WWF Initiatives to Study the Impact of Climate Change on ...lib.icimod.org/record/14576/files/5841.pdfWWF Initiatives to Study the Impact of Climate Change on Himalayan High-altitude

WWF Initiatives to Study the Impact ofClimate Change on Himalayan High-altitude Wetlands (HAWs)

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Editor’s note: As a response to the reality ofthe impacts of climate change both onecosystems and local people in the broaderHimalayan region, the World Wide Fundfor Nature (WWF) and two technicalpartners, UNESCO–IHE Institute forWater Education and San Diego StateUniversity (SDSU), undertook scientificstudies focusing on high-altitude wetlands.Around 200 papers were consulted byexperts to write the review upon which thepresent article is based. A detailed report ofthe review is currently being produced; thisarticle summarizes the key findings andrecommendations.

Introduction: water, wetlands

and the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

Water towers is frequently used as asymbolic term for a mountain areathat supplies disproportional runoffby comparison with the adjacentlowland catchment. Headwaters isanother often-used term that actuallyrefers to the source of the water, iethe place from which the water in theriver or stream originates. Theheadwater areas of rivers are crucialsource areas for water supplies andensure sustainable development notonly in mountain regions but also indownstream, water-limited lowlands.

The Himalayan region, includingthe Tibetan plateau, fulfills bothroles and is thus significant in thisregion. Table 1 shows that themountainous area of the Himalayaplays an essential role in providingwater to downstream catchments.The Qinghai–Tibetan plateau is themost important source of water forChinese rivers, being one of thewettest areas with the highest watergeneration in China.

Research has shown that watertowers are more sensitive to climatechange than other regions. Climatechange is a main factor affecting theeco-environmental changes inheadwater regions. Expected changesare related to the volume and timingof runoff, which affect the dischargeof rivers. Among others, the regionsaffected include parts ofnorthwestern India and areas southof the Hindu Kush. Air temperaturesin the headwaters of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau have beencontinuously rising since 1954.Glacier retreat is significant and itsimplications for water resources

could be serious because theseglaciers feed the headwaters of theIndus, Ganges, and Brahmaputrarivers, which sustain one of theworld’s most populous regions.

High-altitude wetlands (HAWs)

Many wetlands are located inheadwaters. They are considered tobe of international importancebecause they provide water for manytransboundary rivers. The total areaof freshwater wetlands on theQinghai–Tibetan plateau has beenreported to be around 13.3 3

1010 m2, excluding small patches ofwetlands (Figure 1). The sources ofthe Yangtze River host the largestclusters of wetlands—3.29 3 1010 m2

in area—while the Qilian Mountainscontain the second largest group ofwetlands in the source of the ‘‘FiveRivers’’—1.5 3 1010 m2 in area. Theareas of wetlands on the Zoig PeatPlateau and surrounding mountains,the sources of the Yellow River, andthe sources of the Upper YaluzangbuRiver, are 1.26 3 1010, 0.63 3 1010and 0.13 3 1010 m2, respectively.

Due to the vast area that headwaterwetlands occupy, they are of greatenvironmental, ecological andsocioeconomic importance; indeed,they provide crucial ecosystem goodsand services. Wetland users areprimarily poor communities or ethnicminority groups whose livelihoodsgreatly depend on wetland ecosystemgoods and services. These need to bemanaged wisely, sustainably andjudiciously.

There is no exact definition ofhigh-altitude wetlands (HAWs) inavailable scientific literature. Thefollowing working definition isgenerally used:

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Mountain Research and Development Vol 30 No 1 Feb 2010: 42–52 http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-09-00091.1 � 2010 by the authors42

High-altitude wetland (HAW) is a

generic term used to describe areas

of swamp, marsh, meadow, fen,

peatland or water located at an

altitude above 3000 m, whether

natural or artificial, permanent or

temporary, with water that is static or

flowing, fresh, brackish, or saline. In

general, HAWs are areas located at

altitudes between the continuous

natural forest border and the

permanent snowline.

The main characteristic of HAWsis the existence of a permafrost(seasonal or diurnal) layer and a coldclimate. Due to the low airtemperature and increased radiation,the vegetation cover is usually simplein terms of its composition—predominantly grassland and

shrubs—of which many speciesrepresent endemics and rarities forthe region.

Environmental factors

The Himalayas and the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau are influenced bythe East and Southwest AsianMonsoon during the summer andthe Westerly during the winter.HAWs in the Himalayas and on theQinghai–Tibetan Plateau arecharacterized by the followingenvironmental factors:

N Cold, dry alpine climate;N Freezing period extending fromSeptember to April;

N Extreme temperature variationwithin 24 hours;

N Annual mean temperature from25 to 22uC, with little seasonalvariation and without an abso-lutely frost-free season, which re-sults in the formation of anextensive permafrost layer;

N Strong sun radiation;N Mean annual precipitation from300–600 mm, falling mainly assnow or heavy rain;

N More than 80% of all annualprecipitation during the growing(warm) season;

N A relatively arid cold season cli-mate;

N Evaporation varying between 1200and 1500 mm; and

N Relative humidity varying between50 and 60%.

The natural environment in theregion is very harsh; therefore, theecosystems that developed andadapted there are fragile.Precipitation and air temperatureare the two most important abioticfactors in HAW ecosystems. Thepresence of a permafrost layer plays avery important role in the growthand development of high-coldvegetation because it provides waterfor plants at the beginning of thegrowing season, when precipitation isstill low. It also plays an importantrole in the water retention capacityof the soil.

Seasonal snow accumulation isthe important freshwater resourcein the dry areas in northwesternChina: the average amount of snowaccumulation (water equivalent) inwinter is up to 3.61 3 1010m3. The

FIGURE 1 High-altitude wetlands(HAWs): distribution worldwide asreported in the scientific literature. Thecircled areas mark regions where HAWshave been reported. (Map courtesyof UNESCO–IHE)

TABLE 1 Role of the Himalayas in water yield for downstream catchments (Sources: Biggs and Beland 2009; Jacimovic et al 2009).

Region Type of water tower Description

Southwest Himalayas (Indus

River)

Essential Most of the discharge in the respective lowland basinsoriginates from the mountains, which are therefore amajor priority for conservation.

Central and northwest

Himalayas

Occasional Mountains may be essential for downstream dischargeon the regional scale.

Eastern Himalayas (Chang

Jiang/Yangtze River)

Supportive Mountains contribute a high proportion of downstreamdischarge and provide a major potential for hydropower.

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abundant light and relatively humidclimate during the growing seasonlead to high productivity and anincrease in organic carbon in thesoil. Therefore, wetlands in thisregion are considered as carbonsinks.

The role of high-altitude

wetlands (HAWs)

High-altitude wetlands play key rolesin the hydrology and ecology ofseveral major rivers in Asia. Wetlandsfunction as simple reservoirs oraquifers, storing water during wetperiods and releasing it throughoutdrier periods, either through runoff,subsurface drainage, or

evapotranspiration. Since climatecontrols many ecosystem attributesand functions, changes intemperature and precipitation infuture will alter the hydrologicalprocesses of wetlands withpotentially significant consequencesfor downstream water resources.

In addition to their hydrologicalfunction, wetlands are of cultural andecological importance. Himalayanhigh-altitude wetlands regulatemicroclimates and have immenselivelihood, cultural, and spiritualsignificance for local communities(Box 1; Figure 2). All the major riversin Southeast Asia—the Ganga (orGanges), Indus, Brahmaputra,Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong, Amu

Darya, Hilmand, Yangtze, and Yellowrivers—originate in high-altitudelakes and wetlands in the Himalayasand the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau. Yetdespite their importance, high-altitude wetlands and the catchmentsdraining into them are underincreasing threat from anthropo-genic climate change, land use,upstream flow modification, andunsustainable exploitation; and thereis a risk that these threats could lead tonegative knock-on effects along theriver systems that they supply.

WWF studies

In order to protect high-altitudewetland ecosystems that benefit

TABLE 2 Effect of climate change on different land types, land cover, and water bodies (Sources: Qian et al 2006; Wang et al 2006; Wang G et al 2008; Wang H et al2008; Wang et al 2009).

Authors

(timeframe)

Mean

permafrost

temperature

increase

(uC/10 yrs)

Area decrease (km2) Depth lost (m) Thickness lost (m)

Lakes Glacier

Permanent

snow Wetland

Swamp-

land Rivers Lakes Glaciers

Permanent

snow

Wang

et al 2006

(1986–2000)

0.2 35.99 107.78 167.38 – 43% 0.3 0.8 3.0 3.0

13.5% turned into barerock (1986 to 2000)

Wang G

et al 2008

(1986–2000)

0.2 – – – – – – – – –

Wang H

et al 2008

(last 40 yrs)

– 0.54%(1970–1980s)

– – 70.4% 75.0% – – – –

9.25%(1980–1990s)

1980–2004

1980–2004

Wang

et al 2009

(last 30 yrs)

– – – – 24% – – – – –

Qian

et al 2006

(1986–2000)

– 7.5% atYangtze

River source

17.24% atYellowRiver

source

– 5.15% inlast

15 years

24.36%in last

15 years

– – – –

1.7% atYangtze

Riversource

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people’s livelihoods in this region,as well as the millions of people whodepend on freshwater downstream,WWF’s Regional Initiative, SavingWetlands Sky High, is working in 5

countries in the region: India,Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and China.The Initiative is using amultistakeholder and multiscalarapproach.

Responding to the reality ofclimate change impacts in thisregion, both on ecosystems and thepeople, WWF along with itstechnical partners—UNESCO–IHE

FIGURE 2 Community horse race for team building in Longbaotan, China. Such major communityactivities are an important means of building local support and doing teamwork with theindigenous communities, for conservation efforts initiated by WWF. (Photo by KelsangNorbu, WWF–China)

BOX 1: The Longbaotan Wetland: a nature reserve undergoing high dynamics

The Longbaotan Wetland is situated at the source of the Yangtze River in the southern part of Qinghai Province inChina; it lies within the Longbao National Nature Reserve in Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. The naturereserve is flanked by steep mountains on either side which extend like parallel lines, forming a 10-km-long and 3-km-wide ravine with traces of lakes on its surface.

Longbaotan and its surrounding pastures are important grazing sites for the livestock belonging to Tibetan herdersin the area. About two decades ago, nomadic herders would move from place to place in a seasonal pattern to findgrazing land. However, now herders have settled down in one place and are no longer nomadic. Recently,approximately 200 households settled down around the Longbaotan Wetland, using its meadows as their maingrazing land.

The wetland is also religiously significant to the communities living around it. Each year a large number of Tibetanswalk around it on a pilgrimage. They believe that the herbs found around the wetland cure diseases and that its water,from glacial melt, is provided by Buddha, offering a bath that purifies not only the body but also the soul.

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Institute for Water Education andSan Diego State University(SDSU)—undertook two studies. Thefirst study aimed to understand thelevel of scientific informationalready available on high-altitudewetland systems worldwide, analyzeit to discern the trends andpatterns, and identify data gaps. Thesecond study focused specifically onthe hydrologic response of high-altitude wetlands to climate change.In addition to the two scientificstudies, WWF also used the ClimateWitness approach to recordperceptions among localcommunities of the changes theyhave witnessed in various aspects oftheir environment and livelihoods.

The UNESCO-IHE study

The first review study conducted byUNESCO–IHE was structured toanswer the following questions foreach type of HAW:

1. What types of HAW have beenreported in the scientific litera-ture? What are the characteristicsof these HAW?

2. What are the environmental fac-tors that influence developmentof HAW?

3. What are their hydrological andhydraulic functions?

4. What ecosystem goods and ser-vices do they provide?

5. What are the possible threats toHAW ecosystems?

6. What are the effects of climatechange on these ecosystems?

7. What knowledge gaps are relatedto these ecosystems?

The present article tries tosummarize the key aspects of thisreview study. Most of the informationpresented here has been collatedfrom this review.

The SDSU study

The second study by the San DiegoState University has threecomponents:

1. A review of hydrological functionsof high-altitude wetlands with an

emphasis on how they influenceriver flows;

2. A review of likely climate changeimpacts on high-altitude wetlandsin the Himalaya, based on sce-narios formulated by the Inter-governmental Panel of ClimateChange (IPCC);

3. An analysis of how climate changewill modify hydrological processesin one sample wetland, selectedfrom the WWF project sites. Inaddition, an attempt will be madeto identify and acquire fromrelevant institutions previouslycollected river flow data down-stream of the sample wetland andto examine possible links betweenwetland and downstream hydrol-ogy.

This is work in progress, expectedto be completed by September 2010.

Present status of information on

HAWs in the Himalayan region

Wetlands are distributed throughoutTibet, Qinghai, and the west ofSichuan, where there are low airtemperatures and little precipitationbut sufficient sunshine. In QinghaiProvince alone, the total area underwetlands is about 7 million ha,including about 4.4 million ha of saltlakes and 2.7 million ha of herb bogs.These wetlands are mostly inland orplateau wetlands. They are oftenlocated in river basin headwaters andrepresent diverse habitats such aslakes, springs, swamps, marshes,rivers, and alpine meadows, whichsupport equally diverse ecosystemelements. These systems play animportant role in capturing andretaining snow, ice melt and rainfall,and are capable of releasing waterprogressively. The total area of marshand peat in Qinghai and Xizangprovinces in 1999 was estimated at4,420,635 ha.

The literature indicates that themost frequently studied types ofwetland in areas above 3000 m in theHimalayas and Qinghai–TibetanPlateau are lakes and ponds,

meadows, marshes, swamps, bogs, andfens.

Meadows

Meadows are one of the most studiedecosystems among HAWs in theHimalayas and the Qinghai–TibetanPlateau. The alpine meadowecosystem is also the mostwidespread ecosystem on theQinghai–Tibetan Plateau, coveringsome 450,000 km2. Kobresia is one ofthe main vegetation types. Himalayaand Tibetan meadows are rich inbiodiversity. For instance, theQinghai–Tibetan Plateau is a uniqueand fragile ecosystem with more than13,000 vascular plant species andabout 1100 species of terrestrialvertebrates. Alpine meadows in theHimalayas and Qinghai–TibetanPlateau have the followingcharacteristics:

1. They are located at altitudesabove 3000 m, between forestborder and permanent snowline(ie roughly between 3000 and5200 m, rarely higher);

2. They remain frozen for 6 to11 months each year;

3. They have great water retentioncapability due to the existence ofa permafrost layer and thereforeare usually the source of rivers;

4. They feature no woody vegetation,only herbaceous meadows anddwarf shrubs. The biodiversity isgenerally very low but unique andendemic. A decrease in speciesrichness with increasing elevationand decreasing temperature resultsin simple composition of shrubsand grasslands, with endemic andsubendemic plants; and

5. They are fed by precipitation,snowmelt water, glacier meltwateror permafrost melt.

Meadows are usually located inthe river source areas. It isacknowledged that these ecosystemsare important for surface waterprovision for the majorinternational rivers that originate onthe Qinghai–Tibetan plateau, andthat these ecosystems provide a

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habitat for many medicinal plantsthat are being increasingly used forcommercial purposes. In addition,due to their scenic beauty, theseareas are often locations for tourismdevelopment. Therefore, there is nodoubt that alpine meadows providemany ecosystem goods and services,not only locally but also on thenational and international scales.However, alpine meadows are facingsevere degradation due to climatechange (rising temperature), whichleads to:

N Permafrost degradation, which re-sults in reduced soil moisture con-tent during the growing season;

N Glacier melt and snowmelt, whichalter water inflow patterns; and

N Vegetation cover change, due toreduced soil moisture content.

In addition, these ecosystems alsosuffer from human interference, suchas agriculture and tourismdevelopment, and increased grazingactivity. This results in degradedwater resources in these areas, oftenwith transboundary effects.

Unfortunately, not many baselinestudies have been done until now. Inorder to understand these ecosystemsbetter, as well as to predict futuredisturbance effects, such studies areurgently needed. The literature reviewhas revealed that, in terms ofvegetation cover and change as well asgreenhouse gas emissions, sufficientdata can be found. However, forhydrology, hydrological functions, andwater resources, detailed datawere notfound. Therefore, it is reasonable toassume that these data are missing andthat an effort has to be made to collect

and systematize it. Nonetheless, it ispossible that the above data areavailable in Chinese; therefore, closecooperation is recommended withChinese and Japanese scientificinstitutes.

Lakes and ponds

These ecosystems are usually locatedin river source areas. It is generallyrecognized that high-altitude lakesare very important for wateravailability in downstream rivers.These lakes are mostly fed byprecipitation, glacier meltwater,permafrost meltwater, snowmeltwater, and icefield meltwater. Mosthigh-altitude lakes are nutrientpoor, with poor ecosystemproductivity.

The general characteristics ofhigh-altitude lakes can be defined as:

FIGURE 3 High-altitude lake and wetland in Ladakh. (Photo by Pankaj Chandan, WWF–India)

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1. Strong temperature variationduring the day;

2. The salinity in lakes and pondsvaries from freshwater to saltlakes and ponds, and is mostlyrelated to bedrock type and soilcomposition, outlet existence, andevaporation;

3. Cold and relatively nutrient poor;4. High intensity solar radiation;5. Ponds and lakes can have verticalmixing of the water column.

These lakes can be saline orfreshwater. In addition, due to theirscenic beauty (Figure 3), these areas areoften locations for tourismdevelopment. Like alpine meadows,high-altitude lakes undoubtedlyprovide many ecosystem goods andservices, not only locally butonnationaland international scales as well.

High-altitude lakes are facingsevere degradation due to climatechange (temperature rising) whichleads to:

N Permafrost degradation, resultingin declining lake water level;

N Glacier disappearance, which al-ters water inflow patterns and canreduce water level in the lake; and

N Desertification and soil erosion,which may increase the sedimen-tation rate in lakes.

In addition, these ecosystems alsosuffer from human interference suchas agriculture and grazing activity.This results in degradation of waterresources, often with internationaleffects.

Unfortunately, many baselinedata are missing. In order tounderstand these ecosystems better,as well as to predict futuredisturbance effects, baseline studiesare urgently needed. Closecooperation with institutions thathave been involved in high-altitudelakes research is stronglyrecommended. Among others, theseinclude: Ramsar, the International

Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD), the PallanzaInstitute in Italy, and the Geo-environmental Monitoring Instituteof Tibet Autonomous Region.

Peatlands (swamps, marshes, bogs,

and fens)

Peat is a spongy type deposit whichconsists of organic matter withvarying degrees of decomposition.The main component in peat is plantorganic matter, which accounts formore than 30% of the total contentof peat in general. Numerous studieshave shown that the accumulationand distribution of peat depends onseveral factors, such as climate,geography, landform, hydrology, andvegetation. Among these factors,climate is considered to be the mostdominant. At high altitudes, lowertemperatures not only makeevaporation and transpirationprocesses slower, favoring waterretention and moss formation: theyalso decrease the decompositionprocess, which favors theaccumulation of organic matter andpeat formation. Many types ofwetlands belong to peatlands, egswamps, marshes, bogs, and fens (orgrasslands). All of these wetlandshave one characteristic in common,which is that the peat is widespreadand well developed within thewetland.

In general, swamps and marshesare located in the headwater regionsof river basins, in flat bottom land,usually in the vicinity of lakes andponds. Another commoncharacteristic is that these ecosystemsare biodiversity hotspots. ZoigeMarsh is one biodiversity hotspot inChina; it harbors many endemic andendangered species, including Grusnigricollis, the only plateau crane(Figure 4). Numerous species areendemic to Zoige Marsh, such asCaltha scaposa, Kobresia tibetica Maxim,Carex muliensis, and Blysmussinocompressus. Many species arebecoming rare and endangered. Forinstance, Sinocarum coloratum,Scrophularia chinensis, Scrophularia

FIGURE 4 An endangered black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis) tending its eggs on the shore of a Ladakhhigh-altitude lake. (Photo by Pankaj Chandan, WWF–India)

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chinensis and Rheum palmatum havebeen listed as endangered species bythe Environmental ProtectionAgency of China. Zoige Marsh is veryrich in animal resources. There are38 mammal species belonging to 15families of 5 orders, and 137 birdspecies belonging to 28 families in 13orders.

Due to the abundance ofvegetation, the swamps and marshesare often exposed to overgrazing,which is the main economic activityof local people. Climate change isrecognized as the main threat toswamp ecosystems on the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau. Ruoergai Bog, thelargest plateau bog in China, islocated in the eastern part of theQinghai–Tibet plateau at an altitudeof over 3390 m. Herbaceous plantsdominated by Kobresia tibetica coverthe entire bog at present and havealso been the source of organicmatter for peat. There are only a fewconifers in the surroundingmountains. The peat area covers upto 6400 km2 and its thickness rangesfrom several meters to over10 meters. Microbial activity is likelyto be the dominant process in thisbog.

Many detailed quantitativebaseline studies are missing for high-altitude bogs. Long-termobservations of hydrologicalprocesses in high-altitude bogs aregenerally lacking worldwide.

Climate change and the

hydrologic response of high-

altitude wetlands

The general conclusion of the SDSUstudy is that wetlands will likelychange as climate continues tochange and glaciers continue to melt.

Wetlands are often thought toincrease dry season flow and decreaseflood peaks. Contrary to expectation,most studies surveyed found thatwetlands decreased dry seasondischarge downstream due to highevaporation rates from open watersurfaces. A majority of studies found

that wetlands mitigate flood peaks byincreasing the storage capacity of thelandscape.

Several global circulation models(GCMs) predict that bothtemperature and precipitation willincrease in the Himalayas through2100. Direct warming of lake wateralters circulation patterns in lakes,with consequent impacts on wetlandbiogeochemistry and ecosystemfunctioning. Several studies in theHimalayas have documented rapidexpansion of high-altitude lakes atthe base of glaciers due to enhancedmelting rates. The effect of increasedglacial melt has not beendocumented for larger lakes such asthe Ramsar sites in the Ladakh regionof India. There may be a shift towardsmore rain and less snowfall, withconsequently higher floods. Dryseason discharge in the Himalayacould actually increase under awarmer climate, as most snowfalloccurs during the winter monthswhen streamflow is low.Evapotranspiration from bothwatersheds and wetlands is projectedto increase, which could decreasestreamflow, particularly in the wetseason. Wetlands will potentiallyexperience shifts in storage levels andevapotranspiration, which will likelychange the timing and magnitude ofdischarge downstream. In theHimalayas, a great deal ofuncertainty surrounds thequantification of the hydrologicalresponse of high-altitude wetlands toprojected climate change scenarios.

Owing to the influence of climatechange, obvious changes haveoccurred in the permafrost on theQinghai–Tibet Plateau. Thepermafrost area has significantlydecreased. The normal growth andreproduction of vegetation has beenseriously affected because thedegradation of the permafrost resultsin soil moisture decreasing in theroot zone, surface soil desiccation,swamps drying up, and changes insoil structure and composition. Ifthese disturbances occur in areas ofrivers, lakes, glaciers, and permanent

snow cover, they will directly lead towater source dysfunctionality. Table2 shows the effect of climate changeon different land types, land cover,and water bodies.

Land desertification is developingrapidly. Desertified land in thesource region of the Yellow River isexpanding at an annual rate of1.83%. Most authors agree that thisnegatively influences and reduces theavailability of water resources.However, no detailed studies thatwould explain the mechanism of thisproblem were found.

One hydrological model used toestimate the effects of climate changepredicted a summer temperatureincrease of 4.5uC and a wintertemperature increase of 4.8uC for2071–2100. It also estimated thatprecipitation will increase by 15.7%in summer and 19.7% in winter.Based on these results, it wasconcluded that the effects of climatechange on streamflow are significant.The following phenomena areobserved:

N The part of the precipitation thatfalls as snow is reduced from 60%to 48%.

N Due to the increase in overallprecipitation, the annual runofffrom snowmelt remains nearly thesame. However the peak snowfallsappear approximately one monthearlier and discharge is moredistributed in time.

N Although the extent of glaciershas been assumed to decrease by50%, total glacial runoff has beenreduced by only 22%, and thetemporal pattern remains un-changed. The difference betweenthe extent of glacier decrease andglacier runoff can be explainedby increased albedo tempera-tures, which intensify waterevaporation.

N Rainfall runoff has increased sig-nificantly by 53%, and rain peakdischarge remains concentrated inJune–July–August.

N Total streamflow has increased by7%.

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Lakes, permafrost and wetlandsplay a great role in regulating lateralflow of rivers. The increased airtemperature results in earlier meltingof the frozen soil and increased soilevaporation. This results in a decline inthe groundwater table and water levelsof the lakes, which reduces watersupply of baseflows from groundwaterand lake water. The water resources inthe region declined between 1956 and2004 due to the above changes. Inaddition, in some parts of the YellowRiver, sources were converted fromgrassland to cropland, which adds tothe problem.

Several patterns of climatechange can be observed on theQinghai–Tibetan plateau:

N Pattern 1: Air temperature shows nochange while rainfall increasesThis pattern is observed inChangdu County in eastern Tibet.

N Pattern 2: Air temperature shows nochange while rainfall decreasesThis pattern is observed in BomiCounty in the Great Canyon Re-gion along the Brahmaputra River.

N Pattern 3: Both air temperature andrainfall increaseThis pattern is observed in LhasaCity and in the Brahmaputra Rivervalley.

N Pattern 4: Air temperature increaseswhile rainfall decreasesThis pattern is observed in Nie-lamu County in the southernhillside region of the Himalayas.

Conclusions

and recommendations

Based on the above results, it can beconcluded that no general pattern ofclimate change on the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau can be established due

to temporal and spatial variations.Projecting spatial and temporalestimates of future flow rates intowetlands, the response of wetlandwater levels to changing inflows, andthe ecological consequences of thechanges in the wetlands are essentialfor communities, conservationists, andwater resource managers. These havealso been identified as the majorknowledge gap areas in the review.Modeling studies on selected high-altitude wetlands to determine theirhydrologic response to climate changehave begun and are expected to yieldimportant trends that could help putHAWsand the services theyprovide onthe agenda of policymakers.

Some of the recommendationsemerging from these studies are:

1. Given the key hydrological roleplayed by HAWs in headwatersand their importance in carbon

FIGURE 5 A group of local people discussing conservation issues on the banks of ChandratalLake, Himachal Pradesh, India. (Photo courtesy of WWF–India)

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sequestration, conservation andmanagement of these ecosystemscould be a sound approach withinthe wider Adaptation Strategy forthese vulnerable regions.

2. HAWs are important for keepingrivers flowing. Although detailedscientific data were not found onthis point, most authors haveemphasized the importance ofHAW ecosystems for provision ofwater for the downstream areas ofriver basins, more so under cli-mate change scenarios.

3. Comprehensive and detailedquantitative baseline studies areneeded for each HAW type.Without such basic studies it willnot be possible to estimate thevalue of HAWs and their ecosys-tem goods and services, nor thedisturbance effects on HAWs.Among other things, there is anurgent need to obtain the follow-ing information:

N Basic detailed quantitative hydrologicalstudies: It is important to under-stand hydrological processes inHAW ecosystems in order to esti-mate the freshwater provisionfunction of these ecosystems, aswell as possible effects of climatechange. Among other things, themost important priority is tounderstand the water retentionrate of HAWs and the factors thatinfluence this rate.

N Comprehensive detailed database ofHAW biodiversity: This representsone of the basic requirements forinformation about HAW ecosys-tems. It is important to recordbiodiversity for each HAW typein order to be able to developsustainable conservation man-agement plans as well as toestimate the loss of biodiversitydue to different disturbances infuture.

N Detailed studies on ecosystem goods andservices of HAWs: These studies areimportant to estimate the value ofHAWs and their influence ondownstream areas of the catch-ments. Understanding the role of

HAWs in freshwater provision fordownstream areas is a priority. Itis often reported that HAWs,especially in the Andes and Qin-ghai–Tibetan Plateau, providefreshwater for numerous down-stream users and often for bigcities and large irrigation schemesas well. However, very little infor-mation was found about factorsthat influence this freshwaterprovision. The reaction of HAWsystems to disturbances in thefuture is, at this point, very diffi-cult to estimate.

4. Lack of scientific data will notimpede the continuation of con-servation efforts. Along withglobal warming, human activitiesin HAW areas cause major damageto these ecosystems. Therefore,further efforts will be directed atpreventing and restricting theseactivities in HAW areas.

5. Closer cooperation with differentnational and international institu-tions, universities, and NGOs isstrongly recommended tostrengthen the scientific base. It isnoticeable that monitoring data athigh altitudes are either missingor not available in English but inChinese. Therefore, it is recom-mended to strengthen coopera-tion with different Chinese gov-ernmental and educationalinstitutions involved in data col-lection or HAW monitoring pro-grams. In addition, close cooper-ation with different internationalinstitutions at different levels,such as the Millennium EcosystemAssessment, Ramsar, ICIMOD,IUCN–The Conservation Union,and Wetlands International is alsorecommended in order to developand maintain a comprehensiveHAW database.

WWF’s current HAW agenda

Through the review studiespresented in this paper, WWF hasattempted to bring together existing

information on these lesserunderstood ecosystems, while alsohighlighting critical knowledge gapsin one of the most vulnerableecosystems. Expanding scientificresearch and the knowledge base onhigh-altitude wetlands and theirinterplay with climate and otherdrivers of change is an urgent needfor the conservation, management,and delivery of ecosystem goods andservices, as well as to guide policiesand programs at national andregional levels.

A regional collaborative researchprogram focusing on HAWs iscritical and should be taken up as apriority. WWF can play a facilitatingrole for organizations and researchinstitutes to come together andwork on this important gap area(Figure 5). The research agenda forHAWs is broad, and as resultsbecome available it should bepossible to manage these systemsbetter. HAWs are our water banksfor the future, so the sooner weunderstand their intricate processes,the better off we will be. Investmentin research on these ecosystems isthus critical.

One of the aims of the comingyears for the WWF initiative is toput the value of high-altitudewetlands as water towers on theagenda of policymakers and bringthem to the attention of the widerpublic. Valuing the services ofHAWs, including their role inadaptation to climate change, is animportant aspect of this work. It canbe achieved by identifying andapplying the lessons from thevarious field programs as well as byreaching out to variousstakeholders, among which aregovernments and sectors thatdepend on these ecosystems.

REFERENCES

Biggs TW, Beland M. 2009. Hydrologic Functionsand the Effects of Climate Change on HimalayanWetlands. Unpublished manuscript. Available fromthe author of the present paper.Jacimovic R, et al. 2009. Hydrological andEcological Value of Water Towers and Their Role inAdapting Climate Change. Zeist, The Netherlands:

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WWF Netherlands and Institute for Water Education(UNESCO-IHE).Qian J, Wang G, Ding Y, Liu S. 2006. The landecological evalutional patterns in the source areasof the Yangtze and Yellow rivers in the past 15years, China. Environmental Monitoring andAssessment 116:137–156.Wang G, Li S, Hu H, Li Y. 2009. Water regimeshifts in the active soil layer of the Qinghai–Tibetet Plateau permafrost region, under differentlevels of vegetation. Geoderma 149:280–289.Wang G, Li Y, Wang Y, Wu Q. 2008. Effects ofpermafrost thawing on vegetation and soil carbonpool losses on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, China.Geoderma 143:143–152.Wang G, Wang Y, Jumpei K. 2006. Land-coverchanges and its impacts on ecological variables inthe headwaters area of the Yangtze River, China.Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 120 (1–3):361–385.Wang H, Zhou XL, Wan CG, Fu H, Zhang F, Ren JZ.2008. Eco-environmental degradation in the

northeastern margin of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateauand comprehensive ecological protection planning.Environmental Geology 55:1135–1147.

AUTHORS

Archna [email protected] of the present article andcorresponding author, Head,Regional Program on Himalayan Glaciers,Rivers and High-altitude Wetlands, WWF–India,172-B, Lodi Estate,New Delhi–110003, India.Tel: +91-11-43516202www.wwfindia.org

Review and inputs from:Esther BlomHead, Freshwater, WWF Netherlands,Zeist, The Netherlands.www.wnf.nl

Biksham GujjaAdvisor, WWF International,Gland, Switzerland.www.wwf.org

Technical Study partners:Ruzica Jacimovic, Lindsay Beevers,

Jay O’KeeffeHydrological and ecological value of watertowers and their role in adapting to climatechange: A review. UNESCO–IHE Institute forWater Education, Delft, The Netherlands.Michael Beland, Trent BiggsHydrological functions and the effects ofclimate change on high-altitude wetlands.Department of Geography, San Diego StateUniversity (SDSU), San Diego, CA, USA.

Open access article: please credit the authorsand the full source.

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