .ycarucca hT e enil fo

eht htiw edicnioc ton seod stnemurtsni hcus fo tnemerusaem il s fo en c ela . Th e carucca y rofereht e dneped s opu n ht e enthgiarts ss of ht e aeb m dna ht e senerauqs s of ht e nidils g aj w tiw h er s cep t to ht e maeb . To rusne e ht e

ssenerauqs , ht e nidils g aj w sum t be epmalc d rofeb e nikat g ht e gnidaer . T ez eh r c otni nekat eb osla tsum rorre o aredisno it on era stnemurtsnI .no w

lbaliava e tiw h a nirusaem g gnar e u p to no e etem r w ti h a lacs e ulav e of .0 1 or .0 2 mm . ehT y ra e dam e of olla y leets , enedrah d na d erepmet d t( o

uoba t 58 lewkcoR l )C , na d ht e catnoc t s ecafru s ra e pal - dehsinif . I n mos e sac leets sselniats se i s u .des .3.3 2 . ehT reinreV :elpicnirP

ehT elpicnirp reinrev/o si taht nehw owt selacs ro ivid s oi n lthgils y nereffid t i n zis e ra e desu , ht e cnereffid e eewteb n eht m ac n eb

m fo ycarucca eht ecnahne ot dezilitu e sa u .tnemer

33



elpicnirP of 1.0 mm reinrev : nI eht erugiF si nwohs ht e lpicnirp e of .0 1 m m ev r ein r. hT e iam n lacs e is letarucca y etaudarg d in I

mm spets , na d etanimret s in ht e rof m o f a epilac r aj w. rehT e i s a s dnoce lacs e cihw h is elbavom , na d is sla o exif d t o ht e epilac r waj . hT e lbavom e elacs si yllauqe dedivid otni 01 strap tub sti htgnel si ylno 9 mm ;

rofereht e no e oisivid n on iht s lacs e is elaviuqe nt to 1/9 0 = .0 9 mm . ihT s naem s ht e cnereffid e eewteb n no e oitaudarg n on ht e iam n lacs e na d no e

oitaudarg n on ht e nidils g or ev r ein r s lac e is 0.1 - .0 9 = .0 1 mm . cneH e if ht e einrev r epilac r i s itini a ll y esolc d na d eht n enepo d so taht ht e srif t

oitaudarg n On ht e nidils g lacs e dnopserroc s to ht e rif st gr oitauda n on ht e iam n lacs a e id s cnat e auqe l t o O. J mm ah s evom d as s oh w n in giF . .3 5 . etarg fo stnemerusaem esuaceb esu detimil fo si elacs reinrev a hcuS r

reenigne noisicerp ni deriuqer yllamron era ycarucca i gn w .kro

nreV mm1.0 fo elpicnirP i re

lpicnirP e of 0.0 2 mm reinreV : In F rugi e as s oh wn ht e lpicnirp e of a m20.0 m reinreV . hT e einrev r lacs e ah s iam n s lac e oitaudarg n o f mm5.0 , lihw e ht e einrev r lacs e ah s 2 5 oitaudarg n llauqe y s ecap d evo r 24 iam n lacs e snoitaudarg , o r mm21 . cneH e cae h oisivid n o n ht e einrev r lcas e = 2/21 = 5 mm84.0 . hT e cnereffid e eewteb n no r sivid oi n on ht e iam n s lac e

na d no e oisivid n on ht e einrev r lacs e = 5.0 8 - 4.0 = 8 mm20.0 . ihT s pyt e nrev fo i :swollof sa daer si re

nreV mm2.0 fo elpicnirP i re

43



1. toN e ht e ebmun r o f retemillim s na d lah f retemillim s on ht e iam n ioc era taht elacs cs reinrev eht no orez eht htiw tnedicn ela .

2. niF d ht e oitaudarg n on ht e einrev r lacs e aht t edicnioc s w ti h a oitaudarg n on ht e iam n s elac . ihT s rugif e sum t be pitlum l ei d by

evig ot 20.0 t ni gnidaer eh im etemill r .s 3. iatbO n ht e atot l nidaer g b y nidda' g ht e iam n s lac e r nidae g to ht e

daer elacs reinrev i .gn o elpmaxe nA :elpmaxE f .erugiF ni nevig si gnidaer reinrev mm 20.0 a

� reinrev eht fo orez ot pu elacs niam eht no gnidaeR elacs = mm5.43

� hT e ebmun r of oitaudarg n aht t edicnioc s tiw h ht e arg oitaud n on eht niam elacs = 31 ht

� r sihT e rp e 31 : fo ecnatsid a stnes X mm62.0 = 20.0 � Tot 52.0 + 5.43 = gnidaer la = mm 67.43

toN e i si ti srepilac reinrev gnisu stnemerusaem gnikat elihW . m rop at tn to es t ht e epilac r ecaf s ellarap l to ht e us r caf e ca ros s w cih h aem surem tne s

eb ot era m ocnI .eda r tcer .enod ton si ti fi tluser lliw gnidaer .3.2 3 . sepyT fo reinreV :srepilaC

gnidroccA ot naidnI dradnatS :SI 1563 - ,4791 eerht sepyt of reinrev srepilac evah neeb deificeps ot ekam lanretxe dna anretni l

nemerusaem ts na d ra e wohs n in erugiF s er s ylevitcep . lA l ht e erht e epyt s era edam htiw eno elacs no eht tnorf fo eht maeb rof tcerid .gnidaer

53



epyT :A tni dna lanretxe rof sedis htob no swaj sah reinreV e nr a l m rusaem htped rof edalb a dna stnemerusae em ne t.

epyT :B j htiw dedivorp si tI aw lanretni dna lanretxe rof edis eno no s .stnemerusaem

repilaC reinreV – Ty C ep

epyT :C It ha eht gnikam rof sedis htob no swaj s em a tnemerus dna f .snoitarepo gnikram ro

lA l trap s of ht e inrev er epilac r luohs d be of oog d tilauq y s eet l na d ht e nirusaem g ecaf s luohs d sessop s a uminim m endrah ss o f 56 0 HV . ehT

ednemmocer d nirusaem g egnar s animon( l ezis ) o f einrev r repilac s as rep 1563 SI - 7491 are:

0- 0,521 -- 0,002 -- 0,052 - 0,003 - 0,005 - 0,057 - 057,0001 - 057,0051 - .mm0002 4.3.2 srorrE ni :srepilaC

hT e erged e o f carucca y eniatbo d in aem s emeru n t ltaerg y dneped s opu n ht e oitidnoc n o f ht e waj s of ht e repilac s na d a s aicep l oitnetta n is

edeen d rofeb e nideecorp g of r ht e tnemerusaem . ehT carucca y na d larutan

63



raew , na d nipraw g of einrev r epilac r aj ws luohs d be etset d ltneuqerf y by nisolc g eht m ehtegot r lthgit y na d nittes g eht m to 0- 0 niop t of ht e iam n

na d einrev r selacs . In iht s noitisop , ht e epilac r is leh d niaga st a hgil t .ecruos

• It reht e is raew , s rp ni g or praw , a kconk - eenk d oitidnoc n as ohs w n in rugiF e a( ) liw l be devresbo . I f ht e emerusaem nt orre r on iht s nuocca t si

etcepxe d to be etaerg r aht n 00.0 5 m m ht e nemurtsni t s luoh d on t be used dna s per rof tne ia .r

• ehW n ht e nidils g aj w marf e ah s moceb e w ro n o r w epra d s o aht t i t eod s on t dils e lerauqs y na d lguns y on ht e iam n epilac r maeb , eht n aj ws w dluo

hs sa raeppa o erugiF ni nw .)b( • rehW e a einrev r epilac r i s esu d om s lt y of r aem s niru g disni e retemaid ,s ht e waj s am y moceb e ob w eggel d as i n F rugi e (c) na d ti s distuo e egde s

nrow nwod sa ni erugiF )d( .

ni snoituacerP 5.3.2 u inreV gnis e laC r ipe :r snoituacerp gniwollof ehT s nekat eb dluoh w :repilac reinrev a gnisu elih

1. lihW e nirusaem g an distuo e retemaid , b e rus e aht t ht e epilac r rab and ht e nalp e of ht e epilac r waj s ra e lurt y alucidneprep r to ht e

p krow ei .enil ertnec lanidutignol s'ec 2. tiW h einrev r repilac , yawla s su e ht e s ranoitat y epilac r aj w on ht e

cnerefer e niop t na d iatbo n ht e erusaem d niop t b y nicnavda g or niwardhtiw g ht e ls nidi g aj w. oF r iht s oprup se, la l einrev r repilac s

era deppiuqe htiw a enif tnemtsujda catta h tnem sa a trap of gnidils .waj

3. irG p ht e einrev r repilac s aen r o r tisoppo e ht e aj sw ; no e nah d of r ranoitats y aj w na d ht e ehto r nah d llareneg y s nitroppu g ht e sl nidi g

j .wa 4. rofeB e nidaer g ht e ,reinrev rt y ht e srepilac iaga n of r eef l na d

.noitacol

73



5. rehW e ht e einrev r ac li srep era used of r i sn i ed etemaid r tnemerusaem , eve n rom e aht n ausu l oituacerp n is edeen d t o be

nekat ot kcor eht tnemurtsni eurt temaid .re sihT noitca or nk si euqinhcet o nec sa nw t zilar i .gn

6. repilac reinrev eht esu t'noD s a sa w hcner remmah ro . tI s b dluoh e tes nwod yltneg - ylbareferp ni eht xob ti spmac ni dna ton

ot ro deppord sse d a .edis 7. w tpek eb tsum repilac reinreV i eerf dep .lio na spihc , tirg morf

4.2 reinreV thgieH :eguaG

efeR r ht e evig n rugiF e ht e einrev r hgieh t guag e i s lniam y esu d ni ht e oitcepsni n o f trap s na d uoyal t w kro . It am y be esu d t o aem s ru e na d

uo na ro ,ecafrus ecnerefer a evoba secnatsid lacitrev kram tsi ed .repilac

tI c rap gniwollof eht fo stsisno t :s .1 esaB

2 maeB .3 gnirusaeM waj dna rebircs .4 snoitaudarG .5 S il der

esaB : tI si edam etiuq subor t ot ne s eru ytidigir dna s libat i yt fo ht e i tsn rum tne . hT e disrednu e of ht e ab se is eveiler d nivael a g s cafru e nuor d

83



ht e distuo e gde e o a f sael t 7 mm w tdi h na d a n ia r ag p is edivorp d orca ss ht e cafrus e t o cennoc t ht e eveiler d rap t w ti h ht e tuo s edi . hT e sab e is

nuorg d na d eppal d to a n carucca y of 00.0 5 mm a s aem s eru d evo r ht e tot la s o nap .deredisnoc ecafrus eht f

:maeB hT e oitces n of ht e aeb m is s o ohc sen as t o ne s ru e tidigir y nirud g ht e esu . hT e nidiug g gde e o f ht e aeb m s luoh d b e ltcefrep y alf t w ihti n ht e

ecnarelot s o f 20.0 , 40.0 , 60.0 , 0.0 8 m m of r aem s niru g gnar e o f 052 , 005 , ,057 (} )XX mm ylevitcepser . hT e ecaf s of ht e aeb m s luoh d la s o be alf t ihtiw n ht e ecnarelot s of 40.0 , 60.0 . 01.0 , 1.0 2 m m of r einrev r aem s niru g

r mm 0001 ,057 ,005 ,052 fo sthgieh e ps e .ylevitc nirusaeM g aj w na d s irc b re : hT e aelc r oitcejorp n of ht e aem s niru g aj w

fo egde eht morf eht dluohs maeb sael ta eb t ot lauqe ht e oitcejorp n fo eht aeb m orf m ht e esab . oF r la l oitisop n of ht e redils , ht e eppu r na d ol wer

niguag g ecafrus s fo . ht e ajg1lirusaem w luohs d b e alf t na d ellarap l t o ht e sab e to ihtiw n 00.0 8 mm . hT e em nirusa g ecaf s o f ht e ebircs r s luoh d eb

iw ot lellarap dna talf thi 500.0 n mm oitcejorp ehT . n noyeb rebircs eht fo d ht e aj w luohs d b e at ael st 2 5 mm . einreV r hgieh t eguag s am y la s o evah

hw taht denoitisop os si maeb eht no selacs eht dna rebircs tesffo na ht ne e rebircs si oc - ranalp htiw eht ,esab eht reinrev si ta orez noitisop .

taudarG i :sno hT e niwollof g tnemeriuqer s luohs d b e ellifluf d i n er s cep t udarg fo a : selacs no snoit

raelc eb dluohs reinrev dna elacs eht no snoitaudarg llA • l dna devargne y t eht reinrev dna elacs no htob noitaudarg fo ssenkcih s itnedi eb dluoh c la dna s eb ni eb dluoh t .mm 1.0 dna mm 50.0 neew

• hT e lbisiv e tgnel h of ht e s etroh st oitaudarg n luohs d b e uoba 2 t to 3 ti fo htdiw eht sem t ni eh t .senil tnecajda eht neewteb lavre

prep ehT • acs no snoitaudarg eht neewteb ecnatsid ralucidne l eht dna e erom eb esac on ni dluohs reinrev no snoitaudarg t 10.0 nah mm .

• oF r sae y gnidaer , it is ednemmocer d aht t ht e s ecafru s o f ht e aeb m na d einrev r luohs d vah e lud l sinif h na d ht e noitaudarg s enil s lb enekca d ni .

emitemoS s a niyfingam g nel s is sla o edivorp d to licaf i at te nikat g ht e re sgnida

edilS r: hT e edils r ah s a oog d s nidil g if t nola g ht e luf l nikrow g tgnel h of ht e maeb . A lbatius e nittif g is etaroprocni d t o vig e a nif e ujda s nemt t of

eht redils dna a elbatius pmalc dedivorp os taht eht redils dluoc be sujda enif eht retfa maeb eht ot depmalc ylevitceffe emt .edam neeb sah tn

An natropmi t rutaef e of ht e hgieh t guag e is aht t a aiceps l emhcatta nt ac n ot trap eht ot dettif eb w ron si rebircs eht hcih ni ,ti trevnoc ot ,dettif yllam

,tceffe i otn a .eguag htped rP :snoituace

1. ehW n nisu g na y hgieh t guag e o r s cafru e eguag , rac e sum t be ekat n to rusne e aht t ht e ab se is aelc n na d erf e orf m rrub s . It is

93



laitnesse ; oot , taht anif l nittes g of einrev r eh hgi t eguag s be edam trev eht ot dekcol neeb sah redils eht retfa i oc lac lum .n

2. hT e hgieh t eguag s ra e llareneg y pek t in ieht r ac ses w eh n on t in su e. yrevE erac dluohs eb ,nekat ylralucitrap ni esac fo nol g

hgieh t seguag , t o iova d ti s nitaeh g by w tmra h f or m ht e dnah s . gnirusaem fo gnignirps ehT aj .dediova syawla eb dluohs w

peD reinreV 5.2 t :eguaG h A einrev r tped h guag e is esu d t o rusaem e ht e tped h o f seloh ,

jorp a ot ecafrus enalp a morf ecnatsid dna sessecer itce .no

erugiF nI s ev a nwoh ped reinr t esu ni eguag h . acs reinrev ehT l e ot dexif ,si t ped fo ydob niam eh t sa yaw emas eht ni daer si dna ,eguag h

ev rni cs niam eht si ydob eguag htped eht hguorht gninnuR .srepilac re la e vorp hcihw fo dne eht i eht hcihw morf ecafrus mutad eht sed

em stnemerusa era nekat aht os edam ylluferac si eguag htped ehT . t t eh d htob ni esab eht ot ralucidneprep si maeb i cer it fo dne ehT .sno t eb eh a m

urt dna talf si esab eht dna elur leets a fo dne eht ekil ,talf dna erauqs si e , vaw ro sevruc morf eerf i ssen .

D reinreV fo esU e htp G gua e: • lihW e nisu g ht e einrev r tped h eguag , srif t o f lla , kam e rus e aht t ht e refe ecner afrus c ,e no hw ci h t eh tped h guag e sab e is rest ,de is

ylirotcafsitas ,eurt talf dna .erauqs gnirusaeM htped si a til t el kil e nirusaem g an disni e retemaid . hT e guag e lesti f i s urt e na d rauqs e ub t ac n

eb ylbitpecrepmi deppit ro ,detnac esuaceb fo eht ecnerefer s cafru e e reffo dna spahrep r nor e suo r .gnidae

• I n nisu g a tped h eguag , serp s ht e ab s e or ivna l lmrif y o n ht e cnerefer e ecafrus dna peek s lareve smargolik dnah erusserp no .ti ,nehT in

nitalupinam g ht e guag e aeb m t o rusaem e htped , be s ru e t o lppa y lno y

04



radnats d thgil , nirusaem g russerp e no e to wt o kg kil e nikam g a hgil t tod no repap htiw a .licnep

:SRETEMORCIM 6.2

ised era sretemorciM S' fo elpicnirp eht no deng c 'tuN dna wer .6.2 1 . noitpircseD fo a :retemorciM

rugiF e wohs s a 0- m52 m retemorcim w cih h is used of r kciuq , etarucca stnemerusaem ot eht owt - shtdnasuoht fi a etemorcim r. tI stsisnoc fo eht gniwollof :strap

.1 rF ame 2 livnA .3 Spi dn le ,4 Th mi ble .5 tehctaR .6 oL c tunk .

hT e etemorcim r eriuqer s ht e su e of an tarucca e s erc w aerht d as a naem s of niniatbo g a tnemerusaem . hT e ercs w is catta hed to a ldnips e

na d is enrut d by nemevom t o f a lbmiht e o r ehctar t a t ht e dne . hT e lerrab , cihw h is ehcatta d t o ht e emarf , tca s as a un t to gagne e ht e s erc w sdaerht , cihw h ra e letarucca y dam e tiw h a ctip h of mm50.0 . caE h oitulover n fo

ht e lbmiht e ecnavda s ht e ercs w mm50.0 . On ht e errab l a utad m nil e is etaudarg d tiw h wt o s te s of ivid s oi n kram s. hT e es t oleb w ht e utad m nil e

i s etaudarg d tiw h two s te s of ivid s oi n kram s . hT e lah f sretemillim . hT e lbmiht e lacs e is ekram d i n 5 0 auqe l snoisivid , erugif d i n evif s , s o taht

cae h lams l oisivid n o n ht e lbmiht e tneserper s 5/1 0 o f m2/1 m cihw h is 1/ 001 m 10.0 no m mm .

� To aer d ht e tem ric m ci rom ete r t o 0.0 1 mm , nimaxe e rugiF e dna srif t ton e ht e lohw e ebmun r of ojam r ivid s noi s o n ht e lerrab , neht

vresbo e ehtehw r reht e si a lah f millim e et r lbisiv e on ht e ot p of ht e utad m enil , na d sal t aer d ht e ht lbmi e of r htderdnuh s . hT e lbmiht e

ad eht htiw gnidicnioc enil eht si gnidaer t mu il .en lof sa si erugiF rof gnidaer ehT l :swo

00.01 =mm 00.1 x 01 = snoisivid rojaM mm snoisivid roniM = m05.0 x l m mm05.0 =

14



vid elbmihT isi mm61.0 = mml0.0 x 61 = sno gnidaeR = mm66.01

cniS e a emorcim ter daer s lno y evo a r 52 -m m egnar , ot evoc r a diw e gnar e o f snoisnemid , s areve l is zes /o m ci rom ete rs ra e ecen ss ary. ehT retemorcim elpicnirp fo tnemerusaem si osla deilppa ot ni s edi

tnemerusaem dna htped gnidaer dna ot eht erusaem stnem fo ercs w t rh e .sda

� To aer d ht e irtem c morcim e et r t o 00.0 2 mm , einrev r on ht e errab l is xen t deredisnoc . hT e reinrev , wohs n ellor d uo t i n F erugi . ah s

cae h einrev r oitaudarg n neserper t wt o htdnasuoht s of a llim i em ter 00.0( 2 )mm , na d cae h oitaudarg n is ekram d tiw h a ebmun r 4,2,0 ,

,6 8 dna 0 ot pleh ni eht .gnidaer oT daer a cirtem einrev r etemorcim r ton e ht e m oja r, m oni r na d lbmiht e ivid s noi s. xeN t

evresbo r cihw h einrev r nil e edicnioc s tiw h a etaudarg d nil e on eht .elbmiht sihT sevig eht rebmun fo owt uoht s shtdna fo a

temillim re t o be edda d to ht e ’htderdnuh s gnidaer . oF r ht e uc t tuo daer eht erugiF ni i gn i :swollof sa s ..

mm00.01 = mm 00.1 x 01 = snoisivid rojaM snoisivid roniM = mm05.0 = mm 05.0 x1

vid elbmihT isi mm61.0 = mm l0.0 x 61 = sno nreV i mm 600.0 = mm 200.0 x 3= snoisivid re

gnidaeR = mm666.01 fI eht reinrev enil tnedicnioc htiw eht mutad enil si ,0 on

shtdnasuoht .gnidaer eht ot dedda era retemillim fo etoN : oF r ohs p aem s tnemeru s t o 00.0 1 mm , a inahcem cal cneb h

etemorcim r am y be us de . ihT s nihcam e i s es t to cerroc t zis e by icerp s noi guag e skcolb , na d gnidaer s am y be dam e ltcerid y orf m a aid l on ht e daeh - cots k. tnatsnoC erusserp si deniatniam no lla stcejbo nieb g

erusaem d na d vitarapmoc e stnemerusaem t o 000.0 5 mm ra e sop s elbi . oisicerP n nirusaem g enihcam s nizilitu g a noitanibmoc s of ortcele nic na d

rucca na fo elbapac era selpicnirp lacinahcem a 100 000.0 fo yc m. .6.2 2 . secruoS fo srorrE ni :sretemorciM

moS e lbissop e ecruos s of rorre s cihw h am y luser t in cerrocni t cnuf t fo gninoi :era tnemurtsni eht

1. ivna ehT l urt eb ton yam s l f y l .ta 2. caL k of ellarap l si m na d s senerauq s of livna s at emos , ro

rap ,lla t o s f t elacs eh 3. orez fo gnitteS etaruccani eb yam gnidaer 4. taruccanI e gnidaer s wohs n b y anoitcarf l noisivid s o n eht

thi lbm .e ehT msilellarap si dekcehc yb gnirusaem ht e retemaid fo a s dradnat

tarucca e la l sorca s a t sael t erht e nereffid t tniop s o n ht e livna s ecaf s. hT e

24



senerauqs s o f ht e livna s to ht e aem s niru g ixa s is ekcehc d by us ni g t ow radnats d llab s sohw e retemaid s effid r b y an do d pitlum le of lah a f ctip h

cihw h llac s of r ninrut g ht e lbavom e ivna l at 081 ° w ti h er s cep t to exif d no e. sentalF s o f ht e livna s is et s et d b y ht e erefretni nce ohtem d gnisu po ti lac talf s. ehT ecaf tsum ton wohs erom naht eno telpmoc e

int fre .e.i ,dnab ecnere tsum eb nihtiw mµ52.0 . evenehW r etset d a t C°02 , ht e atot l orre r s luoh d on t eecxe d ht e

v gniwollof la ue :s

latot ,1 edarg roF e = rorr mµ è ø

latot ,2 edarg roF e = rorr mµ

è ø erehW L .mm ni egnar gnirusaem eht fo timil reppU =

hT e orcim etem r sum t b e so etsujda d aht t ht e vitalumuc e orre r ta ht e ewol r na d eppu r timil s of ht e nirusaem g gnar e eod s on t eecxe d lah f

t ot eh t e la r .ror ni snoituacerP 3.6.2 u M eht gnis ci :retemor

ehT gniwollof snoituacerp dluohs eb devresbo elihw gnisu a im temorc :re

1. retemorciM luohs d be enaelc d o f na y sud t na d ldnips e s dluoh rf evom lee .y

2. hT e rap t sohw e noisnemid s ra e to be aem s eru d um s t be leh d in l h tfe a .dnah thgir ni retemorcim eht dna dn

hT e aw y of r nidloh g ht e etemorcim r i s to calp e ht e s lam l egnif r na d niniojda g egnif r ht ni e U- epahs d emarf . ehT egniferof r na d muht b ra e

ecalp d aen r ht e lbmiht e t o tator e i t na d ht e lddim e egnif r s troppu s ht e etemorcim r nidloh g i t ylmrif . ehT n ht e etemorcim r oisnemid n is tes

lthgils y egral r aht n ht e zis e of ht e rap t na d ht e rap t is s il d evo r eht catnoc t ecafrus s of etemorcim r yltneg . etfA r ti , ht e lbmiht e is denrut

lit l ht e nirusaem g it p srif t ehcuot s ht e rap t na d ht e anif l nemevom t evig n by tehctar s so aht t rofinu m aem s niru g russerp e i s deilppa . In

sac e of lucric ar strap , ht e emorcim ter um st b e evom d lluferac y evo r snemid mumixam eton ot sa os era evitcepser i no no l .y

3. orrE r in gnidaer s am y ucco r ud e t o cal k of entalf ss o f livna s , cal k of silellarap m of ht e livna s as rap t of ht e s lac e or tuohguorht ,

taruccani e nittes g rez fo o nidaer g cte . uoirav s stset to ne s ru e seht e snoitidnoc dluohs eb deirrac tuo morf emit ot .emit

4. hT e etemorcim r ra e lbaliava e in uoirav s s ezi s na d egnar s, na d ht e nidnopserroc g etemorcim r luohs d be ohc se n nidneped g opu n eht

dim .snoisne

34

L ç ÷

L ç ÷

æ4 + ö 100

æ 01 + ö 01 0



4.6.2 sepyT fo :sretemorciM emorcim fo sepyt tnereffiD t sre a d er e :woleb debircs

1. htpeD :retemorcim tI si osla nwonk sa retemorcim' tped h eguag '. rugiF e etartsulli s a tped h retemorcim . hT e nemerusaem t

si edam neewteb eht dne ecaf fo a aem s gniru or d dna a gnirusaem .ecaf esuaceB eht tnemerusaem sesaercni sa ht e

nirusaem g or d dnetxe s orf m ht e ecaf , ht e gnidaer s o n ht e errab l ra e esrever d f or m ht e lamron ; ht e rats t at a ixam mum ehw( n ht e

nirusaem g or d is lluf y ednetxe d from ht e m ae s niru g )ecaf dna sinif h at ez ro ehw( n ne d of ht e nirusaem g or d is ulf s h tiw h ht e

.)ecaf

hs sa retemorcim htped eht no tnemerusaem eht ,elpmaxe roF o nw m9l.0 + 61 = mm)I0.0 x 9( + 61 :si erugiF m 91.61 = mm

nirusaeM g dor s in s pet s o f 25 mm ac n be egnahcretni d to vig e a diw e nirusaem g egnar . hT e lbmiht e ac p is ewercsnu d orf m ht e lbmiht e w cih h

wolla s ht e or d to b e w ardhti wn . hT e erised d or d is eht n etresni d na d if dor eht gnidloh os ,decalper pac elbmiht mr yl a .ecaf digir a tsniag

erugiF s swoh the a pp l fo snoitaci .retemorcim htped a si retemorcim htped A detset rof ycarucca sa :swollof

1. In edro r t o cehc k ht e carucca y of a tped h retemorcim ercsnu w ht e ldnips e na d es t ht e sab e of ht e m ci rom ete r o a n alf t sur caf e

s’rekam loot ro etalp ecafrus a ekil .talf 2. dloH ni g ht e sab e wod n lmrif y rut n ht e lbmiht e o r ercs w ni , or

it eht nehw dna nwod p fo ht e morcim e et r tped h s et m tcatnoc s ht e alf t lmrif y tiw h on t rom e aht n no e kg niguag g serp s eru , aer d ht e ab rrel . .orez daer dluohs ti etarucca si retemorcim eht fI

3. ehT n ser t ht e etemorcim r on a m52 m ils p guag e na d ercs w ht e ets m la l ht e aw y wod n to catnoc t w ti h ht e talf . rehT e it luohs d

regi .mm52 rets

44



2. hgieH t :retemorciM rugiF e wohs s a hgieh t retemorcim . hT e mas e

aedi sa dessucsid rednu htped morcim e et r si deilppa ot eht hgieh t im .retemorc

3. anretnI l temorciM er :s sehT e retemorcim s ra e used of r aem s niru g

lanretni .snoisnemid ehT retemorcim nac eb a dor dedivorp w ti h lacirehps slivna sa wohs ni erugiF a( ). ehT gnirusaem egnar fo iht s

im retemorc si morf 52 ot 5.73 mm .i e. 5.21 .mm yB snaem of lbaegnahcxe e ivna l nirusaem eht ,sdor g ticapac y esaercni nac d in s pet s of

.21 5 mm up t o 001 0 mm . ehtonA r pyt e of anretni l morcim e et r is aht t nwohs ni erugiF ,)b( ni hcihw eht gnirusaem slivna era etrevni d

revelitnac s. hT e nirusaem g gnar e of iht s morcim e et r is orf m 5 t o 30 mm i e. . 52 mm

54



4. laitnereffiD retemorciM : sihT epyt fo retemorcim si desu to esaercni eht ycarucca fo eht retemorcim s. ehT thgir dnah swercs fo

nereffid t ehctip s P = 0.1 5 m m na d P = 1 mm ra e egnarra d cus h aht t eud to oitator n fo ht e elbmiht , ht e lbmiht e liw l vom e vitaler e to ht e etaudarg d

ab rre l i n

no e oitcerid n lihw e ht e lbavom e livna , cihw h is on t exif d to ht e lbmiht e ub t edils s disni e ht e errab l , evom s i n ht e ehto r noitcerid . hT e en t luser t is aht t ht e lbavom e ivna l eviecer a s atot l nemevom t i n no e oitcerid n evig n

by 0.1 5 - .1 0 = 0.0 5 e.i, . 1/20 mm ep r no e oitulover n o f ht e elbmiht . ehW n ht e lbmiht e lacs e i s edivid d to 5 0 auqe l ivid s noi s , ht e lacs e ulav e

of ht e aitnereffid l etemonam r liw l be . I a f einrev r

lacs e i s edivorp d on ht e lerrab , ht e emorcim te r luow d vah e a s lac e ulav e 1.0 fo µm rusaem ehT . i r gn a h ,egn o .llams ylevitarapmoc si ,revew

5 . etemorciM r tiw h aiD l :eguaG I n edro r to hne cna e ht e carucca y of sretemorcim , nereffid t epyt s ra e engised d in cihw h ht e exif d ivna l i s on t

lerem y a exif d no e ub t evom s llaixa y to tautca e a aid l guag e guorht h a evel r msinahcem . hT e emorcim ter ac n b e esu d tiw h ht e aid l guag e ivna l

epmalc d as an ro ranid y morcim e et r of r anretxe l aem s tnemeru . nisU g ht e aid l eguag , ht e morcim e et r krow' s as otarapmoc r of r nikcehc g s alimi r

tnenopmoc s. ehT retemorcim nac eb dedivorp htiw a driht livna ot evorpmi dna etatilicaf eht gnitnuom fo eht w kro .eceip hcuS a

mi dellac si retemorc s d pan i guag la e retemorcim laid pans ro .

64

1 2

X = .0 01mm 1 1 20 50



su ylnommoC fo snoitatimiL dna segatnavdA 7.2 e noisicerP d In :stnemurts

I murtsn e stn A gatnavd es miL i tat i sno reinreV repilaC L egra m egnar gnirusae mm20.0 ycaruccA

eno no i pu ,tnemurtsn m fo tniop e gnirusa 0002 ot mm . iw ll htiw enil ni ton tcatnoc

dna lanretxe erusaem gnitsujda tun . J nac swa etni r .snoisnemid lan ps ir gn . L f fo kca e le .

imil swaj fo htgneL t s tnemerusaem ot trohs

ecnatsid morf dne fo nenopmoc t N . o

tsujda .raew rof tnem reinreV thgieH r egraL a eno no egn mm20.0 ycaruccA

G egua t pu tnemurtsni o kcal fo oN .leef m0001 m .raew rof tnemtsujda

reinreV D eguaG htpe r egraL a eno no egn ycaruccA .mm20.0 t pu ,tnemurtsni o L f fo kca e le oN .

m006 m emtsujda .raew rof tn lanretxE retemorciM ycaruccA mm10.0 ro daeh retemorciM

v htiw e nr i ,re m52 ot detimil m m200.0 m . sujdA t elba gnar e . Se etarap

rof raew . ehctaR t ro stnemurtsni deriuqer ni bmiht lanoitcirf le o mm52 fo spets r yb

elbaliava ot dia gnisu tni elbaegnahcre tnatsnoc leef . .slivna

M lanretnI ci mor eter ycaruccA mm10.0 . daeh retemorciM elbatsujdA ot raew . m5 ot detimil m ro

eb naC u suoirav ta des r mm01 a egn . stniop gnola htgnel fo na sdor noisnetxE d

rob e. sralloc gnicaps netxe ot deriuqer d

egnar t mm003 o . ytluciffid i gniniatbo n

.leef De ciM htp r mo e ret ycaruccA mm10.0 . daeh retemorciM

elbatsujdA rof raew . m52 ot detimil m tehctaR ro noitcirf gnar e . nI t elbaegnahcre

iht mbl ot elbaliava e deriuqer sdor t dnetxe o dia tnatsnoc leef . egnar t .mm003 o

74



Dial In rotacid sa eb nac ycaruccA seoD ton erusaem tub

hgih a .mm100.0 s dni ylno lliw i etac gnitarepO egnar pu ot ezis ni secnereffid .

m001 m sinahceM . m tsuM eb desu htiw serusne tnatsnoc leef . eguag skcolb ot

E ysa t daer o . kciuQ ni enimreted esu fi ylno nosirapmoc nemerusaem t. ylisaE

si deriuqer . fi degamad .deldnahsim

lS 8.2 i p G gua e :s

sehT e am y b e esu d as cnerefer e s dradnat s of r nart s nirref g ht e noisnemid o f eht tinu of htgnel morf eht yramirp dradnats to uag eg

skcolb fo rewol ycarucca dna rof eht noitacifirev dna noitaudarg fo nirusaem g sutarappa . sehT e ra e gih h obrac n eets l denedrah , nuorg d na d

03 f0 aera lanoitces ssorc gnivah ,skcolb ralugnatcer deppal m 01 m mm . riehT etisoppo secaf era ,talf lellarap a dn era yletarucca eht detats

cnatsid e trapa . hT e tisoppo e ecaf s era . of cus h a gih h erged e of cafrus e hsinif , aht t ehw n ht e kcolb s ra e esserp d ehtegot r w ti a h s hgil t twist by

dnah , eht y liw l nirw g rehtegot . ehT y liw l iamer n lmrif y ehcatta d to cae h ehto r. ehT y ra e eilppus d in s te s o f 11 2 eceip s od w n to 3 2 eceip s. uD e to

eitreporp s of ils p seguag , eht y ra c liub t up yb , nignirw g tni o oitanibmoc n ,ezis sevig hcihw gniyrav spets yb 10.0 fo mm dna eht larevo l carucca y is

fo eht redro fo .mm52000.0 pilS uag seg htiw eerht cisab smrof ra e ylnommoc dnuof , seht e ra e ,ralugnatcer erauqs htiw retnec eloh , na d

erauqs tuohtiw retnec .eloh

84



hT e ycarucca o f laudividni kcolb s sum t be ihtiw n detpecca cnarelot e il .stim ehT ycarucca fo seguag nac eb detceffa yb eht anoisnemid l

tilibatsni y o f airetam l or b y w ae r in use o r gamad e nirud g garots e na d nildnah g. ehT htlaeh fo pils seguag nac eb yrev ylisae dekcehc yb nikcehc g 'ti s nignirw g tilauq y b y nignirw g ht e guag e to be et s et d w ti h na

po it .talf lac A radnats d irtem c es t of s il p guag e w li l irpmoc s e o f 01 3 eceip s dam e up

of sa fo ll :swo 1. ts ni mm 94.1 ot mm 10.1 morf gnignar seceip 91 e 1.0 fo sp mm . 2. troF y nin e eceip s tiw a h gnar e of .0 5 t o .42 5 m m i n s pet s of 5.0 0

mm . 3. ip ruoF ce 7 ,05 ,52 fo se .hcae mm 001 dna 5 4. enO eceip fo 500.1 .mm

rapA t orf m seht e wt o rtxe a eguag s o f m5.2 m cae h ra e s eilppu d as vitcetorp e s pil s. ellamS r zis e irtem c tes s ra e sla o lbaliava e w ti h 84,65,67

na d 31 seceip . hT e silgnE h ils p guag e tes s ra c lbaliava e w ti h 4,94,18 53,1 or 28 pils s. nidroccA g to SI - 4892 - 6691 , reht e ra e vif e edarg s of carucca y

,I edarg sa hcus edarG II , darG e 0 , G dar e 00 na d oitarbilac n edarg . darG e ag gnikcehc ,srab enis gnittes rof ,moor loot ni krow esicerp rof desu si I p

of eguag s na d nittes g aid l rotacidni s to orez . darG e II i a s pohskrow edarg dna si desu ni gnittes pu enihcam ,sloot gnikcehc cinahcem al

diw t sh . darG e 0 is na ni s noitcep edarg . edarG 0 0 i s use d of r lhgih y noisicerp krow dna eht noitarbilac edarg si a laiceps edarg us de of r

arucca rehto dna srotarapmoc ,seguag laid gnitarbilac t sni e t nemur t .s gnidroccA ot eht dohtem fo ,erutcafunam eht pils seguag ra e

deifissalc sa evisehoc dna gnirw rehtegot .epyt ehT evisehoc pyt e is nihcam e eppal d tiw h gih h oisicerp n so as to iatbo a n rim or r kil e ehsilop d

cafrus e. hT e nirw g epyt ah s a cafrus e tiw h a ctarcs h rettap n inif sh, ud e to ralucric noitom ni .gnippal ehT evisehoc epyt fo seguag era rom e tarucca e aht n ht e nirw g epyt , ub t ieht r ecafrus s aew r ldipar y na d eht y emoceb .dezisrednu

raC g pils fo e a :segu ,ycarucca rieht evreserp ot redro ni dna tsoc laitini hgih ot euD t eh

ils p eguag s luohs d viecer e aerg t rac e nirud g ieht r esu . niwolloF g rotcaf s ls fo esac eht gnidrager deredisnoc eb tsum i .seguag p

1. tI s erehpsomta na ni desu eb dluoh orf eerf m sud t. 2. sac rieht ni tpek eb dluohs yeht ,esu ni ton nehW e. 3. erofeB gnignirw skcolb ,rehtegot erusne taht rieht secaf era

ep rfe .naelc yltc 4. etfA r esu , a oog d tilauq y aerg se s luoh d b e eilppa d on ieht r ecaf s

tpek yeht erofeb i n t .esac rieh

94



:gnignirW It ekat s calp e ehw n wt o alf t eppal d ecafrus s ra c ecalp d in catnoc t tiw h a

nidils g tnemevom . I t is ht e treporp y of aem s niru g ecaf s of a guag e kcolb of nirehda g by nidils g or nisserp g ht e guag e niaga st ht e aem s niru g ecaf s of ehto r guag e colb ks of utad m cafrus e uohtiw t ht e su e of na y anretxe l

naem s. I t is ud e to alucelom r oisehda n eewteb n a iuqil d lif m na d ht e nitam g ht fo ecafrus e talf noisicerp fo sseccus ehT .secafrus nemerusaem t

by ils p eguag s dneped s o n ht e onemonehp n o f w gnignir . ilS p eguag s ra e gnurw ehtegot r by nah d guorht h a enibmoc d s nidil g na d twis nit g noitom .

oF r nitarapes g wt o nurw g ils p seguag , enibmoc d s nidil g na d nitsiwt g oitom n luohs d b e esu d na d n o pmetta t s luoh d be dam e to s tarape e eht m

b y cerid t llup , ud e t o aredisnoc lb e aol d w luo d vah e to b e eilppa d hcihw am y gamad e ht e ils p eguag s. A tunim e nuoma t of aerg se or iom s rut e

sum t be neserp t eewteb n ht e s ecafru s of r eht m to nirw g itas s ylirotcaf . ehT uqinhcet e of nignirw g ehtegot r owt talf secafrus , cus h as s pil seguag ,

is tiuq e elpmis , edivorp d ht e ecafrus s ra e aelc n na d erf e orf m rrub s , hT e ecafrus s luohs d b e ehsaw d i n lortep , nezneb e na d obrac n rtet a dirolhc e

na d epiw d rd y on a aelc n htolc . I t is lbasivda e to loh d eht m orca ss no e ehtona r a t hgir t elgna s na d nirw g ht em tiw h rator y noitom , it ecuder s eht nuoma t of cafrus e nibbur g ecen ss yra . ehW n ils p eguag s ra c nieb g used

rof hgih noisicerp ,tnemerusaem ro ,noitarbilac s tnegnirt noituacerp s o eb dluohs b naelc gninrecnoc devres i dnah dna gn il .gn

ils fo ssecorp gnignirW g p a :segu sriF t eek p wt o pils s o n no e ehtona r na d s dil e eht m to onk w uoba t

F secafrus rieht no tneserp selcitrap yna i erug A.

05



serP s ht e ecaf s tni o tcatnoc , alucidneprep r t o cae h ehto r na d vig e a s lam l nitsiwt g oitom n rugiF e B. rugiF e C wohs s ht e w nur g s pil s in cihw h ag p eewteb n wt o pils s is rev y s lam l i n edro r of mµ53600.0 . lihW e nivomer g

,spils gnurw eht y ac n be s dil e o n cae h ehto r ols w yl . nignirW g rucco s eud to alucelom r oisehda n eewteb n a iuqil d lif m na d nitam g s ecafru s. suhT w nignir g is enifed d a s ht e treporp y of aem s niru g ecaf s of a guag e colb k

erp ro gnidils yb ,gnirehda fo s aga gnis i ona tsn t .eguag reh pilS fo erutcafunaM G :segua

hT e niwollof g pets s luohs d t o be ewollof d i n edro r t o rutcafunam e oog d ytilauq pils .seguag

1. M arepo gnirutcafunam cisab yb ezis etamixorppa eht gnika it .sno 2. sU e o f aeh t emtaert nt secorp s to kam e ht e kcolb s drah . aeW r na d

r noisorroc esist .ecna 3. sU e of arutan l o r aicifitra l aes s nino g secorp s t o ne s ru e s nizilibat g

eht rof fil e fo met ehT .skcolb rutarep e rof desu s nizilibat g secorp s ra e 04 ° , 07 ° , 031 ° na d °002 . It is nihton g ub t uounitnoc s nitaeh g

dna .gnilooc 4. esU fo repus gnihsinif ssecorp ot ekam eht kcolb ot ht e

tairporppa e zis e na d s epah . A nippal g secorp s is eirrac d uo t at °02 C na d oc ellortn d tidimuh y of %05 . In aciremA n ohtem d fo

gnirutcafunam , ht e ils p eguag s era ecudorp d to me te eht nemeriuqer t of anoitaN l aeruB u o f sdradnats , of r ezis , entalf ss ,

silellarap m na d cafrus e hsinif . hT e eguag s ra e dam e orf m s eet l gniniatnoc %54.1 rhc muimo %53.0 esenagnam dna %1 nobrac .

5. eguag dehsinif eht erapmoC , eguag retsam eht htiw

9.2 T :epocsorciM srekaM loo ehT s'rekamloot epocsorcim si na lacitpo gnirusaem nihcam e

deppiuqe rof lanretxe dna lanretni htgnel stnemerusaem sa llew as emerusaem stn o n wercs sdaerht , ,seliforp utavruc res na d elgna s. roF

eseht ,sesoprup eht epocsorcim si edivorp htiw lareves nirusaem g stnemhcatta hcus sa

1. lyc fo gnitnuom rof egats ertneC i rdn i ,stnenopmoc lac 2. gnivloveR dna elgna gnirusaem ,sraluco 3. elbuoD mi ega ,raluco 4. tpO i lac f dna ,redee 5. ejorP c noit scr .nee

hT e noitacilppa s of ht e nemurtsni t am y eb � ezirammus d swol : ldaorb y sa of ll .swo

1. ehT oitanimreted n of ht e vitaler e oitisop n of uoirav s tnioP s on row k . a gnirb ot yrassecen levart eht gnirusaem yb t tniop dnoces o

t no os dna ,tsrif eht yb deipucco ylsuoiverp noitisop eh . .

15



2. Me selgna fo tnemerusa yb u eye rotcartorp a gnis - .eceip 3. osirapmoC n of aerht d mrof s tiw h etsam r pr elifo s gne r eva d in t eh

saem dna eceipeye u evitceffe dna hctip fo tnemer retemaid . 4. nosirapmoC o f na degralne , etcejorp d im ga e tiw h a s lac e tr gnica

if noitcejorp eht ot dex s . . .neerc erugiF swohs a s'rekamloot .epocsorcim ehT niam strap fo eht

tsni rum :era tne elbatatoR.1 elbat wS.2 i bagn l daeh e ejorP.3 c noit scr nee

.4 itcejbO ev snel .5 gnirusaeM egats ralucO.6 .7 retemorciM s .8 rP ism.

:noitcurtsnoC ehT epocsorcim tsisnoc s fo a r digi s dnat on hcihw a lbagniws e aeh d is detnuom . hT e nirusaem g gats e evom s on lab l diug e

yaw s b y nitautca g wt o nirusaem g rcim emo t re s egnarra d ucidneprep lar ot cae h ehto r in ht e htgnel . na d ht e orc ss -s snoitce . hT e nirusaem g gnar e of cae h etemorcim r is 25 m m na d ht e aem s niru g capac ity ac n be aercni sed nisu g ils p eguag s . A lbatator e lbat e is edivorp d evo r ht e s egat , on cihw h

ht e ceipkrow e ac n be exif d ehtie r ltcerid y o r eewteb n retnec s. ihT s lbat e ac n be etator d guoht h 063 0 na d ht e alugna r oitator n ac n be aer d by a

fo eulav elacs a ot reinrev dexif 3' .

25



kroW i :gn T oc eh m eht yb detanimulli si derusaem gnieb tnenop t hguorh il thg .dohtem A lellarap maeb fo thgil ulli m setani eht rewol edis fo

ceipkrow e cihw h is eht n eviecer d b y ht e itcejbo v e nel s in ti s wa y to a sirp m aht t tcelfed s ht e hgil t yar s i n ht e oitcerid n o f ht e aem s niru g aluco r

na d ht e oitcejorp n neercs . nedicnI t lli imu n oita n ac n sla o be edivorp d yb a n rtxe a catta h tnem . lbaegnahcxE e vitcejbo e nel s nivah g oitacifingam n

X1 , X5.1 , 3X na d 5 X ra e lbaliava e s o aht t a atot l acifingam t oi n o f 0l X, ,X51 03 X na d 05 X ac n be eveihca d w ti h an aluco r of 0l X. hT e oitcerid n

of li oitanimul n ac n be etlit d tiw h cepser t to ht e w ceipkro e b y nitlit g ht e nirusaem g aeh d na d ht e lohw e acitpo l sys met . ihT s enilcni d oitanimulli n

i sac emos ni yrassecen s e ni sa s s .stnemerusaem daerht werc ehT elacs eulav fo siht :epocsorcim � el rof mm 10.0 htgn aem rus e .tnem � em elgna rof '3 a us r or htiw tneme at .elbat elbat � w tnemerusaem elgna rof 'I i ht the .raluco gnirusaem elgna

01.2 :sretemorefretnI

yehT era lacitpo stnemurtsni desu rof gnirusaem ssentalf dna gninimreted eht htgnel fo eht pils seguag yb tcerid ecnerefer ot ht e

tgnelevaw h o f thgil . It emocrevo s ht e kcabward s of acitpo l talf s use d ni ranidro y thgilyad . I n seht e tnemurtsni s ht e al y o f ht e acitpo l alf t ac n be

dellortnoc dna segnirf nac eb detneiro sa rep eht .tnemeriuqer A n nemegnarra t is dam e t o eiv w ht e egnirf s ltcerid y orf m ht e ot p na d iova d

ot eud noitrotsid yna i .gniweiv tcerrocn a talF lacitpO n laC d i tarb i :no

1. lacitpO talf era talf ,sesnel edam morf ,ztrauq gnivah a rev y etarucca ecafrus ot timsnart .thgil

2. hT e ra y e tni ni desu .secafrus enalp gnitset rof ,sretemorefre 3. hT e etemaid r of a n acitpo l alf t eirav s orf m 5 0 to 52 0 un n na d

thi .mm 52 ot 21 morf seirav ssenkc 4. pahs dna sezis fo egnar a ni edam era stalf lacitpO e .s 5. lf ehT ta detaoc a htiw elbaliava era s s .ecafru 6. hT e nitaoc g is a iht n mlif , llausu y uinatit m edixo , eilppa d on ht e

ecafrus ot ecuder eht thgil tsol yb .noitcelfer 7. hT e nitaoc g i s so iht n aht t it eod s on t ceffa t ht e oitisop n of ht e

rf i b egn a talf detaoc a tub ,sdn hT e nitroppus g cafrus e o n cihw h ht e tpo aci l alf t aem s tnemeru s ra e dam e

sum t divorp e a naelc , igir d mroftalp . acitpO l talf s ra e cirdnilyc al in mrof , afrus gnikrow eht htiw c .B epyt )ii ,A epyt )i era sepyt owt fo era dna e

i) pyT e :A It ah s lno y no e cafrus e alf t na d is use d of r et s nit g entalf ss of oisicerp n nirusaem g ecafrus s o f stalf , ils p eguag s na d aem s niru g elbat .s

35



roF eseht lacitpo .stalf rieht retemaid dna edarg era .tnatropmi hT e ,01 x 03 ,01 x 52 eb nac II dna I sedarg fo talf lacitpo na fo snoisnemid

50 x 51 , 7 5 x 02 , 001 x 52 , 21 x 5 03 , 61 x 0 3 5 emaid( ter enkciht ss in mm rof mµ 50.0 eb dluohs talf no ecnarelot ehT .) t py e .A

epyT :B na talf secafrus htob sah tI d ellarap l to cae h rehto . era yehT u des rof gnitset gnirusaem secafrus fo .sretemorcim gnirusaem slivna dna

alimis r gnel th of nirusaem g ecived s of r nitset g entalf ss na d msilellarap . roF eseht ,stnemurtsni rieht ssenkciht dna sedarg era .tnatropmi hT e

50.0 eb dluohs ssenkciht dna msilellarap ,ssentalf no secnarelot µm. ni eraC t :stalf lacitpo fo esu eh

1. rofeB e gnisu , i t luohs d be ne s eru d taht . aht t ht e ceipkrow e na d alf t ra c aelc n na d erf e orf m trid , ud st na d lio . epaP r or iomahc s is

rieht gnihsilop rof desu surfa .sec 2. acitpO l talf s luohs d even r be edils d evo r ht e w ceipkro e ub t etfil d

morf ti . gnidilS , nipeerc g na d nignirw g of alf t evo r w ceipkro e ra e ah ylemertxe mr luf a uohs dn l .dediova eb d

3. talF s luohs d even r b e w nur g o n ceipkrow e uaceb se i t s ehctarc s lidaer y . eht no ylluferac detser eb dluohs tI w ipkro e .ec

4. If cnerefretni e dnab s ra e on t doog . alf t luohs d be etfil d na d set wod n niaga , niylppa g acitrev l egnif r russerp e a t uoirav s noitacol s no t .sdnab yrotcafsitas niatbo ot ecafrus reppu eh

naB ecnerefretnI 11.2 d lacitpO yb s lF :ta acitpO l talf s ra c kcolb s o f salg s ehsinif d to ihtiw n 0.0 5 norcim s

rof ssentalf . nehW tra lacitpo talf si no a talf ecafrus w hcih si on t ltcefrep y alf t eht n acitpo l alf t liw l on t ltcaxe y dicnioc e w ti h ti , ub t it w li l

m sa ecafrus eht htiw e elgna na eka s .erugiF ni nwoh

ehW a n aeb m A B of tamorhconom ic hgil t llaf s o n ht e acitpo l talf , it ruf slevart the CB gnola r . ottob eht yb detcelfer si thgil siht fo trap ,C tA m

eht fo lacitpo na talf d gnola seog EDC , ht e niniamer g seog trap gnola FC ,

45



etcelfer d a t F b y ht e s cafru e ednu r et st na d eog s ehtruf r nola g F HG J . hT e wt o maeb s DE na d HJ effid r i n ahp se uaceb se of ht e rtxe a id s cnat e FC G

elevart d by HJ. If ht e ia r ag p eewteb n ht e ottob m of ht e acitpo l alf t dna ht e set t cafrus e is etoned d by h' ' s cni e θ is rev y s llam , eht n of r llacitrev y

nedicni t maeb s h = CF = F G = rehw e λ = tgnelevaw h fo cruos e dna

suht maeb JH lliw gal dniheb DE yb .h2 nehW siht gal si flah eht htgnelevaw , ht e wt o maeb s DE na d HJ liw l be in oppo s ti e ahp se na d a

enkrad fo etats detaerc eb lliw ss . tA la l stniop erehw eht ria pag tneserp si eht n senkrad s liw l b e detaerc . At la l tniop s rehw e ht e ia r ag p is erp s ne t

o eb lliw ssenkrad neht b ta devres di sa ecnats s .erugiF ni nwoh I n ehto r sdrow , la l tniop s tiw h ia r ag p h will rof m a rad k dnab . As we

vom e nola g ht e gdew e to ht e hgir t edis , t o niop t K, L , ulav e o f h eog s on nisaercni g na d cneh e ht e sahp e cnereffid e eewteb n ht e two yar s w li l og

f gnisaercni no r mo iw dna ll a stniop eseht tA .tniop emos ta A hcaer s

ht e ia r ag p sesaercni , of r reve y ~ aercni se , ht e hgirb t dnab s liw l be s ee n sa nwohs ni erugiF

.

kcehc oT t entalf eh s :talf lacitpo gnisu ecafrus eguag pils fo s ehT sutarappa deriuqer si a citamorhconom thgil ecruos na d

acitpo l talf . If acitpo l alf t is p ecal d o n ils p eguag , it w li l on t rof m an tamitni e tcatnoc , ub t liw l be a t mos e lgna e 'θ' nikam g a n enilcni d enalp .

I f ht e acitpo l alf t i s imulli n eta d b y itamorhconom c hgil t na d ye e i f ecalp d in eporp r oitisop n liw l vresbo e ebmun r of dnab s . ehT y ra e ecudorp d by

55

l 4

l 2

l 2



cnerefretni e of hgil t yar s etcelfer d orf m ewol r nalp e of acitpo l alf t na d pot s ls fo ecafru i g p a .egu

ehT y ra e ecudorp d b y ecnerefretni of hgil t yar s etcelfer d orf m ewol r nalp e of acitpo l alf t na d ot p s cafru e o f s il p eguag . As wohs n in F erugi , fi

l citamorhconom si 'S' i ruos thg ec . yar 'C' tA i r s efl tcerid ni detce noi DC E. ehT owt detcelfer stnenopmoc era denibmoc yb ,eye gnivah

delevart htap esohw shtgnelevaw reffid yb na tnuoma .DCA fI tap h

htgnel s effid r by do d ebmun r fo eht n cnerefretni e is ias d t o vah e

errucco d. If cafrus e is ltcefrep y alf t eht n ht e cafrus e w li l be orc ss ed by ht e rettap n of tanretla e hgil t na d rad k dnab s w cih h w li l be s hgiart t na d

rad k nil e is ees n sap s ni g a t C. hT e xen t nil e rucco s at (i e. . HF I =

) tanretla e rad k na d hgirb t egnirf s ra e s ee n na d oitairav n orf m ht e

t fo ssenthgiarts s fo ssentalf eht ni rorre eht erusaem sdnab eh il .eguag p

hT e ctip h of ht e dnab s dneped s on ht e lgna e of ht e w gde e na d i t ac n eb p eht secuder elgna siht ni esaercni taht nees ylisae ti .hc

65

l 2

3l 2

3l 2



hT e oitatneiro n o f ht e dnab s dneped s o n ht e oitatneiro n o f ht e gdew e. hT e acirehps l cafrus e ac n be vacnoc e o r evnoc x na d a ttil le

acitpo eht no erusserp l alf t a t ht e rtnec e liw l aerps d ht e dnab s tuo w dra s in a xevnoc .yaw erugiF swohs ecnerefretni dnab snrettap no uoirav s

ecafrus s . ihT s af ct ac n be esu d of r niward g uoirav s noisulcnoc s uoba t ht e rutan e of ht e cafrus e by niylppa g russerp e on ht e acitpo l alf t at uoirav s

nab fo nrettap eht ni egnahc eht gnivresbo dna stniop d .s uS xevnoC dna evacnoC r af ec :

If AB is ht e nil e of catnoc t eht n a eg aren l lur e t o fitnedi y ht e vacnoc e na d evnoc x cafrus e is aht t if ht e nab d vruc e i s nuora d ht e niop t

or nil e o f tcatnoc , eht n ht e cafrus e is evnoc x na d i f ht e nab d vruc e is in cnoc si ecafrus eht neht noitcerid etisoppo eht ave .

acirehpS l c vacno e na d evnoc x cafrus e ac n be eifitnedi d b y ht e niwollof g Fi rug e .s

.a xevnoC sur af c :e

75



.b evacnoC Sur af c :e

a sthgieh fo gnikcehC n lS fo msilellaraP d i w eguag p i :talF lacitpO ht evah tset rednu eguag eht dna eguag dradnats ehT f yltcefrep sdne rieht al t ' tnuoma eht yb htgnel ni reffid yeht ,lellarap dna h b yam hcihw ,nwohs ' e

f a e m w ci av eht gnidnif ta smia tnemirepxe ehT .snor l h fo eu . T eh era eguag eht dna dradnats w esab deppal talf yltcefrep a ot no gnur . ehT

talf lacitpo guag eht ot gnurw ton tub tcatnoc doog ni decalp si e t spo . T eh dis eht ot lellarap sdnab fo nrettap llit detsujda si talf eht fo noitatneiro e s

fo eht seguag si .deniatbo

85



hT e id s ecnat l is eton d wod n na d ht e ctip h P o f ht e dnab s is nuof d yb nitnuoc g eht , atot l ebmun r of dnab s on ht e guag e secaf . As cae h dnab

fo egnahc pag ria a stneserper eb lliw h fo eulav eht , . rehtehW

ht e tgnel h o f ht e guag e is rom e o r el ss aht n ht e am s ret , ac n b e nuof d tuo by nivresbo g ht e gnahc e i n ht e ctip h o f ht e dnab s o n ht e two eguag s,

ehw n a lttil e russerp e is eilppa d at ht e rtnec e of ht e talf . An tnemirepxe a l ohtem d of nirapmoc g wt o ne d eguag s is rom e o f imedaca c eretni st, aht n

tcarp yna fo i erugiF wohs si eulav lac . ugiF eht ni nwohs noitautis eht nI re cus h erusserp lliw saerced e eht egdew lgna e tiw h s radnat d dna saercni e it tiw h ht e eguag , bereht y nikam g ht e dnab s o n ht e s dradnat , w edi r na d

reworran ,eguag eht no esoht . Al eguag eht neewteb msilellarap eht os a dn radnats d ac n be evresbo d tiw h itpo ac l talf . hT e oitairav n in ht e nab d ac n

eb s F ni nwohs sa nee i rug e.

gneL eguaG t tnI h e fr e :yrtemor .1 ssentalF i tn re :retemoref

erugiF swohs eht lacitpo metsys fo a ssentalf retemorefretni . rucreM y uopav r mal p is used a s ht e cruos e of thgil . hT e il hg t essap s

guorht h a nisnednoc g nel s cihw h ucof se s it na d dnes s i t guorht h a nip loh e. erofeB eht nip eloh a ruoloc retlif si desu ot niatbo rup e

itamorhconom c thgil . ehtruF r a milloc a nit g nel s dnes s a ellarap l aeb m hguorht an lacitpo talf on ht e esab . hgiL t detcelfer orf m ht e ab se is etcelfer d yb ht e mes i otcelfer r dna i s eiv wed by ht e eceipeye . hT e acitpo l

talf si elbatsujda rof noitanilcni ni owt senalp os taht eht hctip na d oitcerid n o f ht e cnerefretni e egnirf s am y be set to ht e eb s t op s noiti . hT e

guag e i s nurw g to ht e sab e na d ht e nab d rettap n of r ht e guag e ac n be rf eht htiw gnirapmoc yb degduj i gn e .esab fo nrettap s

95

l æ ö 2 P 2

l l ç ÷ è ø



guag ruof rof snrettap dnab ecnerefretni swohs erugiF es . nI ( erugiF a noitcerid dna hctip eht } ra eguag dna esab eht no sdnab eht fo e

tcefrep a gnitacidni emas l arap dna talf y ll .eguag le nI erugiF }b( hguoht t rid eh e b fo noitc a .emas si sdn ehT hctip si tnereffid gnitacidni a repat

gnola eht regnol egde fo eht .eguag

rugiF nI e c( } ht e tip ch is mas e ub t oitcerid n i s nereffid t acidni t ni g epat a r nola g ht e etrohs r gde e o f eguag . d( erugiF } swohs aht t ht e renroc s

o f ht e guag e ra e nrow tuo . roF gral e tgnel h eguag s ht e guag e is ecalp d on ht e nitator g sab e na d rif s t nidaer g w li l be nekat . ehT n ht e lbat e is etator d

guorht h 081 0 na d s noce d nidaer g is deton . ehW a n guag e is alf t ub t t fo tnuoma eht derepa t .tuo dnuof eb nac repa

tiw eguag a swohs erugiF h ti s pot erepat BA d na yb nuoma t δ . QP is ht e ottob m o f ht e acitpo l alf t na d P QA i s ellarap l t o PQ. In ht e rif st

06

2 2



noitavresbo tel eht rebmun fo sdnab eb N morf A ot B hcihw ra e

etnuoc d. As ht e ia r ag p aercni ses by of r cae h dnab , δ = N( ) .

noceS d oitavresbo n is ekat n b y itator ng ht e sab e na d cneh e ht e guag e A gnola seil pot eguag eht taht os seerged 081 hguorht setator B .

ehT ebmun r of dnab s N rof iht s oitisop n ra e etnuoc d to eg t δ = N( ) .

orF m ht e rtemoeg y o f ht e erugif , i t ac n b e s ee n aht t 1A B = AB1 = δ na d æ -d 2 ö

cneh e δ = ç 2

÷ . T fo rorre eht suh at pe .detaluclac eb nac r è ø

.2 ttiP ehT er- .N P L. . eguag :retemorefretni lautca eht erusaem ot desu si tnemurtsni sihT nemid s noi s ht fo e eguag s . S

is ht e cruos e of hgil t cihw h i s ehtie r rucrem y o r uimdac m mal p. caE h of siht pmal evig s a mumixam of uof r .shtgnelevaw yrucreM sevig , 2

wolley , 1 eerg n na d 1 teloiv , w aereh s uimdac m evig s 1 der , 1 neerg , 1 ulb e na d 1 teloiv . hT e hgil t orf m ht e cruos e guorht h s il t na d nel s llaf s on ot t msirp noitaived tnatsnoc eh . llarap ot detrevnoc si thgil ehT e b l e yb ma

ht e nitamilloc g nel s na d ht e irp sm ac n be etator d in s cu h way aht t cae h tgnelevaw h ac n b e esu d vitceffe e yl . ihT s aeb m is ilps t tni o maeb s fo neutitsnoc t htgnelevaw s by ht e msirp ; no e o f cihw h is s etcele d t o be nes t

sni eht fo esab dna eguag eht no yllacitrev tsom la t nemur t. Li celfer thg t de orf m ht e ot p of ht e guag e na d ab se nruter s nola g an enilcni d htap , it is eht n esucof d by ht e irp sm to ht e eceipeye . hT e acitpo l alf t is lbatsujda e rof noitanilcni ni owt ,senalp os taht eht hctip dna noitcerid fo ht e

cnerefretni e egnirf s am y be set to ht e seb t op s noiti . hT e guag e on iht s lellarap dna talf yletulosba eb lliw tnemurtsni a h dn e eht no sdnab eht ecn

eguag ot p na d eht sab e liw l be of eht s ma e hctip na d tcerid ,noi tub d ylevitaler i .rehto hcae morf decalps

16

1 1

1

l l 2 2

1 1

l 2 2 2 2

d1 ç ÷



It i s iht s nemecalpsid t cihw h is edrocer d of r cae h uoloc r as a oitcarf n of ht e ctip h of ht e egnirf s na d is esu d of r aluclac t oi n of ht e

tgnel h of ht e eguag . hT e ohtem d of aluclac t oi n ac n be eiduts d w ti h ht e fo pleh eiv tnorf ehT .erugiF w wohs s ht e acitpo l talf . eguaG dna esab na d

ht e ot p eiv w wohs s ht e cnerefretni e egnirf s rettap n as s ee n guorht h ht e ceipeye e. ehT noitcarf 'k' yb hcihw eht sdnab no eht eguag pot era ecalpsid d orf m ht e nab ds on ht e nemurtsni t ab se is edrocer d of r cae h

.ruoloc

hT e ia r ag p eewteb n ht e ottob m of ht e acitpo l alf t na d evresbo d s cafru e

esaercni s by of r cae h dnab . orF m ht e rugiF e ht e acitrev l htgnel s ac n

desserpxe eb sa id s cnat e )zx( = p( + k) an d nil txen e cnatsid e zy( ) = q

gnivig t fo htgnel eh t sa eguag eh l = )zx( ecnatsid - sid t ecna )zy( = l = )k + p( - q = p( - q + .)k

l 2

l 2

l 2

l l l 2 2 2

26



rehW e p na d q ra e regetni s, ( p - q ) w li l be ehtona r egetni r sa y R dna

cneh e ht e tgnel h o f ht e guag e ac n be rpxe esse d as l = (R + k) . hT i s

evig s an natropmi t oisulcnoc n aht t if we erpxe s s ht e tgnel h of na y evig n

guag e in mrof l = (R + )k ht e oitcarf n k' ' tneserper s ht e anoitcarf l

nemecalpsid t eewteb n ht e dnab s o n ht e guag e ot p na d ab se. ecneH , rof na y guag e l htgne , iht s oitcarf n of r a evig n tgnelevaw h ac n be etciderp d na d i t is emret d as ht e animon l oitcarf n of r aht t tgnel h na d ruoloc . cneH e

etfa r nidrocer g ht e noitcarf s of r ht e uof r ruoloc s as y ok , ok , ok na d ok ht e animon l noitcarf s of r seht e ruoloc s of r ht e animon l zis e of ht e eguag

nk , nk , nk dna nk era detcuded morf eht devresbo .snoitcarf Thi s oitcartbus n liw l vig e us ht e animon l noitcarf s of r ht e orre r devresbo( -

on im )lan . uhT s if k = ok( ,) k = ok( – nk ) cte . hT e orre r ac n b e k

k + 1( ro j) ro k + 2( ) cte

autca ehT l o eno si hcihw rorre f eht s e eulav s is ediced d by nirapmoc g ht e eulav s eniatbo d of r ehto r erht e ruoloc s. In ecitcarp , aiceps l dils e elur s or

evas ot desu era selacs ecnedicnioc l rt yhtgne i .snoitaluclac la

apmoC 21.2 r ota r :s sisnoc htiw ,stnemerusaem noisicerp evig nac srotarapmoC et tn

ycarucca yb gnitanimile namuh rorre . yehT era deyolpme ot dnif ,tuo yb fo taht morf reffid tnenopmoc nevig eht fo snoisnemid eht hcum woh a

nwonk mutad reffid detacidni eht fI . e ecn i a ,llams s s elbatiu o ycarucca derised eht niatbo ot detceles si ecived noitacifingam f

tnemerusaem s. dna tnemurtsni fo epyt tceridni na si tI u rof des il raen nemerusaem t. ,dradnats eht naht ,retaerg ro ssel si noisnemid eht fI the n

b lliw ecnereffid eht e hs o o nw .laid eht n tI sevig ylno eht ecnereffid snemid dradnats dna lautca neewteb i eht fo no w kcehc oT .eceipkro t eh

H boj eht fo thgieh H thgieh fo boj dradnats eht htiw,

36

l 2

l 2

l 2 3 4

l 2 3 4

n 2 2 2 1

l l 2 2

1 1 1

1 1- ok

2 .1



yllaitinI , ht e otarapmoc r i s etsujda d t o rez o on ti s aid l tiw h a s radnat d oj b in oitisop n as ohs wn i n )a(erugiF . hT e nidaer g H is ekat n w ti h ht e leh p of a regnulp . ehT n ht e radnats d oj b is ecalper d by ht e krow - ceip e t o be

ekcehc d na d ht e nidaer g H is nekat . If H na d H ra e tnereffid , eht n eht egnahc ~i eht noisnemid lliw eb nwohs no eht laid fo eht .rotarapmoc

suhT ecnereffid si neht deifingam 0001 ot 0003 X ot teg eht aelc r ca dna dradnats eht ni noitairav t lau j .bo

rohs nI t oC , m ecived a si rotarap w hcih rav llams pu skciP )1( i id ni snoita m .snoisne

ngaM )2( ifi i se t. 3( ) D yalpsi s it b y nisu g nitacidni g ecived s , by cihw h osirapmoc n ac n be

edam htiw emos dradnats .eulav :noitacifissalC

1. acinahceM l :rotarapmoC I t krow s on raeg s noinip s, egaknil ,s l ,sreve s rp i .cte sgn

2. itamuenP c :rotarapmoC itamuenP c otarapmoc r krow s b y u nis g erp hgih s v ,ria erus la .cte erusserp kcab ,sev

3. acitpO l rotarapmoC : acitpO l otarapmoc r krow s b y us ni g nel ,s thgil ,srorrim s e ecruo t .c

4. lacirtcelE :rotarapmoC skroW yb gnisu s pet ,pu s pet od wn rt a sn f ro m .sre

5. cinortcelE :rotarapmoC tI skrow yb gnisu ilpma f ,rei atigid l langis .cte

6. denibmoC rotarapmoC : ehT noitanibmoc fo yna owt fo ht e user tseb eht evig nac sepyt evoba tl .

oC dooG fo scitsiretcarahC m :srotarap 1. tI s eb dluoh compa .tc 2. tI s eb dluoh ae ys t .eldnah o 3. tI s ser kciuq evig dluoh op n r kciuq ro es e .tlus 4. tI s ni elihw ,elbailer eb dluoh u .es 5. The .rotarapmoc eht no tnemnorivne fo stceffe on eb dluohs er 6. It .ssel eb tsum thgiew s 7. tI m su t .repaehc eb 8. tI m su t .tekram eht ni elbaliava ylisae eb 9. tI s s eb dluoh en rep sa evitis .tnemeriuqer eht

01 . T .tsubor eb dluohs ngised eh 11 . tI s eg dna daer ot ysae si ti taht os elacs ni raenil eb dluoh t

.esnopser mrofinu 21 . tI s vah dluoh e el .ecnanetniam ss 31 . tI s drah evah dluoh c no t .efil gnol htiw ,tniop tca 41 . tI s morf eerf eb dluoh ew dna hsalkcab a .r

46

1

2 1 2



31.2 lacinahceM :rotarapmoC It is les f ellortnoc d na d n o op we r o r na y ehto r rof m o f grene y is

re uq i .der tI syolpme lacinahcem snaem rof gniyfingam eht llams tnemevom fo eht gnirusaem .sulyts ehT tnemevom si eud ot ht e

ecnereffid b noisnemid lautca eht dna dradnats eht neewteb ie gn c .dekceh

ehT dohtem rof gniyfingam eht llams sulyts tnemevom ni lla eht acinahcem l rotarapmoc s aeg ,srevel fo snaem yb si r niart s ro oitanibmoc n

of eseht . ehT y ra e elbaliava o f nereffid t kam e na d cae h ah s ti 's o nw itsiretcarahc c. ehT suoirav sepyt fo lacinahcem srotarapmoc era aid l

i dn i nahoJ ,rotarapmoc amgis ,noinip dna kcar ,rotac s .rotakorkim nos .a laiD I dn i :rotac

It etarepo s o n ht e elpicnirp , aht a t rev y s hgil t pu w ra d erp ss ru e on ht e ldnips e at ht e catnoc t niop t is pitlum l ei d guorht h a ys s et m of raeg s na d srevel . I t i s etacidni d on ht e caf e o f ht e aid l b y a aid l regnif . Dial

rotacidni s llacisab y tsisnoc s of a dob y w ti h a nuor d etaudarg d aid l na d a catnoc t niop t etcennoc d tiw h a arips l ro g ae r iart n os taht nah d on ht e aid l

caf e etacidni s ht e nuoma t of nemevom t of ht e catnoc t tniop . ehT y ra e engised d of r su e o n a diw e gnar e o f radnats d nirusaem g ecived s cus h as

aid l ob x seguag , atrop l laid , nah d eguag s, aid l tped h eguag s , emaid ter seguag guag pans rotacidni laid dna e.

ehT y ra e lbaliava e in aid l noitaudarg s of 0.0 1 na d mos e nes s viti e pyt e fo seguag sah snoitaudarg fo 200.0 .mm enO noitulover fo laid egnif r

56



dnopserroc s t o a ldnips e nemevom t of 1 mm . hT e nemevom t nahcem si m of ht e nemurtsni t is esuoh d i n a atem l ac se of r 'ti s noitcetorp . hT e gral e

aid l lacs e is etaudarg d tni o 01 0 ivid s noi s. hT e otacidni r i s es t to rez o yb p fo ezis cisab eht gnitneserper seguag pils fo esu eht art.

laiD dooG fo stnemeriuqeR I dn i :rotac 1. It luohs d vig e lbuort e erf e na d lbadneped e gnidaer s evo r a nol g

ep ir .do 2. hT e russerp e eriuqer d on nirusaem g aeh d to iatbo n rez o nidaer g

m .egnar elohw eht revo tnatsnoc niamer tsu 3. hT e retniop dluohs acidni te ht e noitcerid o f tnemevom of ht e

m rusae .regnulp gni 4. hT e carucca y of ht e gnidaer s luohs d be w ihti n olc s e timil s of ht e

rav i .segnar dna sezis suo 5. ehT tnemevom fo eht gnirusaem regnulp dluohs eb ni ehtie r

dire .ycarucca eht gnitceffa tuohtiw noitc 6. ehT retniop tnemevom dluohs eb ,depmad so taht ti lliw on t

etallicso nehw eht sgnidaer era gnieb .nekat App il tac i :sno

1. gnirapmoC owt sthgieh ro secnatsid neewteb worran .stimil 2. oT enimreted eht srorre ni cirtemoeg al rof m hcus as ytilavo ,

ssendnuor dna .repat 3. roF gnikat etarucca erusaem tnem fo noitamrofed hcus sa in

t .noisserpmoc dna noisne 4. To nimreted e anoitisop l rorre s of ecafrus s cus h as llarap e il sm,

la dna ssenerauqs i ng m ne t. 5. oT kcehc eht tnemngila fo ehtal sretnec yb gnisu lbatius e

etarucca rab neewteb eht .sretnec 6. To ehc ck seneurt s of nillim g nihcam e ruobra s na d t o cehc k ht e

ap r o msilella f elbat htiw mra repahs s .eciv ro ecafru

ahoJ )b n otakorkiM noss r : C yb depoleved saw rotarapmoc sihT .F . .nossnahoJ

rP picni l :e ht no skrow tI e lpicnirp e fo a B ottu n s ,gnirp ninnips g o n a pool of

ni ekil gnirts the .syot s’nerdlihC fo esac oC n curts it :no

hT e ohtem d of inahcem cal cifingam a oit n is wohs n i n F .erugi tI yolpme s a etsiwt d atem l s pirt . nA y lup l on ht e s irt p uac ses ht e rtnec e fo

ht e irts p to etator . A rev y hgil t etniop r dam e of salg s but e is ehcatta d ot ht e rtnec e o f ht e twis et d atem l pirts . hT e nirusaem g egnulp r is on ht e s il t

rehsaw dna stimsnart sti noitom hguorht eht lleb knarc revel ot ht e etsiwt d atem l pirts . hT e ehto r ne d of ht e twis et d atem l irts p is enetsaf d to

66



ht e itnac l eve r pirts . hT e nignahrevo g tgnel h o f ht e elitnac ve r irts p ac n be deirav ot tsujda eht acifingam t noi fo eht .tnemurtsni ehT regnol eht

tgnel h of ht e revelitnac , ht e rom e it w li l celfed t ednu r ht e lup l of ht e twi itator ssel dna pirts latem dets atbo si retniop eht fo no i .den

ehW n ht e egnulp r evom s by a s lam l id s cnat e i n pu w ra d oitcerid n ht e leb l narc k evel r nrut s to ht e hgir t nah d s edi . ihT s trexe s a crof e no ht e twis et d irts p na d i t esuac s a gnahc e in ti s tgnel h by nikam g it ehtruf r tw si t or

nu twi .ts ecneH eht retniop ta eht ertnec setator yb s emo tnuoma . noitacifingaM pu ot X0005 nac eb deniatbo yb siht .rotarapmoc

morF t F eh i erug [ n2 = F ecroF ehT l2 + )ωπ( 2 ] 0.5

n2 = F l + 1 [ æp wö ] 5.0

è ø erehW fo rebmuN = n lams eht ni snrut l htgnel

W = rts fo htdiW i sp 18 0 F

tsiwt fo elgna eht si θ erehW q = 0423 0( F - L2 )( p w)

76

2

ç ÷ l

l = dnA q

2 2 2



ehT noitacifingam si yletamixorppa lauqe ot eht oitar fo egnahc of

nemevom retniop t eht ot tgnel ni egnahc fo htgnel h pirts fo .i . e .

ehW n ht e nitsiwt g nemevom t is ronim , it is eifingam d u p to 0004 X of r retteb .stluser

vdA a lacinahceM fo segatn C :rotarapmo 1. lanretxe yna eriuqer ton od yehT s o ecruo f .ygrene 2. hT e batrop dna repaehc era es l .e 3. hT e fo era es r tsubo .ngised tcapmoc dna noitcurtsnoc 4. ysae era selacs raenil elpmis ehT t r o ae .d 5. esehT era detceffanu yb snoitairav eud ot lanretxe ecruos of

ygrene s a hcu i ,r e .cte yticirtcel vdasiD a gatn e :s

1. niop eht sa detimil si egnaR t re m vo e .elacs dexif a revo s 2. arap esuac nac desu metsys elacs retnioP ll .rorre xa 3. rehT e ra e ebmun r of nivom g trap s w cih h taerc e melborp s ud e to

tcirf i .ssel si ycarucca eht yletamitlu dna ,no 4. hT e nemurtsni t am y moceb e vitisnes e to oitarbiv n ud e t o hgih

.aitreni

lacinahceM )c - oC lacitpO m ap r ota r:

86

dq dL



rP picni l :e In acinahcem l acitpo l rotarapmoc , lams l oitairav n in ht e egnulp r nemevom t is deifingam : srif t by nahcem i ac l sys et m na d eht n by acitpo l

.metsys oC n curts it :no hT e nemevom t o f ht e egnulp r is eifingam d b y ht e acinahcem l s sy et m

nisu g a etovip d revel . orF m ht e rugiF e ht e cinahcem al cifingam a oit n =

. giH h acitpo l oitacifingam n i s lbissop e w ti h a s lam l nemevom t of

eht .rorrim ehT tnatropmi rotcaf si taht eht rorrim desu si fo tnorf noitcelfer t no epy l .y

hT e cab k oitcelfer n pyt e orrim r liw l vig e wt o etcelfer d egami s as s oh wn neh ,erugiF ni c nedi eb tonnac egami detcelfer tcaxe eht e it .deif

96

x2

x1



hT e noces d natropmi t otcaf r is aht t ehw n ht e orrim r is etlit d by an elgna 2 elgna na yb detlit eb lliw egami eht neht ,θ θ si siht , s erugiF eht ni nwoh

vdA a gatn e :s 1. sehT e rotarapmoC s ra e somla t w elthgie ss na d vah e sel s ebmun r

o f nivom g strap , ud e t o iht s reht e is el ss w ae r na d cneh e sel s rf tci i .no

70



2. ehgiH r gnar e eve n at gih h ifingam c oita n is lbissop e as ht e s lac e p sevom a .xedni eht ts

3. hT e lacs e ac n be dam e to vom e ap st a utad m nil e na d uohtiw t orre xallarap yna gnivah r .s

4. ehT y ra e esu d to fingam y trap s of rev y lams l s zi e na d of elpmoc x oc noitarugifn s ets ro iidar ,sevoorg etacirtni sa hcu p .s

vdasiD a gatn e :s 1. detimil si tnemerusaem fo ycarucca ehT t 100.0 o mm . 2. ehT y vah e ieht r wo n liub t in imulli n nita g cived e cihw h dnet s to

taeh eht .tnemurtsni 3. lE uqer si ylppus lacirtce i .der 4. Eye ip arepo eht no niarts esuac yam tnemurtsni epyt ece t .ro 5. noitcejorP epyt stnemurtsni ypucco egral ecaps dna yeht era

.evisnepxe 6. lacs eht nehW e etcejorp si d o n a s neerc , eht n it i s aitnesse l ot kat e

r eht ekat ot redro ni moor krad a ot tnemurtsni eht eadi .ylisae sgn S )d i :rotarapmoC amg

hT e egnulp r is ehcatta d t a o ab r w cih h is etroppus d teb w ee n eht hs sa noitrop mottob dna pot eht ta setalp gnidneb o .)a( erugiF ni nw

hT e ab r i s etcirtser d to vom e i n ht e citrev al noitcerid . A efink gde e is exif d to ht e rab . hT e fink e gde e is ehcatta d to ht e s rihppa e talp e

cihw h is ehcatta d t o ht e nivom g kcolb . hT e fink e gde e trotxe s a crof e on ht e nivom g colb k guorht s h rihppa e etalp . nivoM g colb k is ehcatta d to ht e

17



exif d colb k tiw h ht e leh p of orc ss ed s pirt s as s oh wn i n rugiF e )b( . ehW n eht ecrof si deilppa no eht gnivom ,kcolb ti lliw evig na alugna r

ed fl noitce . A Y- ra m cihw h is ehcatta d t o ht e nivom g colb k nart s tim s ht e rator y oitom n to ht e nivird g urd m of uidar s r. ihT s tcelfed s ht e tniop er

dna neht eht gnidaer si deton . fI l tovip egnih morf ecnatsiD = t o t nk eh ife egde

L = y fo htgneL -a mr r murd gnivirD = R adi su

gneL D t fo h the op int re

eht nehT t = noitacifingam lato

41.2 lacirtcelE :srotarapmoC acirtcelE l rotarapmoc s vig e a w di e r gna e o f segatnavda . A s we

,wonk stnenopmoc ekil ,srevel ,sraeg skcar dna ,snoinip avitca t e acinahcem l secived . hT e carucca y fil dna e o f ht e ni s tnemurt s ra e etceffa d

sa yeht era detcejbus ot raew dna .noitcirf

acirtcelE l rotarapmoc s ah ve no nivom g trap s. uhT s a gih h erged e ibailer fo til .stnemurtsni eseht morf detcepxe si y

arapmoc lacirtcele fo snoitacilppa tnatropmi owt era ereht yllareneG t :sro .1 desU sa gnirusaem sdaeh

2. esU d rof acirtcele l niguag g sdaeh , t o divorp e ausu l oitacidni n t o cehc k id eht m .nwod dial stimil eht nihtiw snoisne

ehT fi tsr lppa aci ti no is rev y mi rop at tn hw en the er is a nemeriuqer t of r sicerp e aem s nemeru t of r g.e . nikcehC g or osirapmoc n fo

27

L d l R

x



pohskrow pils seguag tsniaga noitcepsni pils .seguag ehT noces d pa oitacilp n is esu d to tacidni e tiw h a eerg n hgil t if a nemid s oi n is w ihti n ht e stimil . A er d mal p etacidni s a n rednu s zi e noisnemid ; a olley w mal p

etacidni s an zisrevo e noisnemid . So ht e otarepo r is on t eriuqer d to be erawa fo eht lautca secnarelot no eht .noisnemid retfA gnittes eht

nemurtsni t yltcerroc , la l aht t deen s to b e nod e is t o calp e ht e nenopmoc t ednu r ht e egnulp r of ht e niguag g daeh . hT e angis l pmal s divorp e ni s nat t p dna o tset rednu noisnemid eht fo ytilibatpecca eht fo noitacidni evitis

vdA a gatn e :s 1. gnirusaeM stinu nac eb etomer morf gnitacidni .stinu 2. sujda eb nac hcihw ytivitisnes elbairaV et d a .tnemeriuqer rep s 3. rap gnivom oN t .sdoirep gnol revo ycarucca niater nac ti ecneh ,s 4. rehgiH noitacifingam si elbissop sa derapmoc ot inahcem ac l

.rotarapmoc 5. ava cra seborp fo sezis tcapmoC il .elba

vdasiD a gatn e :s 1. hT e ycarucca of nikrow g of seht e rotarapmoc s is lekil y to be

affe ot eud tc t .ytidimuh dna erutarepme 2. I t is ton a les f eniatnoc d tinu ; it deen s s ezilibat d op we r lppus y of r

its .noitarepo 3. ac retla yam ti dna stfird orez esuac nac slioc fo gnitaeH il rb ati .no 4. rapmoc lacinahcem naht evisnepxe erom si tI ta ro .

oC citamuenP 51.2 m srotarap ( :)eguaG xeloS

rP picni l :e I t krow s o n ht e lpicnirp e o f erp s rus e cnereffid e etareneg d b y ht e

ia r wolf . iA r is eilppus d a t natsnoc t serp s ru e guorht h ht e cifiro e na d eht ia r epacse s i n ht e rof m of tej s guorht h a etcirtser d s cap e w cih h trexe s a

cab k erusserp . hT e oitairav n i n ht e cab k russerp e is eht n use d t o nif d ht e d mi .tnenopmoc a fo snoisne

:gnikroW As nwohs in rugiF e a( ) ht e ia r is esserpmoc d in ht e erpmoc ss o r at

gih h russerp e cihw h is auqe l to etaW r aeh d H. hT e secxe s ia r es epac s ni ht e rof m of elbbub s. ehT n ht e irtem c nuoma t of ia r i s essap d guorht h ht e

cifiro e at ht e noc s nat t erp ss eru . uD e to etcirtser d aera , at A op s noiti , ht e erp kcab s eht ni decalpsid retaw fo daeh eht yb detareneg si erus

ebut retemonam . nimreted oT e ssendnuor eht fo boj eht , ht e oj b is etator d nola g ht e ej t sixa , if n o oitairav n i n ht e russerp e nidaer g is eniatbo d eht n

we ac n as y aht t ht e oj b is ltcefrep y alucric r at oitisop n A ehT n ht e s ma e erudecorp si detaeper ta suoirav snoitisop A , ,3A A4, noitisop na d

noitairav ni eht erusserp gnidaer si dnuof .tuo oslA eht retemaid is

37

1

1.

2



erusaem d at oitisop n A rroc nidnopse g t o ht e oitrop n sniaga t wt o tej s na d ht fo htgnel eht gnola noitisop suoirav ta derusaem osla si retemaid e rob e.

Fi ug r )a( e

ugiF r )b( e nA y oitairav n in ht e oisnemid n egnahc s ht e ulav e o f h , g.e . gnahC e in

noisnemid fo 0.0 20 mm segnahc eht eulav fo h morf 3 ot 02 mm . etaredoM dna tnatsnoc ylppus erusserp si deriuqer ot evah eht gih h ytivitisnes fo eht .tnemurtsni

vdA a gatn e :s 1. si tsoc eht dna etarepo ot elpmis ,repaehc si tI l .wo 2. h lacinahcem morf eerf si tI y siserets .raew dna 3. noitacifingam ehT c .X 000,01 sa hgih sa deniatbo eb na 4. htiw tcatnoc tcerid ni ton si rebmem gniguag ehT t eh w .kro 5. dnI ci .secalp tnereffid owt ta enod si gnirusaem dna gnita 6. aT ceted ylisae eb nac ytilavo dna srep t .de 7. hT e ohtem d is es lf ninaelc g ud e to uounitnoc s olf w of ia r guorht h

ht e tej s na d iht s ekam s ht e ohtem d aedi l to b e esu d o n ohs p oolf r enilno rof c no t or l .s

vdasiD a gatn e :s 1. ra yehT e es yrev n .segnahc ytidimuh dna erutarepmet ot evitis

47

1



2. hT e carucca y am y b e ecneulfni d by ht e cafrus e senhguor s of ht e tnenopmoc gnieb .dekcehc

3. eh gniguag tnereffiD a .sboj tnereffid rof dedeen era sd 4. yrailixuA stnempiuqe hcus sa ria ,sretlif erusserp seguag na d

uger l a srota r .dedeen e 5. noN - timrofinu y o f lacs e i s a ailucep r as cep t of ia r niguag g as ht e

oitairav n of cab k russerp e is raenil , evo r lno y a s lam l gnar e of ht e ro if ci s e i .noitairav ez

aeM ralugnA ot noitcudortnI 61.2 su er :stnem oF r nirusaem g ht e elgna , no ba s tulo e s radnat d is deriuqer . hT e

nemerusaem t is nod e in eerged s , im etun s na d s dnoce s . hT e tnemerusaem epsni fo trap tnatropmi na si snoisivid ralucric dna ralugna fo itc I .no t i s

enrecnoc d tiw h ht e nemerusaem t of audividni l selgna , alugna r egnahc s na d noitcelfed s no stnenopmoc , eguag s na d loot s. roF noisicerp

emerusaem nt of elgna s rom e s lik l is deriuqer . kiL e aenil r tnemerusaem , alugna r tnemerusaem s vah e ieht r wo n ecnatropmi . hT e isab c cnereffid e eewteb n ht e aenil r na d alugna r nemerusaem t is aht t n o ba s tulo e s radnat d

si deriuqer rof ralugna .tnemerusaem erehT era ves lare sdohtem fo gnirusaem elgna s na d srepat . hT e uoirav s stnemurtsni esu d ra e lgna e

seguag , sretemonilc , eveb l rotcartorp , nis e rab , s ni e retnec s, epat r ulp g r dna i .seguag gn

S 71.2 ine :sraB

rof ro boj nevig a fo elgna na fo tnemerusaem rof desu si tI nittes g na elgna . yehT ra e denedrah na d noisicerp nuorg d sloot of r tarucca e

lgna e gnittes . I t ac n b e esu d i n oitcnujnoc n tiw h ils p guag e es t na d aid l guag e of r nemerusaem t o f elgna s na d repat s orf m atnoziroh l ecafrus . sA wohs n in erugiF , wt o letarucca y eppal d rellor s ra e etacol d at ht e mertxe e

oitisop n. hT e etnec r to etnec r cnatsid e teb w ee n ht e rellor s o r gulp s is lbaliava e of r exif d cnatsid e e.i . l = 001 , 002 , 052 , 03 0 mm . hT e etemaid r

of ht e gulp s o r ellor r um s t b e o f ht e mas e s zi e na d ht e etnec r d ecnatsi eewteb n eht m is etarucca . ehT natropmi t oitidnoc n of r ht e s ni e ab r is aht t

fo senil retnec eht ot lellarap eb tsum rab enis fo ecafrus eht t p eh l .gu

nwohs sA iF ni g . 2 ot si ZY XW boj eht fo 8 elgna repat eht ,74. usaem eb r enis eht yb de .rab

57



oW fo elpicnirP rki :gn A s wohs n in rugiF e ht e epat r lgna e θ of ht e oj b WX YZ is to be erusaem d b y ht e s ni e rab . hT e oj b is ecalp d evo r ht e s cafru e etalp . hT e

nis e ab r is ecalp d evo r ht e oj b w ti h ulp g or ellor r of no e ne d of ht e ab r eht gnihcuot s fru ca p e l eta . cafrus eht no detser si rab enis eht fo dne enO e

p guag pils eht no detser si dne rehto eht dna etal e .s

hT e lgna e of ht e oj b is eht n rif s t aem s eru d by s mo e non - oisicerp n ,tnemurtsni cus h as leveb .rotcetorp tahT elgna evig s ht e edi a of ht e etamixorppa pils seguag ,deriuqer ta eht rehto dne fo enis .rab nA d

llanif y ht e caxe t ebmun r of ils p eguag s ra e edda d auqe l to hgieh t h, s cu h taht , ht e ot p som t ils p eguag s ehcuot s ht e ewol r ne d of ht e rellor . hT e hgieh t o f ht e ils p eguag s eriuqer d is eht n aem s deru . ehT n ht e epat r lgna e

ac n b e erusaem d b y nikam g s ni e ab r as a unetopyh se of hgir t elgna lgnairt e na d dils e guag e a s ht e oppo s ti e s di e o f ht e lgnairt e as s oh w n in

Fi rug e. h = thgieH ni mm

L = ecnatsid retneC i mm n sin q = =

repaT a elgn θ =

ehW n ht e zis e o f ht e oj b is gral e ah niv g epat r eht n we su e pils seguag rof eht htob eht edis ot dnif eht repat elgna fo eht .boj

67

OppositeS i de h Hypote un se L

Sin h ç ÷

L æ ö è ø

-1



= θ elgna repaT ehT = qniS =

latoT repaT nis 2 = θ 2 elgna -1

oF r a lams l tnenopmoc , ht e nenopmoc t or row k ceip e ac n be ecalp d revo a nis e ab r a s ohs wn in erugiF . hT e oj b is leh d o n ht e s ni e ab r tiw h mos e

lbatius e seirossecca . hT e aid l otacidni r ra e edivorp d at ht e ot p op s oiti n na d nidaer eht g si ekat n at A noitisop . aid ehT l otacidni r si eht n evom d ot ht e hgir t nah d dis e na d ht e nidaer g is ekat n a t op s oiti n B. If reht e is a

cnereffid e eewteb n nidaer g at oitisop n A na d B , eht n ht e hgieh t o f ht e ils p eguag s is etsujda d itnu l ht e aid l otacidni r wohs s ht e s ma e nidaer g ta

A dna B . uoiverp ot ralimis detaluclac si elgna eht nehT em s t doh a ,s

θ niS = -1

77

Oppos ti Se i de ( h1 - h2 ) Hypotenuse

( h1 - h2 ) L

L

æ ö è ø

h ç ÷

L



vdA a gatn e :rab enis fo s 1. si tI u erusaem ralugna esicerp dna etarucca rof des em nt. 2. tI i .ylisae elbaliava s 3. tI i .paehc s

vdasiD a gatn e :s 1. hT e oitacilppa n is etimil d of r a exif d etnec r cnatsid e teb w ee n two

pl or ro sgu ll .sre 2. p dna eldnah ot tluciffid si tI o ls eht noitis i .seguag p 3. fI eht elgna sdeecxe ,°54 enis srab era tcarpmi i elbac na d

.etaruccani 4. ugna egraL l ra rorre m .rab enis ni rorre thgils ot eud stluser ya

etneC eniS 81.2 r :s tI ht si e etxe oisn n enis fo erehw srab sdne owt era dedivorp cihw no h retnec s ac n be depmalc , as ohs wn in erugiF . sehT e ra e us ufe l of r et s nit g

of acinoc l row k eretnec d at cae h dne , u p to 06 ° . hT e retnec s rusne e cerroc t nemngila t fo ht e row k eceip . ehT erudecorp of es nitt g is ht e s ma e

enis rof sa ehT .rab otacidni laid r si oj eht ot no devom b llit eht nidaer g is mas e at ht e mertxe e op s noiti . hT e rassecen y emegnarra nt i s dam e in ht e

pils eguag thgieh dna eht elgna si detaluclac sa θ = niS -1 . è ø

87

æ ö h ç ÷

L



91.2 lasrevinU leveB :rotcartorP It i s esu d t o rusaem e elgna s tarucca ely to 5 setunim . it i s lenif y

dils a dna esab a ,seerged ni detaudarg ,laid htiw loot edam i b gn al de. lc edalb eht gninethgit yb laid tsniaga dekcol eb nac edalb ehT ma un p t.

hT e dalb e na d aid l ac n be etator d as no e inu t to na y op s oiti n na d ekcol d b y ninethgit g ht e aid l malc p un t of r tarucca e aem s emeru nt, a einrev r o r a

nif e nemtsujda t ecived , is ettif d on ht e laid . hT e aid l i s etaudarg d otni , it sdaer , , hT e einrev r lacs e i s edivid d ni t o tw vle e auqe l trap s on cae h s di e

of orez , reve y riht d oisivid n is erebmun d 0 , 51 , 03 , 54 , 6 0 erper s nitne g mi .setun

elgnA 02.2 G gua e :s In iht s dohtem , ht e tua o otamilloc r esu d in oitcnujnoc n tiw h ht e

elgna .seguag tI serapmoc eht elgna ot eb derusaem fo eht evig n tnenopmoc htiw eht elgna .seguag selgnA seguag era egdew epahs d

colb k na d ac n b e used a s radnats d of r lgna e aem s tnemeru . ehT y cuder e ht e es t mitpu e na d ziminim e ht e rorre . sehT e ra e 13 seceip , edivid d tni o

erht e epyt s cus h as eerged s , etunim s na d sdnoces . hT e srif t eires s lgna e ra e °1 , °3 , °9 , 72 ° na d 41 ° And ht e s noce d s eire s lgna e ra e 1', 3', 9' dna

b nac seguag esehT "03 dna "81 ,"6 ,"3 era elgna seires driht eht dnA '72 e esu d of r gral e ebmun r o f noitanibmoc s by nidda g o r nitcartbus g seht e

,seguag morf hcae .rehto

97



otuA fo gnikrow fo elpicnirP - htiw rotamilloC A :seguaG elgn sriF t ht e lgna e guag e anibmoc t oi n is es t up to ht e eraen st onk nw

lgna e o f ht e row k eceip . ehT n ht e otua - illoc m ota r is etsujda d na d ht e nidaer g is ekat n of r ht e evig n es t of lgna e guag e as wohs n i n F rugi e )a( .

ehT n ht e lgna e guag e is evomer d na d it is ecalper d by ht e w ro k ceip e A no D C B mas eht e ab s elgna eht fI .e ht morf e eguag elgna mas si e sa aht t

of ht e row k eceip , eht n otua - illoc otam r wohs s ht e mas e gnidaer . If reht e si a cnereffid e in ht e nidaer g is 1θ( -θ ) eht n ht e orre r or cnereffid e ac n be

guag elgna fo noitceles reporp em yb detanimile e .s

ehW n ht e illoc m ota r wohs s ht e mas e nidaer g eht n ht e lgna e eguag s evig s eht tcaxe elgna fo eht krow .eceip

gnA 12.2 l :rokkeD e

elgnA rokked skrow no eht emas elpicnirp sa taht fo otua - otamilloc r. nI siht ht e acof l nalp e o f vitcejbo e nel s is tuo s di e ht e eiv w of

etemorcim r eceipeye . hT e yar s orf m cruos e ra e etcejorp d o n t a o acitpo l rauqs e na d eht n on to ht e vitcejbo e nel s. sehT e maeb s eht n s kirt e ht e

otcelfer r or cafrus eht e o f row k ceip e ra e etcelfer d cab k b y ht e nel s i n ht e hs sa eceipeye fo weiv fo dleif o .erugiF ni nw

08

2



rehT e is a utad m lacs e in ht e leif d of eiv w o f orcim s poc e na d ht e etcelfer d gami e o f ht e animulli ted lacs e is eviecer d at ht e hgir t lgna e ot

iht s exif d lacs e as wohs n in erugiF . uhT s ht e nidaer g o n imulli n eta d gami e lacs e erusaem s ht e oitaived n orf m no e ixa s a t 09 ° t o ht e acitpo l

ixa s na d ht e gnahc e i n ht e alugna r oitisop n of ht e s cafru e ac n b e ohs wn v eht yb fo tniop eht ni noitaira in et .selacs owt eht fo noitcesr

hT e otua - okked r is esu d tiw h ht e oitanibmoc n of lgna e seguag ; ht e nidaer g is ekat n of r ht e lgna e eguag s na d ht e etcelfer d gami e o f lgna e

ceipeye fo weiv fo dleif eht ni deniatbo si eguag sa e s .erugiF ni nwoh

hT e lgna e eguag s is eht n ecalper d by ht e w ro k ceip e t o be aem s eru d na d iaga n ht e nidaer g is derusaem . I f ht e lgna e erusaem d orf m ht e lgna e guag e is nereffid t aht n ht e lgna e aem s eru d orf m ht e row k ceip e eht n two

nereffid t gnidaer s liw l be ees n i n ht e eiv w of eceipeye . hT e orre r in ht e lgna e liw l be wohs n in etunim s o f ra c o n ht e s lac e as s oh w n i n ht e

Fi rug e . Auto- ot erapmoc ni tnemurtsni noisicerp a ton si rokked otuA - c ti tub ,rotamilloC a b n e g rof desu e ralugna laren nemerusaem t.

18



28



TNEMERUSAEM MROF

ortnI 1.3 ducti :no

saf sa desu era yeht ,ecnatropmi emirp fo era sdaerhT t ne e sr . si tI a acileh l ,evoorg esu d t o imsnart t crof e na d noitom . nI ialp n tfahs , ht e loh e

sa ,ylbmes eht tcejbo fo lanoisnemid lortnoc si ot erusne a iatrec n ycnetsisnoc fo .tif nI esac fo daerht ,krow eht tcejbo si ot ne s ru e

acinahcem l tgnerts h of ht e ercs w daerht , nieb g enrevog d by ht e nuoma t of nalf k catnoc t ehtar r aht n by if t in a edaerht d eloh . hT e cnamrofrep e of

un a nopu sdneped tun htiw ylbmessa rieht gnirud sdaerht wercs m fo reb sretemarap cus h as ht e oitidnoc n of ht e nihcam e oot l esu d of r ercs w

,gnittuc row k iretam al dna .loot ehT noitcepsni fo eht ercs w daerht s slaever ht e rutan e of stcefed neserp t hT e cirtemoeg as tcep s of ercs w

daerht s ra e italer v le y xelpmoc tiw h cepser t to ht e pihsnoitalerretni fo ctip h retemaid , oitairav n i n dael , ileh x na d nalf k elgna . hT e niguag g of ercs w daerht s is ht e secorp s of ninimreted g ht e netxe t to wh ci h s erc w

snemid mrofnoc daerht i .ezis fo stimil debircserp eht ot yllano

2.3 wercS daerhT :ygolonimreT fo stnemele suoirav ehT s .1.3 erugiF ni nwohs sa era sdaerht werc

tiP c :h It si eht ecnatsid derusaem lellarap ot eht s werc sdaerht ixa s eewteb n ht e oc nidnopserr g tniop s o n wt o ecajda nt daerht s i n ht e mas e

aixa l enalp . hT e isab c ctip h si auqe l to ht e ael d edivid d by ht e ebmun r of t rh e .strats da

oniM r etemaid r : I t is ht e etemaid r o f a n ranigami y oc - aixa l ednilyc r hcihw sehcuot eht stoor fo lanretxe rht .sdae ojaM r retemaid : It is ht e etemaid r o f a n ranigami y oc - aixa l ednilyc r

cihw h ehcuot s ht e tserc s o f an anretxe l aerht d na d ht e oor t o f an anretni l t rh e .da

daeL : hT e aixa l cnatsid e ecnavda d by ht e s erc w in no e oitulover n is ht e .dael

ctiP h retemaid : It is ht e etemaid r at cihw h ht e aerht d caps e na d tdiw h ar daerht wercs eht fo flah ot lauqe e

ileH x elgna : I t is ht e lgna e dam e by ht e ileh x of ht e aerht d at ht e ctip h iw enil t h t sixa eh . xa na ni derusaem si elgna ehT i p la l .ena

nalF k elgna : It is ht e lgna e eewteb n ht e nalf k na d a nil e amron l t o ht e p sixa a .daerht eht fo xepa eht hguorht gniss hgieH t o f aerht d: I t is ht e cnatsid e erusaem d llaidar y eewteb n ht e ojam r

id ronim dna a epser sretem .ylevitc

38



wercS fo stnemelE 1.3 erugiF Thr dae D tpe h of daerht : I t is ht e id s cnat e orf m ht e it p of aerht d t o ht e oor t of

rht eht e xa lanidutignol eht ot ralucidneprep derusaem da i .s roF m o f aerht d: ihT s i s ht e pahs e o f ht e uotnoc r o f no e elpmoc te aerht d

ces laixa ni nees sa ti .no anretxE l :daerht A erht ad emrof d on ht e tuo s di e of a row k ceip e is

dellac lanretxe .daerht anretnI l aerht d: A aerht d emrof d on ht e ni s di e of a row k ceip e is ellac d

int .daerht lanre ixA s of ht e daerht : An ranigami y nil e ninnur g llanidutignol y guorht h

si wercs eht fo retnec eht eht fo sixa dellac t erh a .d lgnA e of ht e daerht : It is ht e lgna e eewteb n ht e knalf s or s pol e of ht e

rht e da m .enalp laixa na ni derusae

3.3 daerhT :mroF hT e rof m of eht aerht d voorg e i s a vitcnitsid e rutaef e by naem s fo

hcihw s werc t depuorg eb yam sdaerh :sepyt owt otni 1. eV e daerht s ra e used of r af s ninet g esoprup s . acipyT l mrof s ra e

,W.S.B ,A.B ,deifinu cirtem .cte 2. Tra sn m noissi sdaerht , esu d to suac e di ps al stnemec in a

sinahcem m. hT e ommoc n elpmaxe s am y b e ael d ercs w o f ehtal ; lacipyt eht f ro m ra s .sdaerht fo epyt emca dna erauqs e

hT e trowtihw h aerht d ah s an edulcni d lgna e of 55 ° teb w ee n ht e knalf s na d auqe l idar i at serc t na d toor . sehT e ra e ednetni d of r su e as

,stun dradnats tlob s na d pip e ni denifed si tI .krow a nalp e w cih h niatnoc s eht sixa fo eht .daerht ehT .A.B daerht saw decudortni yb sitirB h

As noitaicos . In irtem c sdaerht , reht e is lgna e na d cnaraelc e at erc st na d oor t so taht tcatnoc neewteb gnitam sdaerht sekat ecalp ylno no ht e

f al skn . mca ehT e aerht d ah s a n edulcni d lgna e of 92 ° na d i s esu d of r ael d

48



wercs s na d deef s o n nihcam e sloot . I t ah s alf t tserc s na d toor s. A ercs w dna tun yam eb detacol no rojam ro ronim .retemaid

hT lanoitanretnI metsyS cirteM )a( er da

ugiF r daerhT 2.3 e For sm

58



A serttub s aerht d is us de , rehw e gral e aixa l ecrof s vah e to be detsiser . sehT e daerht s vah e auqenu l nalf k elgna s. hT e niraeb g nalf k is itemos mes

amron l to daerht eht ixa s . ehT uoirav s epyt s of aerht d mrof s ra e a s wohs n i n t F eh ig . .2.3

tnemerusaeM 4.3 retemaiD roniM fo ( emorciM egairraC gnitaolF et )r :. gnitaolF egairrac retemorcim si desu ot erusaem eht onim r

etemaid r. It is lbatius e of r somla t la l dnik s o f daerht s. hT e eeV - ceip e ra e aliava bl e in uoirav s ezis s nivah g lbatius e idar i at ht e egde . hT e ats radn d

i s pek t eewteb n ht e morcim e et r livna s w ti h ht e leh p o f V- eceip s as nwohs ni erugiF .3.3

Fi ug r 3.3 e

ehT laicudif rotacidni livna si desu ot niatniam eht emas natsnoc t mit eht ta erusserp e fo tnemerusaem . etemaid ehT r fo radnats d lyc edni r si

wonk n to us na d ht e nidaer g is ekat n of r ht e V- eceip s in op s oiti n as r . woN tuohtiw gnignahc eht noitisop fo laicudif rotacidni ,livna ht e

radnats d ednilyc r is ecalper d by s erc w. hT e nidaer g is on w ekat n of r ht e ercs w aerht d i n oitisop n as r . fI d si ht e onim r etemaid r fo a s erc w aerht d

t ,sa detaluclac eb nac d fo eulav eht neh roniM ,retemaid

daer eht neewteb ecnereffid( ± )rednilyc dradnats fo retemaid( = d i )sgn 1 2 l

5.3 tnemerusaeM fo rojaM :retemaiD

hT e ojam r etemaid r o f ht e ercs w t daerh s ac n be ekcehc d by ht e su e of etemorcim r or einrev r repilac s as in ialp n emaid ter tnemerusaem . hT e ojam r etemaid r is erusaem d by cneb h morcim e et r as s oh wn i n ht e

68

1

2

d = d ± r( – r )



rugiF e 4.3 . I t esu s natsnoc t nirusaem g erp ss ru e e.i . ht e tnemerusaem s ra e m eda erp emas eht ta s laicudif yb decalper si livna dexiF .erus i dn icat .ro

iF ug r retemorciM hcneB 4.3 e ehT krow eceip si dleh ni dnah dna eht enihcam nac eb us de sa a

rotarapmoc ot diova eht hctip srorre fo .sretemorcim daetsnI fo pils eguag , a arbilac et d nittes g ednilyc r is used as a nittes g s dradnat , as it

evig s tiralimis y o f catnoc t a t ht e slivna . hT e ednilyc r is leh d na d ht e gnidaer s of etemorcim r ra e deton . hT e etemaid r of s nitte g ednilyc r is

letamixorppa y auqe l t o ht e ojam r retemaid . hT e dnilyc er is ecalper d by edaerht d row k eceip s na d ht e gnidaer s ra e eton d of r ht e mas e nidaer g of

fi ud c .rotacidni lai d fI etemaid = r rednilyc gnittes fo r etemorcim fo gnidaer = r rednilyc gnittes no r daerht eht no gnidaer retemorcim =

ojam nehT r etemaid r d = r( + – r )

ffE 6.3 e D evitc i ma e :ret It is enifed d as ht e etemaid r of ht e ranigami y oc - aixa l ednilyc r

gnitcesretni eht daerht ni hcus a rennam taht eht tpecretni si on ht e otareneg r o f ht e rednilyc . It tneserper s ht e zis e o f knalf s na d is ht e om s t

ropmi tnat retemaid fo eht .daerht ehT evitceffe retemaid ro ctip h wollof eht yb derusaem eb nac retemaid i em gn t :sdoh

1. iw owt ,eriw enO r iw eerht ro se r .dohtem e 2. retemorciM .dohtem erehT si on ecnereffid neewteb eno ,eriw owt eriw dna eerht w ri e ohtem d. hT e owt eriw dohtem si .deyolpme nehT gnitaolf gairrac e

etemorcim r is aliava ble of r ht e nemerusaem t oprup se. hT e wt o or erht e dleiy lliw dohtem eriw a nehw ylno stluser etarucc

i) T h )P( hctip daerht wercs eh a .srorre on s ii ) gna daerhT l e i roc s r .tce

.6.3 W enO yb retemaiD evitceffE fo tnemerusaeM 1 i eM er t :doh

ihT s ohtem d is esu d of r aem s niru g vitceffe e etemaid r of etnuoc r ctip h daerht s na d nirud g utcafunam r ni g o f daerht s. nO e riw e i s ecalp d

78

1

1

2

1 2 1



eewteb n wt o daerht s at no e dis e na d on ht e ehto r s di e ht e na iv l of eht etemorcim gnirusaem r catnoc ni decalp si t tserc eht htiw s nwohs sa ni ht e

rugiF e 5.3 . hT e cabward k of iht s ohtem d is aht t ht e morcim e et r ixa s am y on t iamer n ltcaxe y at hgir t elgna s to ht e aerht d ixa s . hT e etemorcim r

nidaer g is eton d on a s at radn d eguag , sohw e nemid s noi s am y be s ma e sa ot eb deniatbo yb siht .dohtem

W enO 5.3 erugiF eri dohteM autcA l nemerusaem t evo r riw e on no e s di e na d daerht s on ht e ehto r s edi luohs d be auqe l to ht e s zi e o f guag e na d ulp s o r unim s ht e cnereffid e in

t ow im .gnidaer retemorc

:dohteM eriW owT yb retemaiD evitceffE fo tnemerusaeM 2.6.3 enedrah fo edam era desu seriw ehT d eets l iatsus ot n ht e w rae na d

raet o eerged hgih nevig eb yam tI . f tius ot gnippal yb hsinif dna ycarucca uoirav s sehctip . hT e e vitceff e etemaid r of a s erc w aerht d am y be sa s eru d

by nicalp g wt o eriw s o r dor s o f acitnedi l etemaid r teb w ee n ht e knalf s of t rh e .da

Fi ug r 6.3 e

88



98



09



3.6.3 tseB eriW :eziS roF gnirusaem evitceffe ,retemaid syawla seb t riw e s luoh d be

esu d. hT e riw e retemaid , lbatius e of r na y alucitrap r s erc w aerht d luohs d eb hcus ,taht eht eriw sehcuot eht daerht no s thgiart noitrop ylno .

evitceffE retemaid nac eb derusaem htiw eriw gnivah yna retemaid , cihw h ekam s catnoc t on ht e urt e nalf k of ht e daerht . hT e edivorp d aerht d lgna e luohs d be tcerroc . hT e vitceffe e etemaid r etaluclac d tiw h ht e leh p

of na y riw e nihcuot g ht e urt e knalf s liw l effid r orf m aht t iatbo en d by gnisu a eriw fo tseb ,ezis fi ereht si on rorre ni elgna fo eht .daerht

rtxE )a( 7.3 erugiF eme eziS eriW fo sesaC

ehT tseb eriw ezis rof eht nevig wercs ,daerht si a eriw gnivah ti 's retemaid , hcus aht t i t luow d catnoc t ht e ercs w aerht d ltcaxe y on ht e ctip h

tniop a s wohs n i n ht e erugiF .3 7 )a( . eht nI sac e of eb st w ri e ezis , at niop t D ht e riw e nihcuot g ht e nalf k o f aerht d eil s o n ht e ctip h nil e o r eht ffe e d evitc i .enil retema

ugiF r )b( 7.3 e

na CO ,)b( 7.3 erugiF eht nI O d D tniop ta GD dna GC ot ralucidneprep dna C D retemaid evitceffe no ro enil hctip no seil hcihw il .en

19



hT i s i dna p hctip fo smret ni retemaid eriw tseb fo noitauqe eht s rht e elgna da θ.

erht cirtem roF a °06 = θ d pd =

pd = 775.0 p

erht htrowtihw roF a θ d = = pd °55

pd = 6365.0 p

4.6.3 daerhT :tnemerusaeM looT s’rekaM epocsorciM : tI si a elitasrev tnemurtsni aht t

serusaem eht noitairav yb lacitpo ,snaem htiw on erp ss eru nieb g i ovn l dev . It is a rev y ufesu l ni s nemurt t of r nikam g aem s emeru nts no

llams dna etaciled .strap gniwollof rof dengised si tI aem us r :stneme

1. stnemerusaeM fo strap fo xelpmoc .mrof 2. llew sa daerht lanretxe fo eliforp ehT a s t oo ls 3. c ot retnec gnirusaeM enalp yna ni seloh fo ecnatsid retne

29

p 60 ç ÷

2 2 æ ö è ø

sec

secæ ö

è ø ç ÷

p 55 2 2



4. etaruccA ralugna tnemerusaem 5. gninimreteD eht evitaler noitisop fo suoirav stniop no .krow

oot 8.3 erugiF l M ka re epocsorciM s’ A colb k argaid m o f iht s is s woh n in rugiF e 8.3 . A vaeh y olloh w

ab s e A esuoh s ht e nithgil g tinu . vobA e ht e sab e i s etnuom d ht e lbat e B xa lacitrev tuoba D noitator edivorp ot C sllab no detroppus si hcihw i .s

hT e lbat e ac n sla o be evom d in ht e atnoziroh l nalp e in wt o noitcerid s ralucidneprep ot hcae rehto sa nwohs yb .E esehT stnemevom era

ellortnoc d etemorcim owt yb r murd s . tnemevom esehT s ellortnoc era d by wt o etemorcim r murd s. nitcejorP g up orf m ht e diskcab e o f ht e ab s e is

muloc n G cihw h ac n b e etator d uoba t ixa s XX . hT e muloc n eirrac s ht e pocsorcim e inu t H cihw h ac n be evom d up na d od w n ht e muloc n no

ediug syaw ;J dna nac eb depmalc yb bonk .K tA eht pot fo ht e pocsorcim e ht e ceipeye e inu t L eirrac s nereffid t eipeye c se , noyna e of

cihw h ac n be used at a emit . A oitcejorp n nemhcatta t ac n be ettif d to ht e inu t to iatbo n a s odah w on a s neerc . hgiL t orf m ht e mal p in ht e cab k of

ht e sab e is ekat n guorht h a s etsy m of nel ses na d ,srotcelfer eog s up guorht h eht artnec l nerapsnart t trap fo elbat , tni o ht e orcim s epoc . uoiraV s

catta h tnem s am y b e ettif d to ht e row k lbat e t o pada t ht e utarappa s of r yteirav of boj s. roW k am y b e etroppus d teb w ee n sretnec , or on eV e

kcolb s or ecalp d lpmis y on ht e alf t salg s elbat . hT e lbat e retemorcim s vah e egnar s of 25 m m na d nidaer g of up to no e norcim . tnemevoM s

etaerg r aht n 2 5 mm ac n be evig n b y nicalp g s il p eguag s teb w ee n eht mi .sedils eht dna slivna retemorc

39



Fi ug r V 9.3 e iew seceipeyE hguorht s rehT e ra e areves l lbahcated e na d baegnahcretni le ceipeye e tinu s .

hT e otcartorp r inu t is edivorp d tiw h aidar l na d sorc s ittes n g enil s na d a orp tra eht ni enil a gnittes rof wercs delrunk a yb detator eb yam sihT .rotc

otcartorp r inu t tiw a h nil e on ht e egami ; na d nidaer g of ht e otcartorp r am y be es t t o no e etunim . rugiF e a(9.3 ) ohs ws ht e eiv w guorht h ht e

otcartorp r eceipeye . hT e aerht d talpmet e inu t ah s etceles d aerht d mrof s egnarra d nuora d ht e salg s sid c in ht e ceipeye e na d iht s am y be etator d to

gnirb eht deriuqer daerht mrof ni noitisop rof gnirapmoc ti htiw ht e eifingam d odahs w o f ht e w kro . rugiF e b(9.3 ) wohs a s eiv w ht guor h ht e

aerht d talpmet e eceipeye . A riht d pyt e o f ceipeye e lnommoc y s eilppu d ah s aenil a r elacs na d es t idar fo i cihw h am y eb use d rof irapmoc son w ti h

egami s o f eloh s o r idar i orf m krow . I n edro r t o eiv w s erc ws nola g ht e xileh elgna ht e lohw e of ht e nmuloc tinu nola g tiw h ht e lbarisednu e

nitanimulli g inu t ni sab e ehcatta d to ht e muloc n inu t is etator d uoba t ixa s XX . T eh t dna elba w kro r debrutsidnu sniame w .edam si noitator siht neh

oot fo snoitacilppa ehT l m :swollof sa era epocsorcim s'reka 1. usaeM em yb krow no stniop owt neewteb ecnatsid eht gnir a rus i gn

ht e lbat e evart l rassecen y to nirb g ht e s noce d niop t to ht e op s oiti n verp i tsrif eht yb deipucco ylsuo .

2. osirapmoC n o f aerht d mrof s tiw h am s et r eliforp s egralne d i n ht e tnemerusaem dna eceipeye aid evitceffe dna hctip fo etem .r

3. selgna fo tnemerusaeM u eipeye rotcartorp eht gnis ec . 4. osirapmoC n of an egralne d etcejorp d gami e tiw h a eifingam d

delacs gnicart dexif ot eht .neercs

lanretnI fo tnemerusaeM 7.3 Thr :sdae .7.3 1 ojaM r retemaiD : hT e m oja r etemaid r o f anretni l aerht d ac n be

rotarapmoc a yb derusaem . aiceps fo stsisnoc rotarapmoc A l livna s cihw h ac n b e ecalp d in ht e voorg e na d aem s ru e ht e cnatsid e x as s oh w n in

rugiF e 01.3 . uB t orf m ht e rugiF e 01.3 , it is aelc r taht , x is on t ht e ojam r

49



etemaid r. cneH e ht e ojam r etemaid r D ac n be luclac a et d b y onk w ni g eulav fo x ,sa

o hctiP = p erehw f t wercs eh

Fi ug r 01.3 e

:retemaiD roniM 2.7.3 1. gnisU repaT slellaraP : hT e ronim retemaid nac eb ae s li y derusaem yb gnisu epat r .slellarap esehT repat slellarap era detresni

disni e ht e aerht d na d etsujda d itnu l eht y ra e ltcefrep y engila d w ti h hcae rehto . etemorciM r ivna l liw l aer d ht e hgieh t of epat r lellarap s in tcatnoc ,

t .daerht eht fo retemaid lanretni eht gnitacidni suh

Fi ug r 11.3 e

2. gnisU pilS eguaG dna R rello s: roF egral daerht etemaid r oisicerp n rellor s ra e desu . ehT y ra e etresni d i n ht e anretni l aerht d of

wonk n etemaid r as y d na d d . hT e ag p eewteb n eht m is ellif d by ils p eguag s . temaid lanretni eht nehT etaluclac eb nac ,d daerht fo re d .sa

1 2

d erehW d dna ht si x dna retemaid rellor eht si e guag pils e .ecnatsid

59

æ ö 2

x 2 - ç ÷ è ø

p 2

= D

1 2

d = d d + x + 1 2



Fi ug r 21.3 e

:sdaerhT wercS no melborP eht evloS ot spetS 8.3

1. d retemaid ezis tseb eht etaluclaC =

2. etaluclaC t eh eulav fo hctip eulav ’P = 668.0 p – d 3. + Y = E retemaid evitceffe eht etaluclaC P’ 4. sD( = Y erehW - aiD = D + )mD m eriw eht rednu rete

yc retsam ro dradnats revo retemaiD = mD erehW il dn er sD = Di eguag wercs gulp revo retema

lyc retsam ro dradnatS = D d redni iameter

1. b eht etaluclac ,sdaerht lanretxe mm 2 x 61 M roF e iw ezis ts re dna seriw rednu ezis neewteb ecnereffid eht dna retemaid

maid evitceffe et re . rtem ’M‘ rof °06 = θ dna 2 = P daerht fo hctiP :atad neviG i c t rh ae d

� tseB ezis eriw retemaid d P q

ç ÷ 2 2 2 60

ç ÷ 2 2

d mm451.1 = � av hctiP l ’P eu

’P = 668.0 p-d = 668.0 x 2 – 451.1 775.0 = ’P mm

� aid evitceffE m rete E E = + Y P’ E – Y mm 775.0 =

69

sec P q ç ÷

2 2 æ ö è ø

b

.b

æ ö è ø

sec

b

b d = d = æ ö

è ø sec

b



.2 b fo retemaid etaluclaC e cS 5.2 x 02 M rof eriw fo ezis ts r .we o hctiP :atad neviG .°06 = e daerht cirtem rof mm 5.2 = P wercs f

etemaid eriw ezis tseb eht etaluclaC r d .

d = = = 3344.1 mm è ø è ø

.3 temaid evitceffe eht etaluclaC e r i :f

1. etemorciM r nidaer g evo r radnats d nilyc der w ti h two w eri s of maid ete .mm 46.51 r

2. etemorciM r nidaer g evo r ht e guag e tiw h tw o w eri s a s 2.51 6 p dna mm i .mm 5.2 daerht fo hct

3. a retemaid mm 2 fo eriW n .mm 81 rednilyc dradnats d D mm 46.51 = rednilyc dradnats revo retemaiD =

sD = Di eguag wercs gulp revo retema = mm 62.51 fo hctiP = P t rh e m 5.2 = da m

d mm 2 = eriw fo retemaiD = 81 = retemaid rednilyc dradnatS = D mm

� etaluclaC eht eriw retemaid d A s d ,d m 2 = m nevig

� eulav hctip eht etaluclaC P' 'P = P 668.0 - 5.2 x 668.0 = d - 2 = 561.0 mm

� ,eriw eht rednu retemaid fo eulav eht etaluclaC Y. Y = ( sD - 62.51( = D + )mD - 81 + )46.51 = 26.71 mm � etaluclaC eht eulav fo evitceffe retemaid .E

26.71 = 'P + Y + mm 587.71 = 561.0 4. oF r nirusaem g vitceffe e etemaid r of ht e th aer d ag uge of r M 10 x

5.1 ,sdaerht eriw fo retemaid 598.0 mm w ere used. ehT f nitaol g im c :erew sgnidaer retemor

1. mm 8 no gnidaeR s .mm 6234.2 = detnuom eriw htiw dradnat 2. gnidaeR no eht eguag htiw eriw detnuom = 8070.3 mm .

temaid evitceffe eht etaluclaC er. rht eht fo hctiP ae mm 5.1 = p d

retemaiD fo seriw d = mm598.0 fo retemaiD 8 = D rednilyc dradnats mm

retemaiD revo dradnats mD = 6234.2 mm sD eguag revo retemaiD = 8070.3

� etaluclaC eht eriw retemaid d d sA mm 598.0 = d =

� eulav hctip eht etaluclaC P .' 668.0 = ’P P - 5.1 x 668.0 = d - 404.0 = 598.0 mm

79

sec sec ç ÷ ç ÷

b

P q .2 5 60 2 2 2 2

æ ö æ ö b

m

b

b

b

b

b



� etaluclaC eht aid retem rednu eriw .Y = Y ( sD - 8070.3( = D + )mD - 8 + )6234.2 = 2836.8 mm � etaluclaC eht evitceffe retemaid .E

E = + Y P 404.0 + 2836.8 = ’ = mm 2240.9 id evitceffE ma rete = mm 2240.9

:srorrE 9.3 srorrE ni wercs sdaerht nac esira gnirud sti erutcafunam ro

garots e. sehT e rorre s am y be i n ht e ronim , rojam , ctip h emaid t re , aerht d rof m na d ht e aerht d nalf k elgna . hT e orre r in noyna e o f eht s e ac n uac s e

eht fo noitcejer t rh ae d . 1. rorrE s :sretemaiD roniM dna rojaM ni tluser lliw srorre esehT

ud e to refretni cne e eewteb n ht e nitam g aerht d na d s iart n in ht e nioj t na d ehw n rom e crof e is eriuqer d of r gnittif . If iht s orre r is

tneserp , i t liw l ael d t o ipar d aew r na d w ninekae g o f ht e s erc w t rh e .da

2. gnA le srorrE : nA y orre r in a gn le of t rh ae d user tl s in efretni cner e eewteb n lob t na d tun . It am y ehtie r be ud e to srorre

on no e o r tob h knalf s. sehT e rorre s saercni e ht e autriv l itceffe ve etemaid r of a lob t na d saerced e aht t of ht e tun . hT e vitceffe e retemaid fo na tcerrocni tlob tsum eb desaerced ot timrep a

roc na etam ot daerht gnitam tcer d lralimis y itceffe eht ve retemaid fo na tcerrocni un t tsum eb aercni s .de yehT dnet ot esuac a

gnirud ecnerefretni dna gninethgit evissergorp a .ylbmess 3. rorrE s in :hctiP hT e daerht s ra e etareneg d by a niop t nittuc g

t oo l. The itar o o f aenil r ticolev y of oot l na d alugna r ticolev y of eht krow tsum eb tcerroc dna siht oitar tsum eb tniam a eni d

tnatsnoc , siwrehto e ctip h rorre s liw l rucco . If reht e is s mo e orre r in hctip , eht n ht e atot l tgnel h of aerht d egagne d w li l be ehtie r t oo

ro llams t oo l gra e . : sa deifissalc rehtruf era yehT doireP )ii rorrE evissergorP )i ci E rorr

ralugerrI )vi rorrE neknurD )iii E rorr � vissergorP e rorrE : ihT s orre r is as ohs w n in ht e F rugi e

1.3 3 . ihT s orre r rucco s ehw n ht e oot l row k ticolev y itar o is tcerrocni , guoht h it am y be noc s tnat . It rucco s ud e to

esu fo na tcerrocni raeg no na etamixorppa raeg iart n neewteb krow dna dael .wercs A hparg neewteb ht e

hgiarts a si daerht fo htgnel eht dna rorre hctip evitalumuc t li .en

89



ugiF re 31.3 rP rorrE evissergo � idoireP c rorrE : tI rucco s ehw n ht e itar o teb w ee n ticolev y

of oot l na d row k ticolev y is on t noc s tnat . hT e rorre s ra e cilcyc na d eht ctip h sesaercni to a umixam m dna eht n

secuder hguorht lamron eulav ot a minim u .m tI si as nwohs ni eht erugiF .41.3 ehT hparg neewteb ht e alumuc t vi e ctip h orre r na d tgnel h o f daerht s of r iht s rorre ,

nis ekat lliw u .mrof ladios

P 41.3 erugiF re doi i c e rorr � eknurD n rorrE : It is alimis r to idoirep c hctip rorre , ub t

re rep ecno gnitaep ut ht fo nr e t rh ae .d

liw xileh ehT l a eb fo esac ni evruc

rht neknurd ae dna d l thgiarts a ton i .en

d yrev si tI i ff ci ult eted ot mr hcus eni

dna srorre t od yeh ton evah yna taerg tcapmi Fi ug r 51.3 e

99



o n ht e nikrow g elnu ss ht e aerht d is of rev y gral e ezis . It is sa nwohs ni erugiF .51.3

� alugerrI r :rorrE sehT e vah e n o ificeps c esuac s na d no ificeps c scitsiretcarahc . ehT y sira e orf m ecnabrutsid s in

ht e ninihcam g putes , noitairav s in ht e nittuc g eitreporp s fo eht .lairetam

wollof fo eb yam srorre esehT i gn t : sepy ergorP )iii hctip citarrE )ii rorre cidoireP )i s .rorre evis

)i cidoireP :rorrE tI srucco ta raluger ,lavretni ehw n eht gnola daerht ot daerht morf derusaem s .werc

)ii citarrE :hctiP tI si na ralugerri rorre ni hctip na d eirav s lralugerri y i n ingam dut e evo r nereffid t htgnel s fo

t rh e .da )iii evissergorP :rorrE ehT hctip fo eht s werc si on t

i naht regnol ro retrohs eb yam ti ,mrofinu t on s' 01.3 G :tnemerusaeM rae

tI si yrev tnatropmi ot yap noitnetta ot eht war lairetam , nirutcafunam g ssecorp , aeh t nemtaert t ecorp ss na d ht e s cafru e inif sh fo

hteet eht . hT e anoisnemid l carucca y cus h as caf e w htdi , esab , buh , tgnel h na d distuo e etemaid r luohs d be etcepsni d na d et s det . A aeg r toot h s dluoh

b e etset d t o rusne e aht t aeh t nemtaert t i s eporp r na d ht e ed si er d endrah ss ta eb dluohs ezis niarg dna ssenkciht etauqeda fo noisivorp ot eud iat ne .d

T eh i :sepyt gniwollof fo ylniam si raeg fo noitcepsn )a lanoitcnuF anA )b lyt laci

1. :lanoitcnuF ihT s pyt e o f oitcepsni n isnoc sts of niyrrac g uo t ht e ninnur g set t of eg ar w ti h a am s et r raeg . hT e isab c oprup se is ot

oitairav eht dna level esion ,noitarbiv etisopmoc eht enimreted n in oitca n. hT e aeg r t o be etset d na d ht e am s et r aeg r luohs d krow

ehtegot r at ht e engised d eeps d ednu r aol d w ti h til tle esion , eht y ra e sitas yrotcaf , i f ht e vird e i s sion y eht n ht e audividni l tnemele s

evah ot eb .derusaem 2. :lacitylanA ehT laudividni stnemele fo eht raeg hteet era

ekcehc d. tI stsisnoc fo gninimreted eht srorre derrucco ni eht eliforp , hctip , gnicaps , nur tuo , enkciht ss of t too h na d alkcab sh. It

si a wols dna emit gnimusnoc .ssecorp ehT rehto natropmi t era yeht ,detset eb yam srotcaf a ssendrah )i( :swollof s

irtnecnoc )iii( tnemerusaem fo ycarucca )ii( cit fo y t ee th

M drohC tnatsnoC 11.3 e :doht A natsnoc t rohc d is enifed d as, ht e drohc , ninioj g soht e tniop s, on

tisoppo e ecaf s o f ht e htoot , cihw h kam e catnoc t w ti h ht e nitam g hteet , ehw n ht e etnec r nil e o f ht e toot h eil s o n ht e nil e o f ht e aeg r retnec s. sA

001



ht e ebmun r of teet h eirav s i n ht e aeg r toot h einrev r epillaC r m ohte d ht e ulav e of toot h senkciht s naw d ht e tped d h ac n be degnahc . natsnoC t rohc d o a f aeg r is aem s deru , rehw e ht e toot h knalf s, cuot h ht e knalf s of

ht e isab c kcar . hT e teet h of ht e car k ra e s hgiart t na d enilcni d to ieht r ht ta senil retnec e erusserp lgna e sa s ni nwoh eht .erugiF 1.3 6 . aeg nehW r

etator s na d la l teet h moc e in catnoc t w ti h ht e car k eht n of r ht e evig n s zi e of catnoc eht ,htoot t yawla s ekat s calp e a t niop A t dna B . i.e . cnatsid e AS

sa dellac ecneh dna tnatsnoc sniamer c sno t .drohc tna

Fi ug r 61.3 e

101



eM tnegnaT esaB 11.3 t :doh It is ht e tsom ylnommoc us de dohtem of r gnikcehc eht toot h senkciht s of raeg . hT e gatnavda e o f iht s ohtem d is taht , i t dneped s lno y

no eno einrev r gnidaer ekilnu raeg htoot reinrev repillaC erehw we eriuqer wt o einrev r gnidaer s. ehT sab e tnegnat htgnel is ht e cnatsid e eewteb n ht e wt o ellarap l enalp s cihw h ra e itnegnat al t o ht e oppo s ni g

htoot .sknalf As nwohs ni erugiF 71.3 , PQ is eht ab se negnat t. T eh rebmun fo hteet revo hcihw eht tnemerusaem si ot eb edam rof a alucitrap r aeg r is etceles d orf m ht e aeg r nah d koob . hT e sab e negnat t

201



tgnel h lliw tsisnoc s fo eno sab e alucric r enkciht ss of toot h na d ebmun r fo esab .sehctip

gnel tnegnat esaB ht ralucric esab enO = ht i esab fo rebmuN + ssenkc p ti sehc

b eht yllaciteroehT a ,yb nevig si hctip es erusserp eht si φ erehw φsocmπ = hctip esaB a gn le

If S i s ht e ebmun r of toot h s ecap s eniatnoc d i n ht e sab e negnat t tgnel h b fo rebmun ,neht derusaem gnieb sehctip esa = φsocmπ x S

IH crA + HG crA = htgnel tnegnat esaB cmπ x S + HG crA = o φs

301



401



21.3 G :enihcaM gnitseT rae ’nosnikraP s aeG r retseT : opmoC s ti e et s nit g of raeg s tsisnoc s fo

nirusaem g ht e oitairav n in etnec r ecnatsid , ehw n a aeg r i s ellor d in hgit t hsem htiw a retsam .raeg nI etisopmoc raeg gnikcehc owt sepyt of

nikcehc g ra e edam , cus h as toot h t o toot h opmoc s ti e oitairav n na d atot l etisopmoc .noitairav ehT elpicnirp fo eht nosnikrap raeg retset si to

exif a no raeg dradnats a tnuom d acitrev l eldnips raeg eht dna ot et eb s et d no eht ehto r eldnips detnuom no a gnidils .egairrac esehT sraeg era

eniatniam d in sem h by s nirp g erp ss eru . As ht e raeg s ra e ator ,det ht e nemevom t of ht e nidils g gairrac e is acidni ted by a aid l rotacidni . sehT e snoitairav era a erusaem fo yna seitiralugerri ni ht e raeg rednu et st.

swohs 91.3 erugiF a aeg r retset , of r et s nit g s rup raeg s. hT e owt lerdnam s ac n be detsujda , so aht t ieht r aixa l id s cnat e is auqe l to ht e ed s engi d aeg r

etnec r ecnatsid . It is esu d to ceted t oop r toot h rof m uac sed by w ro n or in tarucca e nittuc g oot l na d ctip h lcric e tnecce r tici y ira s ni g orf m in tarucca e niretnec g oirp ,knalb raeg eht fo r to toot h nittuc g. ra sraeg ehT e etnuom d

no eht owt slerdnam , sa eht y ra c erf e t o etator . hT e hgir t erdnam l dils e is erf e to evom , ninnur g on eets l llab s, niaga st s nirp g serp s ru e na d ah s

etimil d tnemevom . hT e fel t ldnips e ac n be evom d nola g ht e lbat e na d na ni depmalc noitisop derised y . ehcatta si elacs ehT d ht ot e gairrac e na d

ot reinrev a the ot .reh

501



ehT laid rotacidni stcatnoc eht thgir dne fo gnidils egairrac dna it

i dn i .tset eht rednu raeg eht fo snoitairav laidar setac ikraP fo snoitatimil ehT g nosn ae era stset r

1. tnemerusaeM si yltcerid tnedneped nopu eht retsam raeg or fer e .raeg ecner

2. forp fo epyt lla rof ylraelc deifitnedi ton era srorrE li .se 3. nilloR g set t eod s on t aever l la l srorre , uaceb s e ht e cived e si

p evitalumuc ot evitisnes o is srorre noit . 4. o redro eht fo si ycarucca ehT f 100.0 mm . 5. rehT e is a ol w oitcirf n neserp t in ht e nemevom t of ht e nitaolf g

si tinu gnisnes eht fo ytivitisnes hgih a dna egairrac mi rop t na t . 6. hT e raeg s ra e detset , umixam m m003 m etemaid r na d uminim m

061 mm . niF ecafruS 31.3 i :hs

cafruS e sinif h is ht e som t natropmi t treporp y of na y udni s airt l tcudorp , as i t ebircsed s ti s cafrus e erutxet . cafruS e sinif h enimreted s ht e

snoitaived morf eht lanimon ecafrus debircsed yb na nireenigne g rd awi .gn ecafruS eneg detar yb suoirav gninihcam snoitarepo hcus as

gninrut , gnillim , gnipahs , ninnalp g na d gnidnirg , ohs w ekram d noitairav s ehw n erapmoc d tiw h cae h rehto . hT e nihcam e tnemele s or trap s iater n

ht e cafrus e eitiralugerri s fel t etfa r erutcafunam . ihT s oitairav n is egduj d by ht e erged e o f enhtooms ss . ihT s nik d of nemgduj t is esab d o n iv s au l

oitcepsni n ub t i t liaf s t o tnereffid i ta e eewteb n cafrus e ecudorp d b y s ma e ninihcam g oitarepo n ub t ednu r nereffid t nittuc g noitidnoc s. A isab s of

vitatitnauq e oitaulave n is eriuqer d in calp e o f tilauq a vit e tnemssessa . ehT cafrus e sinif h in titnauq a vit e mret , is a rusaem e of rcim o tiralugerri ies on

eht ecafrus dna desserpxe ni norcim s. ehT ecafrus seitiralugerri ra e llausu y ootsrednu d in mret s of cafrus e hsinif , cafrus e uor enhg ss , cafrus e erutxet ro ecafrus .ytilauq ehT secafrus fo ,stnenopmoc hcihw ra e

ooms ylhgih dehsinif era ,slasrever daol dna sesserts hgih ot detcejbus t .h enihcaM d ecafrus s ra e ecudorp d b y a oitanibmoc n of tw o noitom s s cu h

sa esrevsnart tnemevom fo ht e loot ro boj dna evitaler anidutignol l fo noitom t eh t oo l.

guoR ecafruS 41.3 hne ss ehT y ra e eires s o f lraluger y etaeper d noitaived s i n ht e rof m o f a

oitar a htiw ,evaw ctip fo h ot noitaived esehT .thgieh s era ,ecudorp ht yb e ecart fo na degde gnittuc ot lo dna citsalp wolf fo eht latem gnirud

ninihcam g. ehT y ra e nif e seitiralugerri in ht e s cafru e erutxet na d ra e demret sa ecafrus .ssenhguor oT ebircsed eht ecafrus ,ssenhguor ht e

hgieh t of ht e ralugerri i eit s is erusaem d in norcim s aerehw s ti s w tdi h is erusaem d ni mm . ecafrus eht fI i s oot hguor , ht e laitini , w ae r elcitrap s ra e

601



egral r cihw h tca s as arba s evi s na d aew r eunitnoc s at gih h etar . If ht e s yrev eb lliw raew laitini eht htooms oot si ecafrus l wo .

caf ehT t gnitceffa sro s ra ssenhguor ecafru :e � looc fo epyT a desu tn � hcus sretemarap gnittuC a tuc fo htped dna deeps ,deef s � T fo epy cam gninih � tidigiR y of eht metsys , nitsisnoc g o f nihcam e loot , erutxif ,

gnittuc loot dna krow � arbiV t snoi � fo epyT cam gninih � lairetaM fo loot dna krow ip ece .

hT e ecafrus senhguor s ah s eeb n ecneirepxe d na d ootsrednu d b y ht e s sne e fo thgil dna .hcuot ynA lairetam gnieb denihcam yb noitnevnoc a l

ninihcam g secorp s onnac t be ehsinif d yltcefrep . hT e cafrus e etareneg d eg eseht dna seitiralugerri emos evah lliw uoc seitiralugerri lacirtemo l eb d

dna swollof sa deifissalc s .02.3 erugiF eht ni nwoh 1. sriF t redrO : It edulcni s ht e eitiralugerri s epoleved d ud e to ht e

eicaruccani s i n ht e nihcam e oot l cus h as c1I k of s enthgiart ss of ug i aw ed y m si tsop loot hcihw no ,s .gnivo

2. noceS d redrO : It edulcni s lit e ralugerri i eit s epoleved d ud e ot hcam elit fo ytidigir dna snoitarbiv eht i en t oo l .s

cafruS 02.3 erugiF e ahC racte scitsir

3. rihT d redrO : It edulcni s eht seitiralugerri ud e t o ht e nittuc g sretemarap su hc a .tuc fo htped dna deef ,deeps gnittuc s

4. truoF h redrO : It edulcni s ht e eitiralugerri s epoleved d ud e to ht e rutpur e of ht e iretam a l nirud g ht e oitarapes n of ht e ihc p morf

dehsinif ydaerla eht s eht fo ecafru w p kro i .ece

ecafruS fo noitaulavE 1.41.3 R enhguo s :s



701



1. .L.C A xednI : hT e .L.C A edni x aR( ) naem s etneC r niL e A garev e edni x. T o taluclac e ht e ulav e o f aR , orf m a hparg , i t is ecen ss ra y

ot evah a naem .enil ehT naem enil nac eb nward gnola eht oitcerid n o f ht e cafrus e liforp e na d nidivid g ht e liforp e i n cus h a

ot lauqe yletamixorppa dluohs enil eht evoba aera eht taht yaw t eh era a ednu r ht e enil . ehT n lbatius e tgnel h L is s etcele d w cih h is

ellac d nilpmas g tgnel h of r ht e evig n ecafrus . ehT n gareva e hgieh t aH si detaluclac sa wollof

uS mmait on o f a ll are a oba ve na d belo w line ç ÷

aH =

snoc yb detaluclac eb nac xedni A.L.C eht nehT i red i latnoziroh gn trev dna i sa noitacifingam lac

= xedni A.L.C

V = lacitreV noitacifingam H = latnoziroH noitacifingam

a redisnoC s ollof gnivah ecafru eliforp ecafrus gniw åA æ ( A1 + A2 + A3) + ( B 1 + B2) ö

L è ø

Fi ug r 12.3 e 2. S.M.R egarevA : .MR S. egareva snaem tooR naem erauqs -

ebmun r. tI si eht lacirtemoeg egareva fo eht setanidro fo ht e eliforp tuoba eht naem .enil ehT naem enil ro c retne enil is detacol hcus taht eht mus fo eht saera evoba eht enil is

yletamixorppa lauqe ot mus of eht saera oleb w ht e .enil fI n tnemerusaem s ra e dam e orf m ht e aem n nil e voba e na d oleb w to

ht e tniop s o n ht e cafrus e eliforp , w cih h ra e etoned d b y Yi. ehT n

801

Sampling le gn th

åA

L

H a = ç ÷ æ ö

è ø

x100 0 m m H a V x H

eva ehT r aH thgieh ega = = ÷ L ç



MR eht .S . eulaV si eht evitisop erauqs toor fo eht citemhtira naem fo t tes eht ni seulav iY eht fo serauqs eh

yi 2

n

Fi ug r 22.3 e guoR ecafruS fo noitatneserpeR 2.41.3 h :ssen hT e frus a si ec

rper e erugiF eht ni nwohs sa detnes )a(32.3 . fI eht gninihcam dohtem si im mm3 si htgnel gnilpmas ,gnill . ot ralucidneprep si yal fo noitceriD t eh

eb lliw noitatneserper eht dna mm1 si ecnawolla gninihcam ,ecafrus sa nwohs ni erugiF 32.3 .)b(

Fi ug r 32.3 e

1.3 5 acinahceM l dohteM s isu ng S :sulyt T yeh era stnemurtsni epoleved d of r a aciremun l nemssessa t of ht e s cafru e erutxet . A ,sulyts

enif hguone ot wollof ht e ynit seitiralugerri fo eht ecafrus si lthgil y ht otno desserp e emiceps n na d is evom d nola g s uoenatlumi sly gnidrocer s

ra e eb ni g dam e of ti s acitrev l na d atnoziroh l id s emecalp nts. moS e of ht e tnemurtsni s tnemegnarra evah s gnidrocer rof ht e tnemevom s o f ht e s ulyt s

no a trahc ot niatbo a hparg gniwohs eht ruotnoc fo eht cafrus e ugerri l ira eit s. divorp ot redro nI a e utad m of r ht e pu na d od wn nemevom t

of ulyts s diks s ra e us de . acitreV l noitacifingam s vah e to be rev y gih h to drocer llams seulav fo eht redro fo ,snorcim tub eht atnoziroh l

noitacifingam s vah e t o be pek t ol w t o imil t ht e htgnel s o f ht e hparg . roferehT e ht e cafrus e rocer d i s eniatbo d a a s id s etrot d erutcip . hT e sulyts

esu d to ollof w ht e cafrus e tiralugerri y ac n be a hgil t maeb , a ej t o f ria , ro

901

å smr R =



a esnednoc r etalp , ub t som t llacipyt y a nomaid d nivah g a noc e na d a lacirehps pit fo 5000.0 ni ro 1000.0 ni si us de . sihT si esuaceb eht

nomaid d ac n be emrof d tni o ht e voba e oitarugifnoc n na d s at y aht t w ya ,ylmrofinu elihw ti si tluciffid ot enifnoc eht thgil ,maeb ria ,tej or

esnednoc r talp e t o a lams l guone h zis e to b e lba e t o ollof w ht e s cafru e ugerri l ira eit .s

1 . uS nosnilmoT r af ec :redroceR :elpicnirP hT e ulyts s nemevom t i s etcirtser d i n acitrev l oitcerid n lno y

tiw h ht e leh p of ioc l na d ael f gnirps . hT e noitairav i n ht e cafrus e is lg dekoms a no deifingam si dna eborp eht yb desnes a .ss

oitcurtsnoC n na d w ro k :gni rugiF e 2.3 4 wohs s rap t of ht e nilmoT son cafrus e redrocer . hT e ulyts s is ehcatta d o n ht e marf e b a y ioc l na d a ael f

nirps g . aid eht fo pit ehT m borp dno e ha hT .snorcim 2 tuoba fo suidar a s e evel thgil r dehcatta si ot citrev a la ednilyc r no eno lihw dne e no rehto na d

i t ah s a ekoms d /ssalg w cih h is etser d on ht e nomaid d on a ldeen e tniop . ehT eborp swollof eht ecafrus seitiralugerri dna eht nomaid/eldeen d

wollof s a eifingam d tap h b y ht e oitator n o f ht e acitrev l rednilyc . hT e oitacifingam n is in ht e tar io of ht e tgnel h of evel r to ht e etemaid r of ht e

lacitrev .rednilyc ehT drocer deniatbo no eht llams ssalg si ehtruf r deifingam yb lacitpo .noitcejorp

Fi ug r 42.3 e

011



vdA a gatn e :s 1. tI i .elpmis s 2. h tI a c wol s o .ts 3. r sevig tI le i .stluser elba vdasiD a gatn e :s

1. tI i led s i .erac taerg seriuqer dna etac 2. tI i ls s o .noitarepo ni w 3. seunitnoc dna dipar rof elbatius ton si tI u .roolf pohs eht no es

.2 ehT frusylaT :

:elpicnirP hT e oitairav n i n ht e cafrus e liforp e is s ne sed b y ht e eborp , hcihw si dehcatta ot eht erutamra . mra eht neewteb pag ehT ta eru a dn

E- epahs d ra m eirav s nidrocca g to ht e cafrus e eliforp na d ud e to iht s wolf tnerruc ca eht fo edutilpma i gn i n the lioc i detaludom s .

oitcurtsnoC n na d row k gni : rugiF e 2.3 5 wohs s ht e uoirav s tinu s of ht e frusylaT , cihw h etarepo s o n acirtcele l elpicnirp s. hT e nirusaem g aeh d is

tif t eht dna eborp eht htiw de s fo noitom ehT .dik t eh em h gnirusa e si da evig n by a G ae r xoB , cihw h ah s a rotom . ihT s inu t ac n be evom d u p dna

evo nwod r eht diug e syaw yb a nah d eehw l edivorp d at ht e ot p na d a ael d ercs w. hT e nomaid d borp e ah s a uidar s o f uoba t 2 µ m na d ht e obraeg x

ac n vig e a am x evart l o f 12 mm to ti . hT e row k ceip e is etnuom d o n a ,dnats hcihw si detnuom no a .elbat

Fi ug re 52.3 hT e gnigareva retem na d a nep redrocer si dedivorp of r gniniatbo a

lacihparg drocer no a suounitnoc hparg .repap ehT mra gniyrrac eht rof sulyts m fo eceipretnec eht no detovip si hcihw ,erutamra na s

E- epahs d ra m a s wohs n in F rugi e 62.3 . On wt o gel s o f E- epahs d ra m a ereht r C.A na gniyrrac slioc e . .tnerruc

111



Fi ug r 62.3 e sehT e owt lioc s tiw h ehto r wt o er sis ecnat s rof m an os otallic r as s oh w n in

erugiF .72.3 sA eht erutamra si detovip tuoba eht retnec ,gel na y nemevom t o f ht e ts uly s esuac s ht e ia r ag p t o rav y na d uht s ht e utilpma de

of ht e anigiro l AC nerruc t olf w ni g in ht e lioc s i s detaludom . hT e uptuo t gdirb eht fo e t .ylno noitaludom fo stsisnoc suh

Fi ug r 72.3 e sihT si rehtruf detaludomed os taht eht tnerruc won is ltcerid y

lanoitroporp ot eht lacitrev tnemecalpsid fo eht sulyts ylno dna iht s tuptuo i nep fo pleh eht htiw dedrocer neht s r .redroce

merusaeM ssendnuoR dna ssentalF ,ssenthgiartS 61.3 e :stn

I t is rassecen y aht t ht e gnitam trap s if t ehtegot r as dnetni ,de ehtehw r ht e trap s ra e dam e by nereffid t rep s no s or ht e mas e rep s no . oT

211



veihca e siht , tarucca e nemerusaem t is rev y atropmi nt, w cih h i s sla o a nidiced g otcaf r a s t o ehtehw r a alucitrap r nenopmoc t i s lbatpecca e or

tcejer .elba tnemerusaeM syalp na tnatropmi elor ni cifitneics na d lacigolonhcet .tnemecnavda esehT stnemurtsni era osla tnatropmi ot

uoyal t ht e cafrus e t o be denihcam , t o sujda t loot s na d to gila n enihcam s rof e ff e tc i ev udorp itc .no To bo iat n d mi sne i no al a dn ecafrus

stnemerusaem , saem niru g sni t ur m ne ts a er su e .d In nireenigne g snoitacilppa eno netfo semoc ssorca eht melborp fo tnemerusaem of lacirtemoeg sretemarap hcus sa ,ssentalf ,ssenerauqs tnemngila na d .ssenthgiarts

.61.3 1 ssenthgiartS : naM y emit s in ht e oitcudorp n secorp s, ht e ecafrus sum t be ltcefrep y thgiarts . A nil e is ias d to be s hgiart t evo r a evig n

htgnel , i f 'ti s noitaived s htiw cepser t to ht e aedi l cnerefer e nil e ra e w ihti n hs sa stimil ecnarelot deificeps eht o .82.3 erugiF ni nw

Fi ug r 82.3 e hT e som t neinevnoc t ohtem d of et s nit g s cafru e of na y tgnel h to a gih h

yb si ycarucca u sni gniwollof gnis t nemur t :s .1 rtS ia thg e egd .2 p ecafruS tal e .3 level tiripS 4 . otuA rotamilloc .5 maeB rotarapmoc dohtem

.1.61.3 1 tS rai thg gdE e: T eh is mpl tse ohtem d of hgiarts tne ss

aem nemerus t is by a irapmoc son w ti h hgiarts t egde . hgiartS t gde e is a gnirusaem loot hcihw stsisnoc fo niht talf htgnel fo s .leet yehT era

sa sezis dna sepahs suoirav s .92.3 erugiF ni nwoh

woB( egdE thgiartS )a( 92.3 erugiF S )depah

311



hT e giarts ht gde e ac n b e esu d of r ht e nemerusaem t of htgnel s orf m 05 0 mm t o 002 0 mm . nidroccA g t o IS 022 0 two edarg s o f s hgiart t

egde s ra e dednemmocer . darG e A na d darG e B. darG e A' ' is esu d rof oitcepsni n na d timrep s orre r of (2 + 1 0 L ) norcim s mixam um, w aereh s

darg e B' ' is esu d of r areneg l ohskrow p soprup e na d timrep s a umixam m ' erehw )L 02 + 5( fo rorre L gde thgiarts fo htgnel latot eht si ' e.

thgiartS ralugnairT )b( 92.3 erugiF E egd Fi ug r ( 92.3 e c) oF r nikcehc g ht e ssenthgiarts , ht e hgiarts t gde e is p ecal d evo r ht e

cafrus e. ehT n ht e cafrus e na d hgiarts t gde e ra e s ee n niaga s t ht e thgil . If ht hguorht gnissap thgil on eb lliw ereht neht thgiarts yltcefrep si ecafrus e

pag as wohs n ni F rugi e )d(92.3 . If etihw thgil is erp s ne t dniheb ht e hgiarts t gde e t eh a n ag p of 00.0 2 t o 200.0 5 mm ac n b e lraelc y s nee . If

ulb e hgil t i s lbisiv e eht n a ag p is erp s ne t of tdiw h 000.0 4 to 000.0 5 mm . rp si pag a neht elbisiv si thgil der fI e m 7100.0 ot 1100.0 htdiw fo tnes m.

ugiF r )d( 92.3 e .1.61.3 2 gdeW e eM doht : In iht s dohtem , ht e hgiarts t gde e to be et s et d is

etroppus d on wt o auqenu l elip s o f ils p eguag s s o aht t w gde e i s etaerc d neewteb eht thgiarts egde dna ecafrus .etalp

411



Fi ug r 03.3 e As wohs n i n rugiF e 3.3 0 ht e id s cnat e teb w ee n tw o s nitroppu g

dne s e.i . ils p eguag s is t o be tniam a eni d as 45.0 4 t, rehw e t is ht e tgnel h o f hgiarts t egde . I n iht s dohtem , ils p eguag s of h} na d h 2 thgieh s ra e

ecalp d at ht e ne d of hgiarts t gde e evo r ht e cafrus e talp e cihw h is t o be erusaem d. ehT n vid di e ht e cnatsid e eewteb n two eguag s tni o mos e auqe l

ap tr .3,2,1 ,0 sa kram dna s

Fi ug r 13.3 e A s wohs n i n rugiF e 3.3 1 ht e id s cnat e teb w ee n tw o mertxe e s il p

eguag s is edivid d tni o 5 auqe l trap s orf m 0 to 5 . hT e cnereffid e neewteb g pils emertxe h si segua – h 1.6 = - .0 fo thgieh ,eroferehT .mm 1.0 = 6 1

mm is eniatbo d in 5 pets s as 6, 20.6 , 40.6 , 60.6 , 80.6 , .6 1 mm in thgieh . seguag pils woN ht fo e voba e thgieh s ra e etresni d ht ni e thgiarts egde dna

cafrus e etalp . If ils p guag e colb k tif s axe ltc y i n ht e ag p eht n ht e ecafrus aht ta ssenthgiarts tcaxe sah etalp t sop iti .no

511

2 1



I f reht e is an rorre , eht n s il p guag e w li l on t if t o r a ag p w li l iamer n eewteb n hgiarts t gde e na d ils p guag e as ohs wn in F rugi e 3.3 1 )a( .

If reht e is a ag p teb w ee n s il p guag e na d s hgiart t gde e or if ils p guag e is on t lba e to sap s in teb w ee n s hgiart t gde e na d s cafru e etalp , eht n ht e

ecafrus si ton thgiarts ta taht .noitisop

611



dohteM rotamilloC otuA / leveL tirpS 3.1.61.3 ehT : s ua ro level tirp t o s era hcihw senil ecnerefer esu rotamilloc t ar i hg t.

a ) nisU g irpS t leveL : hT e senthgiarts s of a s cafru e ac n be edivid d tni o auqe l trap s of ht e tgnel h of r ht e italer ve alugna r op s noiti . hT e tgnel h of hcae noitces gnieb lauqe ot ht e el htgn fo tirips level kcolb or nalp e

'rotcelfer s sab e in sac e o f otua - milloc a rot , as s oh wn in F rugi e .23.3 F or m ht e rugiF e 3.3 2 ht e oitces n of cafrus e AB = I, rehw e I is sla o auqe l t o ht e

tgnel h o f irips t evel l colb k o r tgnel h eewteb n gel s o f nalp e celfer rot . In sac e of irips t level , ht e colb k i s evom d nola g ht e oitces n of ht e s cafru e dna snoitairav era derusaem yb eht tirips .level

artS 23.3 erugiF i hg tne ss eT rotcelfeR enalP gnisU gnits b) nisU g A otu - rotamilloC : ihT s is a n acitpo l ni tnemurts , cihw h i s esu d of r nirusaem g ht e lams l alugna r noitaived . It evig s tarucca e er s lu t of r ht e

llams ralugna .secnereffid lpicnirP e o f nikrow g o f aut o rotamilloc : otuA - otamilloc r is a pocselet e

desu rof gnitamilloc rehto .stnemurtsni gnitamilloC el sn si desu to revnoc t ht e hgil t yar s tni o a ellarap l aeb m of hgil t as wohs n i n rugiF e

33.3 , A i a s tniop cruos e o f hgil t decalp ta ht e elpicnirp ucof s o f a gnitamilloc .snel ehT syar fo thgil morf A nehw tnedicni no ht e

nitamilloc g nel s levart s ellarap l to ht e ixa s of nel s . hT e yar s of hgil t orf m A ehw n nedicni t on ht e milloc a nit g nel s levart s ellarap l t o ht e ixa s of l sne . etfA r nikirts g ht e rotcelfer , ht e yar s ra e celfer ted cab k nola g ht e

op ecruos ta etartnecnoc niaga dna htap emas i tn A.

711



Fi ug r 33.3 e fI eht otcelfer r etlit si d na ot lgna e sa θ ,43.3 erugiF ni nwohs eht n

ht e etcelfer d ar y orf m i t w li l rtnecnoc at e at s mo e ehto r niop t A' na d ht e yar s liw l be etcelfed d guorht h an lgna e 2 θ. If ht e cnereffid e teb w ee n A

na d A' is h. ehW n ht e otcelfer r i s thgiarts , ht e tap h elevart d b y ht e ar y is OA B AO . ehW n ht e otcelfer r is etlit d by an lgna e θ eht n ht e tap h elevart d

yar eht yb i A s ', OBOA A, ’ htiw na elgna 2 .θ I n sac e o f otuA - otamilloC r ht e cived e i s ecalp d at a id s cnat e o f 05 0 ot

t eb ot ecafrus eht morf mm 007 e rof dets the .ssenthgiarts

811

1



ehT ellarap l aeb m morf ht e otuA - otamilloC r is etcejorp d nola g ht e tgnel h o f ecafrus . A nalp e otcelfer r is ecalp d at ht e 1sl s oitce n of s cafru e e.i( . at

oitisop n BA ) as s oh w n in rugiF e 53.3 . hT e otcelfer r an d ht e tnemurtsni s ra e es t cus h aht t ht e gami e of ssorc -w ri e w li l aeppa r eraen r to ht e etnec r

o f ht e dleif . oF r ht e telpmoc e nemevom t of otcelfer r nola g ht e cafrus e nil e ht e gami e o f ssorc - eriw s liw l aeppa r i n ht e leif d of eceipeye . hT e

rotcelfer si ht ne devom ot eht txen noitces CB s hcu taht CB = I = oc fo sgel neewteb ecnatsid ill am t ro . otcelfer fo tlit ehT r a ,nwod deton si s

sir e or laf l in ht e avretni l of tgnel h I orf m ht e eceipeye . hT e oitairav n in t .sdnoces ni yllausu llams yrev si elgna eh

As 1 es c of ra c = 6 x 01 -6 mm/mm . siR e or laf l in ht e avretni l htgnel l = 1 se c fo ra c x l mm = 6 x 01 -6 x l mm . suhT eht otcelfer r sab e is

evom d t o A - B B , - C, C - 0 na d s o on op s noiti s na d gnidaer s ra e deton . teL =1 01 0 m na d reht e ra e 5 noitisop s rehw e ht e otcelfer r is devom

levisseccus y hs sa deton era sgnidaer ehT . o eht ni nw aT bl .e 1 nmuloC - .5 ot 0 rotcelfer fo noitisop eht setacidni tI 2 nmuloC - idni tI c uA yb derusaem elgna eht ni noitairav eht seta to-

ni rotamilloC s .sdnoce 3 nmuloC - tI idni c eht dna gnidaer ls1 neewteb ecnereffid eht seta

911



gnidaer yb .rotamillocotua g.e . 1 ts gnidaer = 02 ces roF 2 dn 22 = gnidaer - .ces 2 = 02

021



121



3 F 2.61. l nta e :ss

talF ecafrus si a lacirtemoeg enalp ni hcihw sriap fo tniop s etceles d a t odnar m ra e etcennoc d b y hgiarts t enil s cihw h ra e leritne y

eniatnoc d in ht e mas e cafrus e na d enalp . oF r nitset g a sentalf s of ecafrus , a cafrus e ac n be eredisnoc d t o be emrof d by gral e ebmun r of enil s na d ht e cafrus e ac n be ellac d as lurt y alf t if la l eht s e enil s ra e hgiarts t na d il e

i n t .enalp emas eh ehT noitairav fo a ecafrus morf eht eurt enalp nac eb enimreted d by nisu g ehtie r s irip t evel l o r an locotua l mi a rot , s alimi r to

ssenthgiarts tnemerusaem .

if rof erudecorP n gnid t :ecafrus a fo ssentalf eh 1. As enialpxe d reilrae , ht e senthgiarts s et st ac n be eirrac d uo t on

la l ht e enil s PR, VP , XV , XR , SU cte . na d la l ht e tluser s ra e detalubat pu ot 5 loc snmu gnisu otua - rotamilloc sa( ialpxe n

)1 elbat eht morf reilrae . 2. edisnoC r an rartibra y nalp e VXR . hT e hgieh t of la l ehto r tniop s

enalp eht ot tcepser htiw denimreted eb nac R VX . 3. roF siht , srif t ht e dne s o f enil s RX , XV na d V R ra e etcerroc d ot

z ore e.i . op fo thgieh eht int orez ot tes era X dna 1 }R s .

221



4. enalp eht ot ecnerefer htiw detcerroc si T tniop ehT R YX . 5. ehT n hgieh t of la l ht e tniop s on nil e XP is imreted ne d w hti

X tniop ot tcepser . 6. sA T is ht e dim - niop t of XP na d VR , eht n op ni t T o n X P is

enil no T tniop dim eht htiw sedicnioc ti taht hcus detcerroc RV . 7. nehT lla eht stniop no PX era detcerroc gnidrocca ot eht

mi T tniopd . 8. oN w niop t P is exif d vitaler e to nalp e R VX na d ht e tniop s R na d

V era tes ot orez . 9. lA l ht e p tnio s eewteb n PR na d PV ac n be etcerroc d lreporp y

na d lralimis y tniop s S na d U , niop t Q na d W ra e etcerroc d dna im d tniop enil fo na US d WQ era etcerroc d hcus edicnioc ti taht s

op dim eht htiw i tn T. 01 . In iht s aw y la l ht e tniop s ra e etcerroc d tiw h efer cner e to na

enalp yrotartibra R .VX f fo noitulos lacihparG l :ssenta

1. etfA r ht e etcennoc d eulav s o f la l ht e tniop s ra e luclac a det , eht op ints nivah g umixam m po evitis na d m xa mi mu agen ti ev

etcerroc d ulav e ra e nuof d tuo . I n siht sac e el t N na d M be ht e op ints nivah g umixam m po evitis na d m xa mi mu agen ti ev

cepser eulav detcerroc it ev l .y 2. A enil A - A i N dna M stniop eseht hguorht gnissap nward s . 3. A dnoces enil B-B si nward lellarap ot enil A-A w cih h

XVR enalp ecnerefer eht stneserper . 4. nikaT g atius a lb e ht elacs e hgieh t o f la l ht e tniop s is ettolp d w hti

tcepser ot eht enil B-B .e.i( ecnerefer enalp )XVR no eht evitcepser snoitcejorp fo eht stniop .

5. A iap r of ellarap l enil s C-C na d D-D is ard wn cus h aht t eht y deifsitas gniwollof owt gninoitidnoc .ylsuoenatlumis

� niop eht lla niatnoc yehT t dna s � hT e d muminim evah y ist .meht neewteb ecna

6. hT e cnatsid e eewteb n seht e wt o ellarap l enil s evig s ht e ulav e of lf ni rorre ta .ecafrus eht fo ssen

321



oR 3.61.3 u ndn e ss a C dn i ucr :ytiral rehT e ra e uoirav s nosaer s , ehw n ninihcam g trap s ac n b e uo t of

ndnuor e ss . sehT e ra e nipmalc g noitrotsid , cneserp e o f rid t na d pihc s on nipmalc g secafrus , aeh t na d oitarbiv n cte . sendnuoR s ac n b e enifed d a s a

noitidnoc of a cafrus e of noitulover , kil e ednilyc r o r enoc , w reh e la l tniop s fo eht cafrus e etcesretni d b y na y nalp e ucidneprep la r t o a ommoc n

ixa s. ssendnuoR sesserpxe a ralucitrap cirtemoeg mrof fo a ydob of oitulover n i n la l erht e noisnemid , eht alucric r uotnoc r i s ht e tsiretcarahc ic

f mro fo eht eritne yrehpirep fo a enalp erugiF .73.3 roF nirusaem g sendnuor s ht e tiralucric y of ht e uotnoc r is to be imreted ned eporpmI r sendnuor s fo enihcam d trap s luoc d be ud e to oop r gniraeb s i n ht e s ldnip e

or ud e t o ht e celfed t noi s o f ht e w ro k ceip e as ht e oot l i s hguorb t t o aeb r on ti . uD e t o oop r nemngila t o f ht e etnec r o r oitcelfed n of ht e tfahs , ht e

tfahs dnuorg neewteb sretnec nac eb tuo fo .dnuor :ytiralucriC

tiralucriC y is lno y in no e enalp , aerehw s endnuor ss eve n edulcni s erht e s snoisnemid ab fo sllab ni sa hcu l raeb l i .sgn

ndnuoR e :ss sendnuoR s is a oitidnoc n o f cafrus e of oitulover n s cu h as rednilyc , noc e

ro erehps erehw lla stniop no ecafrus detcesretni yb yna nalp e alucidneprep r to ommoc n ixa s or nissap g guorht h a ommoc n etnec r ra e

iuqe tnatsid morf eht sixa . elc eb dluohs ssendnuor fo ecnatropmi ehT a ,r i f we edisnoc r ht e tceffe s o f rorre s i n ti . cuS h rorre s i n tnenopmoc s nittif g

421



ehtegot r tiw a h ninnur g if t am y suac e wodkaerb n of nacirbul t mlif . serP s ettif d trap s am y spalloc e dnu er gih h daol . elaeS d tif s am y rats t gnikael . traP s etcepxe d to if t tiw h oitacol n tif s am y on t sa s lbme e ud e t o gnibbol .

caL k o f sendnuor s in ub s h gniraeb s am y er s lu t in to w nilbbo g o f eht tfahs s. elloR r na d lab l gniraeb s sool e cneiciffe y na d kam e ion se due to

srorre ssendnuor .

hT e rorre s o f alucric r ti y at a sorc s oitces n ac n be o f niwollof g epyt s : )i( ficeps on fo seitiralugerri )iii( gnibbol )ii( ytilavo i rof c m.

avO l :yti sihT rorre srucco nehw ereht si a ecnereffid teb w nee ht e di retema .s

retemaid mumixaM = rorrE - sixa rojaM= retemaid muminiM -Mi xa ron is bboL i :gn nI siht ,esac eht retemaid derusaem ta yna owt op s oiti n

niamer s tnatsnoc . aS y D ub t lits l it is on t ltcaxe y auqe l to ht e lanigiro .D retemaid

eitiralugerrI s fo s ificep c mrof ; oitairav eht ,esac siht nI n ni ht e etemaid r ri ot eud srucco r .eliforp ecafrus raluge

521

1



oR u :hparG raloP yb tnemerusaeM ssendn In iht s ohtem d ht e aid l otacidni r i s ecalp d voba e ht e row k eceip ,

sa nwohs ni F .gi ,04.3 ehT krow eceip esohw ssendnuor si ot eb erusaem d is edivid d tni o 12 auqe l trap s. hT e row k ceip e is eht n leh d in

ht e V- kcolb . hT e row k ceip e is pek t in s cu a h aw y aht t ht e aid l otacidni r ehcuot s ht e row k ceip e at oitisop n 1. hT e row k ceip e is eht n etator d to

sop oiti n 2 to oitisop n 12 levisseccus y na d ht e oitairav n in ht e s cafru e liforp e i s eton d by ht e aid l rotacidni . hT e rudecorp e i s etaeper d aelta st

eerht semit ot teg eht rehgih ycarucca dna eht egareva eulav fo ht e nidaer g is nekat . ehT n lcric a e o f etemaid r auqe l t 4 o emit s ht e umixam m

ulav e of ht e nidaer g is ward n na d eht n ht e lcric e is iaga n edivid d tni o 21 lauqe .strap

621



disnI e ht e lcric e a lams l irtnecnoc c lcric e of lbatius e emaid te r ( say 5.0 ard si )retemaid eceip krow fo semit .14.3 erugiF ni nwohs sa nw

hT e eulav s of gnidaer s at uoirav s oitisop n ra e ettolp d teb w ee n as s lam l irtnecnoc c lcric e na d umixam m etemaid r elcric . hT e tniop s a t uoirav s

noitisop s ra e enioj d b y hgiarts t enil s t o eg t ht e autca l liforp e o f ht e w ro k ceip e. ehT rorre si neht deniatbo yb gnirusaem eht laidar id s cnat e

bircsni mumixam dna elcric gnibircsmucric muminim neewteb i c gn i cr l .e Erro r measured fro t m h e pola r gr pa h

r eht no sdneped eulav esohw tnatsnoc eht si r erehW s row dna epah k

eceip dna elgna fo .skcolb

mutaD cisnirtnI 2.3.61.3 S tsy e :m sehT e dohtem s ra e rev y lpmis e ub t eht y d o on t vig e ht e caxe t

gami e of ht e row k eceip . In seht e sdohtem , ht e cnerefer e i s ht e niop t on ht e row k ceip e lesti f cneh( e ht e man e cisnirtni ) na d la l ht e rav noitai s in

sgnidaer era nekat htiw tcepser ot taht .tniop esehT sdohtem od ton eriuqer e rof gniloot evisnepx the endnuor rof desu dna stset s .gnitset s

721

rorrE =



aD cisnirtxE 3.3.61.3 t tsyS mu e :m hT e tub tluciffid ylthgils era sdohtem es hi hg l sdohtem etarucca y .

fo egami eurt eht evig yehT the p krow i .ece nI eseht ,sdohtem eht kcehc fo rebmem a si ecnerefer i sni gn t nemur t em esehT .s t sdoh a er

sys gnidrocer dna noitacifingam eht eriuqer yeht sa evisnepxe t dna me gnitset ssendnuor rof desu w ycarucca hgih ereh i en s ede .d

821

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