WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65/Rev - tralac · 24/10/2017 · and fuels and mining products, 2005-2016.....23 Chart 19: LDCs: GDP by selected economic activities 2005-2014 .....23 Chart 20: LDCs

WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65/Rev.1

24 October 2017

(17-5731) Page: 1/43

Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries

WT/C

OM

TD

/LD

C/W

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MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST

TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1

Revision

Contents

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 4

2 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 6

3 LDCS' TRADE PROFILE ................................................................................................. 7

3.1 Trends in Goods and Commercial Services ...................................................................... 7

3.2 Merchandise Trade Developments .................................................................................11

3.2.1 Overall trend ...........................................................................................................11

3.2.2 Commodity price movements ....................................................................................13

3.2.3 Major LDC traders ....................................................................................................13

3.2.4 Trends in product composition ...................................................................................14

3.2.5 Major markets of LDCs .............................................................................................18

3.3 Services Trade Developments ......................................................................................19

4 MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS ............................. 28

4.1 Trends in market access for products of export interest to LDCs .......................................28

4.2 Duty-free market access granted by selected Members ...................................................29

4.3 Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs ......................................................31

ANNEX ........................................................................................................................... 33

1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice

to the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.


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List of Tables Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2005-2016 ........................... 7

Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 2005-2016 ...........................10

Table 3: LDCs' top 20 export products in terms of increase in world market share, 2005 and 2016 ..........................................................................................................................17

Table 4: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2005 and 2016 ..........................................................19

Table 5: Average tariffs applied by developed Members on key products from LDCs, 2011-2015 ...............................................................................................................................29

Table 6: Duty-free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 2015 .....................30

Table 7: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver .............................................................32

List of Charts

Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2005-2016 ....................... 7

Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2005 and 2016 ................................................................. 8

Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 2005-2016 ......................................................................................................................... 8

Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2005-2016 ................................................................. 9

Chart 5: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 2006-2016 ....................................................................11

Chart 6: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2005-2016 ........................................................12

Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by product specialization, 2005-2016 .............................12

Chart 8: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005-2016 .....................................................13

Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2005 and 2016 ...............................................14

Chart 10: Evolution of merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2005 and 2016 ...........................15

Chart 11: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2005 and 2016 ..................................16

Chart 12: Top 20 products of LDCs' exports with the highest shares in world export market, 2016 ....................................................................................................................18

Chart 13: LDCs' trade in commercial services, 2006-2016 .......................................................20

Chart 14: LDCs' share in world exports and imports of commercial services, 2005-2016 .............20

Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2005-2016 ...............................21

Chart 16: Leading LDC traders of commercial services, 2016 ...................................................22

Chart 17: LDCs' travel exports and international tourist arrivals, 2005-2016 .............................22

Chart 18: LDCs: Travel exports, and exports of agricultural products, manufactured goods,

and fuels and mining products, 2005-2016 ............................................................................23

Chart 19: LDCs: GDP by selected economic activities 2005-2014 .............................................23

Chart 20: LDCs in Asia and in Africa: International tourist arrivals by region of origin and travel exports, 2005-2016 ..................................................................................................24

Chart 21: LDCs' export growth of other commercial services by sector, 2005-2016 ....................25

Chart 22: Digital divide between developed economies and LDCs, 2005-2017 ...........................25

Chart 23: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2005-2014 .................................................26

Chart 24: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2014 .........................................................27

Chart 25: Proportion of tariff lines worldwide with zero duty applied to products from developing countries and LDCs, 2005, 2010 and 2015 ............................................................28

List of Boxes Box 1: The contribution of services to GDP in LDCs ................................................................26


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List of Annex Tables Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2016 ...............................................................................................................................33

Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005-2017 (Q2) ....................................35

Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2005-2016 ...............37

Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2016 ......................................................39

Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2016 ..........................41

Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non-reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by Members, 2017 or latest available yeara ...............................................................................42


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1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.1. Over the period 2005-2016, LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 6.4%, slightly more than the exports of other developing economies (6.1% average). Most of this average growth, however, stems from distinctly higher growth rates in the first part of the period. During 2010-2016, average annual export growth of LDCs' exports was even slightly negative

(-0.02%).

1.2. In 2016, LDC exports of goods and services decreased by 3.9% to US$187 billion. The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services stood at 0.91% in 2016, compared to 0.93% in 2015.

1.3. Merchandise exports of the LDCs decreased by 6% in value terms in 2016, declining more

than world exports which fell by 3%. The share of LDCs in world merchandise exports stood at

0.94% in 2016, dropping further from 0.97% in the previous year.

1.4. The LDCs continued to record a sizable trade deficit, which reached US$92.9 billion in 2016, representing a nine-fold increase compared to the trade deficit in 2005. On the positive side, the sharp reduction of prices of primary commodities in 2015 had almost come to a halt in 2016, with the exception of energy prices. The stable prices of food and beverages have helped agricultural exporters to somehow arrest negative export growth.

1.5. In 2016, the top merchandise exporter within the LDCs was Bangladesh (share of 24%),

followed by Angola (17%) and Myanmar (8%). While the top ten exporters represented almost 80% of LDCs' exports in 2005, this share went down to around 76% in 2016 – indicating a slight decrease in terms of country concentration among the LDCs.

1.6. The share of primary products in total exports of LDCs continued to decrease in 2016 – from

73% in 2005 down to 49% in 2016. This was mostly due to the lower value of exports of petroleum products (HS 27.09, 27.11 and 27.10), which constituted more than half of all LDC exports in 2005, but accounted for only about a quarter (26%) of LDC exports in 2016. In

contrast, the share of manufactured products in LDC exports increased from 21% in 2005 to 40% in 2016. This was mainly due to a higher share of clothing products in LDC merchandise exports, which increased from 13% in 2005 to 29% in 2016.

1.7. In 2016, the European Union was the top destination for LDCs' merchandise exports (share of 31%), followed by China (21%) and the United States (11%). The top 10 importers accounted for 88% of LDCs' total exports in 2016, which was slightly higher than the respective share of 87% in

2005.

1.8. In the period 2005-2016, LDCs' services exports expanded by 12% on average per year, compared to 8% in other developing economies and 5% in the developed group. Following a

decade of sustained growth, LDCs' exports of commercial services have slowed down since 2014. This downward trend accentuated in 2016, when services exports fell by 4% to US$32 billion. In 2016, LDCs' participation in global exports of commercial services stood at 0.7%, up from 0.4% in 2005.

1.9. Services trade in LDCs remained concentrated within a few economies, an unchanged pattern

since 2005. In 2016, the top ten leading exporters (e.g. Myanmar, Cambodia, Tanzania, Ethiopia) accounted for almost 70% of the group’s services receipts. Imports were equally concentrated with the first five importers, led by Angola, representing around half of LDCs' total commercial services payments.

1.10. Over recent years, the number of international tourist arrivals to LDCs multiplied, rising from over 10 million arrivals in 2005 to more than 28 million in 2015. Increasing inflows of foreign tourists and their purchase of goods and services in the countries they have visited has boosted

LDCs' travel revenue. In 2016, travel revenue reached US$17 billion compared with US$5 billion

in 2005. As a result, LDCs' share of world travel exports has doubled in ten years, reaching 1.4% in 2016.

1.11. Progress has continued in advancing market access opportunities for the LDCs. From a global perspective, the proportion of duty-free tariff lines has risen from 49% in 2005 to 65% in


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2015 for LDCs, which signifies the commitment of Members to grant preferential market access to the LDCs. Average tariffs levied by developed Members on products originating in LDCs are close to 0%, with the exception of clothing and textiles.

1.12. Most of the developed Members accord either full or nearly full duty-free and quota-free (DFQF) market access to LDC products. A number of developing Members have significantly expanded their DFQF coverage over the last decade and now offer almost comprehensive DFQF

market access to LDC products. Notable progress has been made in the implementation of the Nairobi Decision on Preferential Rules of Origin for LDCs. There has also been an incremental progress in the number of notifications regarding preferential treatment for services and services suppliers from LDCs. By the end of September 2017, a total of 24 Members have submitted notifications pursuant to the LDC Services Waiver.


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2 INTRODUCTION

2.1. This Note prepared by the Secretariat responds to paragraph 8 of the WTO Work Programme for the Least Developed Countries, which mandates annual reviews of market access for products originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat studies by updating the information on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions.

2.2. The Note is divided into two main chapters, in addition to the executive summary and the

introduction. Chapter 3, on trade profile, provides a description of the recent trends of LDCs' trade flows, both in goods and commercial services. Chapter 4 contains information on trends in market access conditions for LDC exports, including duty-free market access for LDC products and recent initiatives undertaken by Members to improve market access for LDCs, mainly based on Members' notifications. The Note does not attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for LDC products. It should therefore be read in conjunction with previous

Secretariat notes prepared on this topic, to gauge the different factors that determine market access for LDCs.

2.3. Despite improvements in the production of national data, the statistical coverage of LDCs remains incomplete. The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available. In many instances, it was still necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e. data reported by LDCs' trading partners. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow taking into consideration trade among the LDCs, as well as trade with non-reporting developing economies.

2.4. The definition of geographical and other groupings in this report serves only statistical purposes; it does not imply an expression of opinion by the Secretariat concerning the status of any country or territory, the delimitation of its frontiers, nor the rights and obligations of any WTO Member in respect of WTO agreements.2

2 Even though Equatorial Guinea graduated from the group of LDCs in June 2017, it is still treated as

LDC member in this Note, which refers to 2016 as most recent year of reference for statistical analysis.


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3 LDCS' TRADE PROFILE

3.1 Trends in Goods and Commercial Services

3.1. Over the period 2005-2016, LDC exports of goods and services grew by an annual average of 6.4%, slightly more than the exports of other developing economies (6.1% average). Most of this average growth, however, stems from distinctly higher growth rates in the first part of the period. The rapid increase in the total value of goods and services exported by LDCs during the early

2000s came to an abrupt halt in 2008, in the wake of the global financial crisis. During 2010-2016, average annual export growth of LDCs' exports was even slightly negative (-0.02%) while the respective figure for other developing economies stood at +2.1% per year. The LDCs, which depend more on commodity exports than the other developing economies, were adversely affected by the unfavourable developments in the price of commodities.

Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2005-2016

(Index, 2005 = 100; BOP/BPM6)

Source: WTO Secretariat.

Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2005-2016

(Billion dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)

Value ($bn) Annual percentage change (%)

2005 2016 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2005-2016

Exports

Total goods and commercial services 94.3 187.0 23.4 3.1 4.5 -1.2 -20.9 -3.9 6.4

Goods 84.8 155.1 23.3 2.4 3.1 -2.3 -23.8 -3.8 5.6

Commercial services 9.5 31.9 24.4 8.7 15.7 5.9 -3.1 -4.3 11.7

Imports

Total goods and commercial services 104.1 279.9 22.3 9.2 7.8 7.8 -10.0 -6.5 9.4

Goods 78.3 215.2 21.4 10.8 8.8 7.7 -7.9 -6.7 9.6

Commercial services 25.7 64.8 24.9 4.8 4.9 8.2 -16.2 -5.7 8.7


3.2. In 2016, LDC exports of goods and commercial services decreased by 3.9%, down to US$187.0 billion, while LDC imports fell by 6.5% to US$297.9 billion (see Table 1). However, in

comparison to 2015 (exports -20.9%; imports -10.0%), these negative growth rates were significantly less pronounced. In value terms, goods exports dominate services exports. In 2016, LDC commercial services exports amounted to US$31.9 billion, which constituted only 17% of LDC goods and commercial services exports. In contrast, services constituted 23% of world total exports in 2016.


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3.3. In terms of trade balance (see Chart 2), the LDCs recorded an overall trade deficit of US$92.9 billion in 2016. Imports exceeded exports by US$60.0 billion in the case of goods and by US$32.9 billion in the case of commercial services. The trade deficit of LDCs in 2016 was more than nine times higher than in 2005 (US$9.8 billion), when high commodity prices had led to a surplus in LDC goods trade.

Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 2005 and 2016

(Billion dollars; BOP/BPM6)


3.4. Price fluctuations significantly impact the value of LDC trade. In order to better understand the physical level of trade, Chart 3 shows developments in the volume of merchandise trade for LDCs and other developing economies. In 2016, LDC merchandise exports grew by 7.5% in

volume terms, while their imports expanded by 1.0%. This positive growth in trade volumes

contrasts the decline in trade values, which are, inter alia, driven by price developments. In comparison to 2005, the export volume increased by more than 1.8 times while the import volume more than doubled. LDCs' total trade volume (turnover, i.e. exports plus imports) increased by 4.5% in 2016 while the volume of total trade of other developing economies decreased by 1.8%.

Chart 3: Development in merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 2005-2016

(Indices, 2005 = 100)

Source: WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD.


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3.5. Chart 4 shows the development of LDCs' share in world exports from 2005 to 2016. The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services stood at 0.91% in 2016. Following a more or less gradual increase from 0.74% in 2005 to 1.07% in 2013, the LDCs' share in world exports decreased in the years 2014-2016. This recent decrease reflected lower values of

goods, due to falling prices of commodities, particularly fuels.

Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2005-2016

(Percentage shares; BOP/BPM6)


3.6. Table 2 contains the respective shares for total trade, exports and imports for all years since 2005, including the values for world and LDC trade used for the calculation of the shares.

WT/C

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TD

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ev.1

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Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 2005-2016

(Billion dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)

Value (US$bn) Annual

percentage change

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2005-2016

Total trade in goods and commercial servicesa

World 12,666 14,545 16,933 19,509 15,541 18,506 21,989 22,352 22,982 23,395 20,739 20,267 4.4

LDC 198 236 298 391 338 401 493 524 557 578 494 467 8.1

Share in world 0.78 0.81 0.88 1.00 1.09 1.09 1.12 1.17 1.22 1.24 1.19 1.16 ...

Total trade in goodsa

World 10,104 11,664 13,500 15,629 12,092 14,733 17,746 17,966 18,318 18,386 16,023 15,516 4.0

LDC 163 195 244 319 269 325 398 424 449 462 392 370 7.7

Share in world 0.81 0.83 0.90 1.02 1.11 1.10 1.12 1.18 1.23 1.26 1.23 1.20 ...

Total trade in commercial servicesa

World 2,563 2,881 3,433 3,879 3,449 3,773 4,243 4,387 4,665 5,009 4,716 4,751 5.8

LDC 35 41 54 73 69 76 95 100 108 116 102 97 9.6

Share in world 0.69 0.72 0.79 0.95 1.01 1.02 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.17 1.09 1.02 ...

Goods exports

World 10,175 11,779 13,661 15,777 12,250 14,934 17,982 18,227 18,629 18,667 16,220 15,721 4.0

LDC 85 105 131 171 128 166 205 210 217 212 161 155 5.6

Share in world 0.83 0.89 0.96 1.08 1.05 1.11 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.13 0.99 0.99 ...

Commercial services exports

World 2,597 2,932 3,510 3,948 3,521 3,847 4,328 4,451 4,743 5,078 4,790 4,808 5.8

LDC 9 11 14 18 18 21 26 28 32 34 33 32 11.7

Share in world 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.47 0.53 0.54 0.60 0.63 0.69 0.68 0.70 0.66 ...

Goods imports

World 10,032 11,549 13,339 15,481 11,934 14,532 17,510 17,704 18,006 18,105 15,826 15,311 3.9

LDC 78 90 112 147 140 159 193 214 233 250 231 215 9.6

Share in world 0.78 0.78 0.84 0.95 1.18 1.09 1.10 1.21 1.29 1.38 1.46 1.41 ...

Commercial services imports

World 2,528 2,831 3,355 3,811 3,377 3,699 4,158 4,322 4,587 4,939 4,642 4,694 5.8

LDC 26 30 40 55 51 55 69 72 76 82 69 65 8.7

Share in world 1.02 1.06 1.18 1.43 1.50 1.49 1.66 1.67 1.65 1.66 1.48 1.38 ...

a World total trade is calculated as the average of world exports and imports, according to the BOP presentation (BPM 6). Total LDC trade in this table is approximated as the sum of their exports and imports. Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the corresponding world exports plus imports.



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3.2 Merchandise Trade Developments3

3.2.1 Overall trend

3.7. Merchandise exports of the LDCs decreased by 6% in 2016, declining more than world exports which fell by 3%. This was a relative improvement as compared to 2015, when LDC exports had dropped by 24% (see Chart 5).

3.8. The negative performance in 2016 is mostly linked to the high dependence of LDCs on

exports of fuels and mining products – which continued to be hit by low prices and declining demand (although less marked than in 2015). LDC imports decreased by 3% compared with a 10% decline in 2015.

Chart 5: Merchandise trade of LDCs, 2006-2016

(Billion dollars and percentages)


3.9. The LDCs' share of world merchandise exports remained under 1%, falling to 0.94% from 0.97% in 2015. This continuing decline is also linked to LDCs' dependence on fuel and mining products. Price fluctuations for these products have a greater impact on LDCs' overall export performance than is the case for economies with more diversified export base. LDCs' share of world merchandise imports remained at the same level as in 2015, namely at 1.4%. Among developing economies, LDCs' share stayed at 2.2% for exports, the same percentage as in 2015,

while for imports it increased from 3.5% to 3.6%. The share of LDCs exports of manufactures in world exports of this product group remained at 0.5%.

3.10. The LDCs’ merchandise trade deficit slightly increased from US$81 billion in 2015 to a new record level of US$83 billion in 2016 (see Chart 6). LDC oil exporters experienced a US$11 billion

deficit in 2016, almost four times higher than the previous year (2015). The biggest deficit was registered by LDC exporters of agriculture (US$33 billion), followed by LDC exporters of manufactured goods (US$22 billion). LDC exporters of non-fuel minerals recorded a negative trade

balance of US$13 billion in 2016, a 36% increase on the previous year.

3 Differences between BOP (BPM6) and International Merchandise Trade Statistics are explained in the

International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 (IMTS 2010), Chapter XXIV Section B "Goods to be recorded differently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" (p. 288). (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/eg-imts/imts2010-final-22march2011.pdf).

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/eg-imts/imts2010-final-22march2011.pdf


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Chart 6: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2005-2016

(Billion dollars)


3.11. The only group of LDCs to achieve growth in 2016 were the "exporters of manufactured goods", which increased by 9% (see Chart 7). Agriculture exporters recorded a slightly negative growth rate (-1%), which was however a much better performance than the 13% decline in 2015.

Stable prices for food and beverages certainly played an important role in this. "Other LDCs" (Djibouti, Senegal and Tuvalu) experienced a 3% decline in exports in 2016, while "exporters of

non-fuel minerals" recorded a decline of 18%. "LDC oil exporters" experienced the highest decrease (-21%). Annex Table 1 provides details on the value and growth of exports and imports for individual LDCs.

Chart 7: Merchandise exports of LDCs by product specialization, 2005-2016

(Billion dollars)



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3.2.2 Commodity price movements

3.12. Chart 8 shows developments in the export prices of primary commodity groups (see Annex Table 2 for prices of individual commodities). The strong reduction of commodity prices of the previous year had almost come to a stop in 2016, with the exception of energy prices. The export prices of all major commodity groups except of "food and beverages" still showed slight decreases, but on a smaller scale than back in 2015. Prices for food and beverages registered a small increase

of 1% in 2016 – mostly due to unfavourable weather conditions in several parts of the world. Minerals and non-ferrous metals were subject to an overall annual price decrease of 5% in 2016, but some commodities such as tin (+12%), zinc (+8%), lead (+4%) and iron ore (+4%) became more expensive. Uranium (-28%), nickel (-19%) and copper (-12%) still showed a negative change in terms of prices. Energy prices fell by 18% in 2016, with the highest declines observed for natural gas (-34%). While prices for crude petroleum fell by 18%, coal prices went up by 14%.

Chart 8: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005-2016

(Indices, 2005 = 100)

Source: World Bank.

3.2.3 Major LDC traders

3.13. Chart 9 illustrates the top ten individual exporters and importers of the LDC group for both

2005 and 2016. Angola was the top exporter in 2005, accounting for almost 30% of merchandise LDC exports, followed by Bangladesh (11%) and Equatorial Guinea (9%). In 2016, the top

exporter was Bangladesh (share of 24%), followed by Angola (17%) and Myanmar (8%). While the top ten exporters represented almost 80% of LDCs' exports in 2005, this share went down to around 76% in 2016 – indicating a slight decrease in terms of country concentration among the LDCs. Nevertheless, the fact that the remaining (non-top ten) 38 LDCs accounted for only 24% of LDC merchandise exports in 2016 illustrates that exports are still concentrated on a relatively few

LDCs.

3.14. The three leading importers in 2005 were Bangladesh (share of 16%), Angola (10%) and Sudan (8%). Eleven years later, the top three consisted of Bangladesh (18%), Angola (8%) and Myanmar (7%). The top ten importers covered around two thirds of total LDC imports in 2016 (up from 47% in 2005). Hence, the country concentration for imports of the top ten increased distinctly.


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Chart 9: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2005 and 2016

(Percentage shares)


3.2.4 Trends in product composition

3.15. The evolution in the commodity mix of the LDCs between 2005 and 2016 is presented in Chart 10.4 Due to a lower value of fuel exports, the share of primary products in total exports of LDCs continued to decrease in 2016 – from 73% in 2005 down to 49% in 2016. In contrast, the share of manufactured products increased from 21% in 2005 to 40% in 2016. This was mainly due to a higher share of clothing products in LDC merchandise exports, which increased from 13% in 2005 to 29% in 2016.5 Furthermore, the share of agricultural products (agricultural raw materials

and food) in LDC exports increased from 11% in 2005 to 13% in 2016.

4 Data for 2016 are preliminary estimates based on mirror data from the UN Comtrade database. 5 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product and destination compiled

according to the United Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this classification, diamonds and non-monetary gold are not part of mineral products – as opposed to the Harmonized System (HS). As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product in total LDCs' exports derived from the LDC network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products presented in the annex of this report.


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Chart 10: Evolution of merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2005 and 2016

(Percentage shares)

Source: WTO Secretariat (2005), WTO estimates based on UN Comtrade (2016).

3.16. Chart 11 shows the evolution of the top ten products – and their respective shares –

exported by LDCs between 2005 and 2016 (Annex Table 4 provides statistics on the top 50 export products). Petroleum products (HS 27.09, 27.11 and 27.10) clearly dominated exports in 2005 with a share of more than half (52%) of all LDC exports. However, these three products accounted for only about a quarter (26%) of LDC exports in 2016. While crude petroleum (HS 27.09) was still

the top 1 export product, the other two types of petroleum products fell down to positions 11 (HS 27.11) and 33 (HS 27.10). At the same time, the share of clothing products within the top ten

increased from 11% in 2005 to 21% in 2016.

3.17. While back in 2005, diamonds (HS 71.02) still held a share of 2% in LDCs' exports (top 7 product), they fell out of the top ten products in 2016 (down to 13th position with a share of 1%). In 2016, gold (HS 71.08) was of higher importance – reaching a share of 4% in LDCs' exports (top 6 product). Refined copper (HS 74.03) held its 2005 share of 2% also in 2016, but in 2016 a second copper product (HS 74.02; unrefined copper) entered the top 10 (top 8 product behind refined copper). Unwrought aluminium (HS 76.01) had disappeared from the top ten in

2016 (10th position in 2005; 35th in 2016).


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Chart 11: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 2005 and 2016

(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)

Source: UN Comtrade database (mirror data).

3.18. Table 3 highlights the 20 top products (among the LDCs' main 50 export products) for which the LDCs achieved the highest increases in world market shares between 2005 and 2016. For the top product "tin ores and concentrates" (HS 26.09), the LDCs increased their world market share

by 69.7 percentage points up to almost 80% in 2016. However, this product represented only a share of 0.6% in LDCs' total exports in 2016 (up from 0.03% in 2005). The product with the second-highest increase in terms of market share was "unrefined copper; copper anodes for electrolytic refining" (HS 74.02), which gained almost 43 percentage points in terms of market

share (up to 43.5% in 2016). As a result, this product now appeared in the list of top 10 export


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products of LDCs (see Chart 11). LDCs were also in a position to extend their world market share for "cobalt mattes and other intermediate products of cobalt metallurgy" (HS 81.05) between the two years by more than 22 percentage points, reaching a world market share of almost 40% in 2016.

Table 3: LDCs' top 20 export products in terms of increase in world market share, 2005 and 2016

(Million dollars and percentages)

HS code

Commodity description

Value

2005

($mn)

Value

2016

($mn)

Increase

in

market share

(%

points)

Market

share 2016

(%)

Share

in LDC

exports

(2005,

%)

Share

in LDC

exports

(2016,

%)

2609 Tin ores and concentrates 19.9 892.7 +69.7 79.3 0.0 0.6

7402 Unrefined copper; copper anodes for

electrolytic refining 28.1 3,100.2 +42.6 43.5 0.0 2.3

8105 Cobalt mattes and other intermediate products

of cobalt metallurgy 329.9 892.4 +22.4 39.5 0.4 0.6

6111 Babies' garments and clothing accessories,

knitted or crocheted 93.1 1,108.2 +15.0 17.0 0.1 0.8

6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets,

blazers, trousers 1,827.2 7,260.4 +14.0 19.9 2.3 5.3

6205 Men's or boys' shirts 1,040.0 2,934.0 +13.6 22.9 1.3 2.1

1207 Other oil seeds and oleaginous fruits 403.8 1,423.8 +12.8 37.7 0.5 1.0

6109 T-shirts, singlets and other vests, knitted or

crocheted 1,882.5 6,591.8 +12.6 20.4 2.3 4.8

6104 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets, blazers, dresses, skirts

257.8 3,087.7 +10.4 13.7 0.3 2.2

6107 Men's or boys' underpants, briefs, nightshirts,

pyjamas, bathrobes 132.5 728.5 +9.9 13.4 0.2 0.5

6108 Women's or girls' slips, petticoats, briefs,

panties, nightdresses 361.0 1,235.0 +8.7 12.9 0.4 0.9

6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or crocheted 387.3 1,100.7 +8.4 16.2 0.5 0.8

6204 Women's or girls' suits, ensembles, jackets,

blazers, dresses, skirts 1,816.4 5,382.0 +8.2 12.0 2.3 3.9

6103 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, jackets,

blazers, trousers, bib and brace ... 150.9 840.1 +8.1 13.5 0.2 0.6

6210 Garments, made up of fabrics of heading

56.02, 56.03, 59.03, 59.06 or 59.07 ... 108.3 756.9 +7.5 10.0 0.1 0.5

0905 Vanilla 81.5 563.6 +7.3 71.4 0.1 0.4

6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waist-coats and

similar articles, knitted or ... 3,081.0 6,791.3 +7.1 14.5 3.8 4.9

0713 Dried leguminous vegetables, shelled 368.3 1,794.8 +6.7 17.5 0.5 1.3

7112 Waste and scrap of precious metal or of metal

clad with precious metal 38.1 1,115.3 +4.8 5.4 0.0 0.8

6201 Men's or boys' overcoats, car-coats, capes,

cloaks, anoraks 246.0 934.0 +4.7 8.3 0.3 0.7

Note: Calculations based on the 50 products with the highest export values of LDCs.

Source: UN Comtrade database (mirror data).


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3.19. While the previous table showed the top LDC products in terms of increase in world market share between 2005 and 2016, Chart 12 provides the top LDC products in terms of world market share in 2016. The highest share with almost 97% was reached by "Yarn of jute or of other textile bast fibres of heading 53.03." (HS 53.07); thus almost all world trade of this product originated

from LDCs. Also for "Cobalt ores and concentrates" (HS 26.05) – share of 96% in world exports – and "Jute and other textile bast fibres […]" (HS 53.05) – share of 94% –, LDCs were dominating world export markets. "Cloves (whole fruit, cloves and stems)" (HS 09.07) and "Tin ores and concentrates" (HS 26.09) still reached market shares of around 80% each, followed by vanilla (HS 09.05) with a market share of 71%. In other words, for five out of around 1500 HS-4-digit codes, LDCs represented more than half of world exports in 2016.

Chart 12: Top 20 products of LDCs' exports with the highest shares in world export

market, 2016

(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)

Source: UN Comtrade database (importer data).

3.2.5 Major markets of LDCs

3.20. LDCs' top ten markets by product groups for both 2005 and 2016 are listed in Table 4 (Annex Table 3 shows trade statistics for a greater number of destination markets). The European Union was the top destination for total LDC merchandise exports in both 2005 (share of 26%) and

2016 (share of 31%). China, which had been the top destination for LDC exports since 2009, secured the second place in 2016 (share of 21%). The top 10 importers accounted for 88% of LDCs' total exports in 2016, which was slightly higher than the respective share of 87% in 2005.

3.21. Regarding agricultural products, the European Union was the main destination of LDCs'

exports in both 2005 (share of 32%) and 2016 (27%). China, on position two, doubled its market share for LDC agricultural products from 10% in 2005 to 20% in 2015. India and the United States were on positions three and four, just as in 2005. The top ten destinations accounted for 81% of

LDC exports of agricultural products in 2016 (up from 76% in 2005).


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3.22. China was the most important destination for LDC exports of fuels and mining products in 2005 and 2016, expanding its share in LDC exports to almost 50% in 2016 (up from 29% in 2005). The United States dropped from second position in 2005 to fourth position in 2016 (share of 26% in 2005 and of 8% in 2016). In both years, the top 10 destinations imported more than 90% of all LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products.

3.23. The European Union and the United States were the most important destinations for LDC exports of manufactured goods in both 2005 and 2016. In 2016, the European Union imported more than half (51%) of LDC manufacturing exports (up from 49% in 2005). While growing in absolute terms, the share of LDC exports of manufactures to the United States decreased from 30% in 2005 to just below 20% in 2016. Japan was the third most important destination for LDC manufacturing exports in 2016, reaching a share of 5% (up from 2% in 2005). The share of the

top 10 destinations in LDC exports of manufactures remained unchanged at 90% between 2005

and 2016.

Table 4: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2005 and 2016

(Billion dollars and percentage shares)

Total trade Agricultural products Fuels and mining

products Manufactures

Value (US$bn)

20

05

EU (28) 21.4 EU (28) 3.6 China 14.0 EU (28) 10.3

USA 19.5 China 1.2 USA 12.5 USA 6.3

China 15.3 India 1.1 EU (28) 7.3 India 0.7

Thailand 3.6 USA 0.6 Thailand 2.8 Canada 0.6

Japan 3.5 Thailand 0.6 Japan 2.6 Japan 0.4

India 2.0 Japan 0.5 Chinese Taipei 1.6 Hong Kong, China 0.3

Chinese Taipei 1.8 Saudi Arabia 0.4 Chile 1.2 Turkey 0.1

Canada 1.6 Viet Nam 0.3 Korea, Rep. of 1.0 Mali 0.1

Chile 1.2 Pakistan 0.2 Zimbabwe 0.9 Singapore 0.1

Korea, Rep. of 1.1 Zimbabwe 0.2 Canada 0.7 South Africa 0.1

Sum of above 70.9 Sum of above 8.7 Sum of above 44.5 Sum of above 19.0

Share of top 10: 86.8 % Share of top 10: 75.7 % Share of top 10: 92.4 % Share of top 10: 90.3 %

Value (US$bn)

20

16

EU (28) 47.2 EU (28) 5.5 China 25.6 EU (28) 32.6

China 32.7 China 4.0 EU (28) 8.8 USA 11.2

USA 16.5 India 3.5 India 4.3 Japan 3.3

United Arab Emirates 10.6 USA 0.9 USA 4.2 Canada 2.2

India 10.1 Japan 0.7 South Africa 2.2 China 2.0

Switzerland 4.6 Pakistan 0.5 Korea, Rep. of 1.8 India 1.6

Japan 4.5 Korea, Rep. of 0.4 Chinese Taipei 1.6 United Arab Emirates 1.5

Korea, Rep. of 3.3 United Arab Emirates 0.4 Japan 0.5 Korea, Rep. of 1.0

South Africa 3.0 Malaysia 0.3 United Arab Emirates 0.5 Turkey 1.0

Canada 2.6 Indonesia 0.3 Indonesia 0.4 Australia 0.8

Sum of above 135.1 Sum of above 16.6 Sum of above 50.0 Sum of above 57.3

Share of top 10: 88.1 % Share of top 10: 81.0 % Share of top 10: 94.6 % Share of top 10: 89.5 %

Source: UN Comtrade (importer data).

3.3 Services Trade Developments

3.24. In the period 2005-2016, LDCs' commercial services exports expanded by 12% on average per year, compared to 8% in other developing economies and 5% in the developed group. Following a decade of sustained growth, LDCs' exports of commercial services slowed down since 2014. This downward trend accentuated in 2016, when services exports fell by 4% to US$32 billion. The pattern was similar on the import side, with a more pronounced drop in 2016, by 6%, to US$65 billion (see Chart 13 and Annex Table 5 for country detail).


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Chart 13: LDCs' trade in commercial services, 2006-2016

(Annual percentage change)

Source: WTO-UNCTAD-ITC estimates.

3.25. In 2016, the share of LDCs in global exports of commercial services stood at 0.7%, up from 0.4% in 2005. The LDCs' share in world services imports decreased to 1.4% in 2016, which was lower than in 2015 (1.5%) but higher than in 2005 (1.0%) (see Chart 14).

Chart 14: LDCs' share in world exports and imports of commercial services, 2005-2016

(Percentage shares)



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3.26. LDCs' performance in services exports varied significantly by region in 2016 (see Chart 15). Exports of LDCs in Africa accounted for more than half of LDCs' total commercial services in 2016 and grew on average by 10% between 2005 and 2016. Rapid export growth over the years was fuelled by transport services, with Ethiopia's rise as air transport exporter, as well as by the thriving tourism sector especially in Tanzania and Uganda.

3.27. However, in 2016, LDCs in Africa saw sharp declines, with services exports falling by 5%

and imports by 11%. Transport exports declined by 4%, as Ethiopia's and Tanzania's exports stagnated. Other commercial services were the most affected (-9% on both exports and imports). Falling commodity prices reduced revenues of LDC oil exporters, limiting their capacity to import services, in particular business, professional, and technical services, which fell by 11%.

Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2005-2016

(Billion dollars)


3.28. In the period 2005-2016, LDCs in Asia recorded the most rapid export growth expanding by

14% on average per year thanks to the significant performances of Cambodia and Myanmar as leading tourism destinations, and Bangladesh and Nepal as information and communication technology (ICT) exporters. Similarly, commercial services imports expanded more rapidly in LDCs in Asia (+12% on average per year) than in other LDC regions.

3.29. In 2016, LDCs in Asia saw a 3% decline in exports, largely due to falling exports of "other commercial services" (-12%), while imports continued to recorded double-digit growth (+10%). Travel exports grew by 3%, despite a slowdown in foreign tourists visiting Myanmar, the third

largest tourism exporter in the LDC group, the second among LDCs in Asia.

3.30. In LDC islands, average annual growth of services exports reached 10% between 2005 and 2016. Tourism, which accounts for more than two-thirds of services exports, was thereby the leading sector. In the Solomon Islands, travel earnings expanded by 38% on average per year and by 23% in Sao Tome and Principe. In 2016, however, according to preliminary estimates, LDC islands experienced a modest growth of 2% for their services imports and a decline of 6% for their exports.

3.31. Services trade in LDCs remains concentrated within a few economies, an unchanged pattern since 2005 (see Chart 16). In 2016, the top ten leading exporters accounted for almost 70% of the group's services receipts. According to Secretariat estimates, Myanmar was the largest exporter of services among the LDCs, boosted by rising travel exports. Imports are equally concentrated with the first five importers, led by Angola, representing around half of LDCs' total commercial services payments.


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Chart 16: Leading LDC traders of commercial services, 2016

(Percentage shares)


3.32. Over recent years, the number of international tourist arrivals to LDCs multiplied rising from over 10 million arrivals in 2005 to more than 28 million in 2015 (see Chart 17). Increasing inflows of foreign tourists and their purchase of goods and services in the countries they have visited has boosted LDCs' travel revenue. In 2016, revenue reached US$17 billion compared with US$5 billion

in 2005. As a result, the LDCs' share of world travel exports has doubled in ten years, reaching 1.4% of global travel receipts in 2016.

Chart 17: LDCs' travel exports and international tourist arrivals, 2005-2016

(Billion dollars and million arrivals)

Source: WTO estimates based on UNWTO data and WTO-UNCTAD-ITC estimates.

3.33. Travellers' expenditure in LDCs brings revenue to a variety of sectors, such as accommodation, food and beverages, transport, retail, recreation and cultural activities, creating employment opportunities in both urban and rural areas. In addition, tourism fosters the

development of other sectors, such as agriculture (e.g. food supply to hotels and restaurants),

construction, communications, utilities (e.g. the supply of electricity and water to hotels), and conference and events management. Travel exports in LDCs have expanded more rapidly than exports of manufactured goods and fuels and mining products, their most traded products (see Chart 18).


- 23 -

Chart 18: LDCs: Travel exports, and exports of agricultural products, manufactured goods, and fuels and mining products, 2005-2016

(Index 2005 = 100)


3.34. Secretariat estimates based on national accounts statistics of 42 LDCs for the period 2005-2014, the latest available year, confirm the swift growth of the accommodation sector in LDCs compared to other sectors of the economy as well as other commercial services activities6 (see Chart 19).

Chart 19: LDCs: GDP by selected economic activities 2005-2014

(Index 2005 = 100)

Source: WTO estimates on the basis of National Accounts statistics of 42 LDCs.

3.35. International tourism in LDCs is essentially intra-regional, according to WTO Secretariat estimates based on UNWTO data. In 2015, around 85% of foreign tourists visiting LDCs in Asia originated from neighbouring economies, up from 59% in 2005. In Myanmar, for example, foreign tourists in 2015 came almost exclusively from Asia, with almost half of them from China and more than one-third from Thailand.

6 Estimates do not cover the following countries: Chad, Eritrea, Haiti, Somalia, South Sudan, and

Tuvalu.


- 24 -

3.36. In Cambodia, the share of tourists from Asia stood at 77%, with China accounting for 15% and Viet Nam for 21%. China was the main source of foreign tourists to Bhutan (19%) while in Lao People's Democratic Republic half of the tourists came from Thailand. In total, some 4 million Chinese travellers visited LDCs in Asia in 2015, an increase of 52% on average per year since 2011.

3.37. The increase in travel receipts for LDCs in Asia matches closely the growth of tourist arrivals

from Asia in the last ten years. Fuelled by rising intra-regional tourists, travel exports of LDCs in Asia have risen faster than the exports of LDCs in Africa and LDC islands (see Chart 20). Consequently, LDCs in Asia increased their share in total LDCs' travel exports to 40%, up from 26% in 2005.

Chart 20: LDCs in Asia and in Africa: International tourist arrivals by region of origin and travel exports, 2005-2016

(Million arrivals and million dollars)

Source: WTO estimates based on UNWTO data and WTO-UNCTAD-ITC estimates.

3.38. Intra-regional tourists are also the main source of tourists for LDCs in Africa, representing around 63% of travellers to Africa in recent years. Tourists from Europe represented on average just over 20% of total arrivals. Although LDCs in Africa comprise more than 30 countries and a

population twice as high as LDCs in Asia, their travel exports were not significantly higher in 2016. LDCs in Africa are not yet benefiting as much as LDCs in Asia from the inflows and travel expenditure of Chinese tourists, the largest and predicted tourism source market. Although the number of Chinese tourists is on the rise, in 2015 they accounted for only 2% of foreign tourists in Tanzania and Zambia and 1% in Uganda.

3.39. Between 2005 and 2016, LDCs' other commercial services exports expanded by 10% on

average. All sectors recorded rapid growth with the exception of intellectual property related

services (charges for the use of intellectual property, n.i.e), which saw declines (see Chart 21). Personal, cultural and recreational services which include artistic services such as the live performance of artists in concerts, etc. were the most dynamic during the entire period, even though the exported amounts were small. The ICT sector recorded the second-highest growth, although a digital divide remains in LDCs with respect to access to and use of information technology.


- 25 -

Chart 21: LDCs' export growth of other commercial services by sector, 2005-2016

(Annual percentage change)


3.40. According to ITU estimates, by the end of 2017, less than 15% of LDCs' households will have access to the Internet at home, compared with 84.4% in developed economies (see Chart 22). Similarly, in LDCs only 17.5% individuals will use the Internet, while in developed

economies they will reach 81%.

3.41. Infrastructural constraints, low rates of access to the Internet, poor connectivity, as well as

lack of technological knowledge hinders the integration of LDCs, especially African LDCs, in world trade in ICTs services. In 2016, a negligible 0.1% of global exports of computer and information services originated from LDCs. Finally, the persistence of such a digital divide prevents LDCs from entering fully into new ways of trading goods and services, such as e-commerce and to participate in global value chains.

Chart 22: Digital divide between developed economies and LDCs, 2005-2017

(Percentage)

Note: * Data for 2017 are estimates.

Source: International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The aggregate "developed economies" follows ITU's definition. Data for 2017 are estimates.


- 26 -

Box 1: The contribution of services to GDP in LDCs

The lower participation of LDCs in services exports (0.7% of world trade) reflects a smaller domestic supply base. According to Secretariat estimates, the share of commercial services (excluding public administration and defence and compulsory social security) in total GDP in LDCs averaged 41% in 2014, significantly less than in higher-income economies (above 70%) and in middle-income economies (over 50%). The value of commercial services (see Chart 23) produced by LDCs in 2014 is estimated by the Secretariat at US$354 billion7, of which US$212 billion

produced by LDCs in Africa (including islands), and US$142 billion by LDCs in Asia (including islands). Services production in the entire LDC group is 5 to 6 times lower than in individual developed economies such as France and Germany.

Chart 23: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2005-2014

(Billion dollars)


LDCs' economies remained dominated by the primary sector, accounting for almost one third of GDP. Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing accounted for 21.4%, and mining and quarrying for an additional 10.2%, predominantly due to LDCs in Africa where the share stood at 13.9%. Manufacturing contributed on average for 11.2% of LDCs' GDP, with the manufacturing share

being highest in LDCs in Asia (16.4%), double the share of LDCs in Africa. A closer look at the sectoral services breakdown reveals that the hotels and restaurants sector contributed the most to LDCs' GDP, at 8.2%, inasmuch as wholesale and retail trade. While the hotels and restaurants sector accounted for 10% of GDP in LDCs in Africa, the respective share in LDCs in Asia was 5.2%.

Transport and storage stood at 6.2% and communications at 2.8%. Financial intermediation activities represented 2.7%, whereas it represented 6% of world's leading financial services

traders. Similarly, value added from real estate, renting and business activities totalled 6.3% in LDCs compared to 22% in the European Union. The contribution of education, health and social work and other community, social and personal services accounted for 6.4%. Construction, not included under services in national accounts, represented alone 8% of total GDP.

7 Estimates do not cover the following countries: Chad, Eritrea, Haiti, Somalia, South Sudan, and

Tuvalu.


- 27 -

Chart 24: GDP by main economic activity in LDCs, 2014

(Percentage shares)



- 28 -

4 MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS

4.1 Trends in market access for products of export interest to LDCs

4.1. This section discusses the market access conditions for LDC exports in terms of proportion of tariff lines receiving duty-free treatment, as well as in terms of average applied duties in key sectors. These two indicators are included in the set of indicators used to measure the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs).8

4.2. The UN SDGs recognise trade as an engine for inclusive economic growth and poverty reduction. This recognition is reflected in Goal 10 ("Reduce inequality within and among countries") and its Target 10.a to "implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with WTO agreements". The SDG indicator used to measure the implementation of Target 10.a is defined as

the proportion of tariff lines with zero duty applied to products from LDCs and developing countries

(Chart 25). Being part of Goal 17 ("Strengthen the means of implementation"), SDG Target 17.12 calls for a "timely implementation of DFQF market access on a lasting basis for all LDCs, consistent with WTO decisions…". Average tariffs faced by the LDCs are used as indicator to measure the implementation of Target 17.12 (Table 5).

4.3. As shown in Chart 25, the LDCs and developing countries have benefitted from a continuing increase in duty-free market access over the last decade. From a global perspective, in 2015, the international trading community granted to LDCs duty-free market access on 65% of tariff lines,

which is considerably higher than the respective share of 50% in the case of developing countries. Chart 25 also reveals that worldwide, the proportion of duty-free tariff lines has risen from 49% in 2005 to 65% in 2015 for LDCs, which confirms the commitment of Members to grant preferential market access to the LDCs.

Chart 25: Proportion of tariff lines worldwide with zero duty applied to products from

developing countries and LDCs, 2005, 2010 and 2015

(Percentage shares)

Source: ITC/UNCTAD/WTO.

4.4. Table 5 shows average tariffs applied by developed Members on key products from LDCs. LDC exports to developed Members benefit from low duties or - to a large extent - from duty-free treatment. In 2015, LDC faced average tariffs of 0.9% for agricultural products, 0.3% for

manufactures (other than minerals and oils, textiles and clothing products), and 0% for fuels and minerals. However, on textiles and clothing products, the average duty was higher at around 3.2% and 6.5%, respectively. Table 5 furthermore shows that average tariffs levied on exports from LDCs to developed countries remained largely stationary over the period 2011-2015.

8 The complete list of SDG indicators are provided in Annex III of the Report of the Inter-agency and

Expert Group on SDG Indicators (E/CN.3/2017/2). Available at: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/.

https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/


- 29 -

Table 5: Average tariffs applied by developed Members on key products from LDCs, 2011-2015

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Agricultural products 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9%

Clothing 6.7% 6.7% 6.7% 6.5% 6.5%

Textiles 3.2% 3.1% 3.1% 3.2% 3.2%

Minerals and oil products 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Other industrial products 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Note: Average tariffs are based on best applicable tariffs (MFN and preferential treatment to LDCs) and the assumption that available preferences are fully used by the exporting LDC.

Source: ITC/UNCTAD/WTO.

4.2 Duty-free market access granted by selected Members

4.5. Table 6 provides statistics on duty-free market access accorded to LDCs by selected Members, which have notified LDC preference schemes to the WTO. The preferential LDC schemes of Australia, New Zealand, Norway and Switzerland provides full duty free market access for LDC exports. For Canada, Chile, the EU and Japan, more than 97% of their tariff lines are free of duty for products originating from LDCs. Both China and India have considerably improved the duty-free coverage of their LDC schemes, with around 95% of their tariff lines being free of any

import duty.9

4.6. In 2015, LDCs exported the highest number of products (in terms of national tariff lines) to the EU, followed by China. In dollar terms, some 60% of LDC exports were dutiable under the

Unites States' GSP LDC scheme, with a trade-weighted average tariff of 10%. However, eligible LDCs enjoy significant duty-free access to its market under the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and the Caribbean Basin Initiative. For instance, the United States provided 97.5% duty-free market access to LDC beneficiaries of the AGOA.

9 Reference year for China is 2014 as relevant data for 2015 is awaited by the Secretariat.


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Table 6: Duty-free market access under LDC schemes in selected Members, 2015

Market Sector

LDC duty scheme Imports from UN-LDC countriesb

(million US$ and percentage) Number of tariff

lines

Number of tariff lines with imports

from LDC beneficiariesa

Dutiable Duty free

(%)

Total Dutiable

under MFN

Dutiable under LDC

scheme

TOTAL Duty free

(%)

Weighted applied

dutyc

Australia Total 0 100.0 1,110 712 0 904.4 100.0 0.0

Ag 0 100.0 157 54 0 39.3 100.0 0.0

Non-ag 0 100.0 953 658 0 865.1 100.0 0.0

Canada Total 105 98.6 2,099 924 2 2,911.6 99.5 0.1

Ag 105 92.8 374 167 2 72.9 98.7 0.0

Non-ag 0 100.0 1,725 757 0 2,838.7 99.5 0.1

Chile Total 41 99.5 583 583 0 176.0 100.0 0.0

Ag 41 97.1 26 26 0 1.4 100.0 0.0

Non-ag 0 100.0 557 557 0 174.5 100.0 0.0

Chinad Total 636 95.1 3,345 2,994 87 71,377.7 97.8 0.3

Ag 143 90.5 241 225 27 1,915.0 71.3 5.1

Non-ag 493 95.7 3,104 2,769 60 69,462.7 98.6 0.1

European

Union Total 91 99.0 4,274 3,276 16 41,837.3 100.0 0.0

Ag 73 96.5 726 541 12 3,807.4 100.0 0.0

Non-ag 18 99.8 3,548 2,735 4 38,029.9 100.0 0.0

Icelandd Total 707 91.8 - - - - - -

Ag 707 63.3 - - - - - -

Non-ag 0 100.0 - - - - - -

India Total 688 94.0 1,694 1,631 204 11,064.3 95.5 1.5

Ag 345 76.9 288 265 92 3,002.7 90.9 5.1

Non-ag 343 96.6 1,406 1,366 112 8,061.6 97.2 0.1

Japan Total 198 97.9 1,134 757 28 4,922.2 98.9 0.1

Ag 69 96.4 169 103 4 436.7 99.8 0.0

Non-ag 129 98.3 965 654 24 4,485.5 98.8 0.1

Korea,

Republic of Total 1,185 90.3 1,485 1,319 173 3,803.3 76.4 1.9

Ag 701 59.4 231 218 102 199.9 63.0 20.3

Non-ag 484 95.4 1,254 1,101 71 3,603.4 77.1 1.1

New

Zealand Total 0 100.0 998 652 0 100.6 100.0 0.0

Ag 0 100.0 149 58 0 16.3 100.0 0.0

Non-ag 0 100.0 849 594 0 84.3 100.0 0.0

Norway Total 0 100.0 1,138 314 0 416.9 100.0 0.0

Ag 0 100.0 211 73 0 31.2 100.0 0.0

Non-ag 0 100.0 927 241 0 385.7 100.0 0.0

Russian

Federationd Total 7,415 36.3 - - - - - -

Ag 997 62.8 - - - - - -

Non-ag 6,418 28.3 - - - - - -

Switzerland Total 0 100.0 1,332 1,129 0 3,418.6 100.0 0.0

Ag 0 100.0 306 233 0 168.0 100.0 0.0

Non-ag 0 100.0 1,026 896 0 3,250.6 100.0 0.0

Chinese

Taipei Total 6,159 31.0 837 653 596 1,965.1 92.2 0.8

Ag 1,145 23.7 119 87 83 59.4 43.8 6.9

Non-ag 5,014 32.5 718 566 513 1,905.7 93.7 0.7

Thailand Total 2,421 74.7 2,356 1,851 716 6,459.2 86.7 1.3

Ag 306 76.4 271 239 60 573.7 83.8 7.8

Non-ag 2,115 74.4 2,085 1,612 656 5,885.4 87.0 0.7

Turkey Total 3,020 81.7 - - - - - -

Ag 2,046 26.8 - - - - - -

Non-ag 974 92.9 - - - - - -

United

States of

America

Total 1,863 82.6 1,870 1,218 578 16,704.9 39.7 10.0

Ag 269 85.8 214 136 4 632.0 96.2 0.2

Non-ag 1,594 81.9 1,656 1,082 574 16,072.9 37.4 10.4

a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; some UN-LDC countries may be excluded.

b 48 LDCs as listed by the UN in 2015. Full utilization of LDC schemes is assumed when calculating the share of

duty-free imports and the trade-weighted applied duty.

c Excludes non-ad valorem duties.

d 2014.

Source: WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB).


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4.3 Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs

4.7. Annex Table 6 provides a non-exhaustive list of major multilateral non-reciprocal market access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs. It updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications and statements at the WTO as well as submissions made to WTO's IDB. The Table does not include regional or bilateral initiatives under which, too, LDCs receive preferences.

4.8. Progress has been noted in providing duty-free tariff treatment to LDCs. In November 2016, China submitted a notification (WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2) providing updated information on its DFQF programme for LDCs, stating that the Chinese DFQF Programme covered 97% of its tariff lines. On 20 January 2017, the United States made a notification concerning non-reciprocal preferences for Nepal (WT/COMTD/N/52), which were developed in response to the devastating earthquake in Nepal in 2015. Pursuant to the the Waiver Decision adopted by the General Council

on 12 December 2016 (WT/L/1001), the United States provides duty-free treatment for 66 products falling under HS Chapters 42, 57, 61, 62, 63 and 65. These new trade preferences for Nepal entered into force on 30 December 2016 and will end on 31 December 2025.

4.9. As has been reported in the past, most of the developed Members grant either full or nearly full DFQF market access. Developing Members, namely Chile, China, India, Republic of Korea, Chinese Taipei and Thailand have made notifications concerning their respective DFQF schemes for LDCs. Most of them grant a significant degree of DFQF market access to LDC products, and a

number of them have reached or are in the process of attaining comprehensive DFQF coverage for LDCs.

4.10. Members have continued to discuss steps taken by Members to provide DFQF market access to LDCs. In this regard, on 15 November 2016, the LDC Group submitted a revised proposal in the Committee on Trade and Development (CTD) for a Secretariat study concerning the implementation of DFQF market access for LDC products (WT/COMTD/W/218/Rev.1).

4.11. Progress has been made in the implementation of the Nairobi Decision on Preferential Rules

of Origin for LDCs (Nairobi Decision) (WT/L/917/Add.1).10 On 2 March 2017, the Committee on Rules of Origin (CRO) adopted a template for the notification of preferential rules of origin (G/RO/84) to enhance transparency and promote a better understanding of the rules of origin applicable to imports from LDCs. The majority of preference-granting Members have already submitted information on their rules of origin using the new template.11 The CRO also agreed on a methodology for the calculation of utilization rates (paragraph 3.2(a) of G/RO/W/161) and initiated

an examination of preferential rules of origin in light of utilization rates calculated by the Secretariat (G/RO/W/168/Rev.1).

4.12. Measures are being taken by Members to implement the provisions of the Nairobi Decision. In this regard, submissions were made by Canada (G/RO/82), Japan (G/RO/81), Switzerland (G/RO/80), and the United States (G/RO/83); while Australia, the European Union, and Norway made oral statements in the CRO meeting of 22 September 2016 (G/RO/M/67). At the CRO

meeting on 2 March 2017 (G/RO/M/68), China informed Members that it had introduced a number

of improvements in its regulations on preferential treatment for the LDCs, including the expansion of cumulation possibilities and the simplification of certification procedures. At the same meeting, Norway mentioned that it had decided to expand cumulation possibilities for the LDCs. In October 2017, Canada notified the expansion of cumulation possibilities for selected apparel products which had come into force in June 2017. It may also be noted that, as of 1 January 2017, the EU, Norway and Switzerland have started to implement their new system of self-certification of origin – the Registered Exporter System (REX) – under their respective GSP schemes.

4.13. Progress has also been noted with respect to preferential treatment of services and services suppliers under the LDC Services Waiver Decision (WT/L/847), and subsequent decisions taken at the Bali (WT/L/918) and Nairobi Ministerial Conferences (WT/L/982). The Council for Trade in Services (CTS) has maintained the operationalization of the LDC Services Waiver as a standing item on its agenda. Under this item, the CTS has, inter alia, considered the assessments by the

10 Recent developments in preferential rules of origins are summarised in a report of the Committee on

Rules of Origin of 11 October 2017 to the General Council (G/RO/85). 11 Notifications are submitted under the document series G/RO/LDC/N/*.


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LDC Group of notifications by preference-granting Members in both 2016 (Canada, European Union, South Africa) and in the first half of 2017 (Brazil, Panama, Thailand).12

4.14. Table 7 provides the list of Members that have submitted notifications of their preferential treatment to services and services suppliers of LDCs. Since the last report, one Member (Panama) has submitted a new notification (S/C/N/890) in May 2017. The tally of total number of notifications, by the end of September 2017, stood at twenty-four (24).

Table 7: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver

Notifying Member Date of

notification References

Australia 29-May-15 S/C/N/805

Brazil 04-Nov-15 S/C/N/839

Canada 14-Dec-15 S/C/N/792/Rev.1

Chile 08-Oct-15 S/C/N/834

China 22-Jul-15 S/C/N/809

European Union 16-Nov-15 S/C/N/840

Hong Kong, China 24-Jul-15 S/C/N/810

Iceland 09-Oct-15 S/C/N/835

India 29-Sep-15 S/C/N/833

Japan 31-Jul-15 S/C/N/820

Korea, Rep. of 10-Jul-15 S/C/N/808

Liechtenstein 30-Nov-15 S/C/N/841

Mexico 20-Aug-15 S/C/N/821

New Zealand 28-Jul-15 S/C/N/813

Norway 25-Jun-15 S/C/N/806

Panama 4-May-17 S/C/N/890

Singapore 24-Jul-15 S/C/N/812

South Africa 02-Dec-15 S/C/N/853

Switzerland 30-Jul-15 S/C/N/819

Chinese Taipei 24-Jul-15 S/C/N/811

Thailand 17-Feb-16 S/C/N/860

Turkey 14-Jun-16 S/C/N/824/Rev.1

United States 03-Sep-15 S/C/N/825

Uruguay 12-Jan-16 S/C/N/857


12 For details, see minutes contained in document S/C/M/127; S/C/M/128; S/C/M/130 and S/C/M/132.

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ANNEX

Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2016

(Million dollars and percentage)

Exports Imports

Value Annual percentage change Value Annual percentage change

2016 2005-16 2014 2015 2016 2016 2005-16 2014 2015 2016

LDCs 145,448 5.3 -3.5 -23.5 -6.0 228,464 9.2 6.5 -9.7 -3.0

Exporters of agricultural products 16,200 10.7 12.1 -13.3 -1.3 49,616 10.8 7.5 -4.7 0.6

Afghanistan 520 2.8 10.8 0.2 -9.0 9,150 12.6 -10.0 0.3 18.5

Benin 1,354 8.0 29.3 -40.9 -10.7 2,251 7.5 27.0 -39.6 -2.6

Burkina Faso 2,400 16.0 4.1 -11.3 10.3 3,171 8.8 -18.0 -16.5 6.1

Burundi 120 6.8 40.1 -8.6 -0.8 755 9.8 -5.2 11.4 -11.8

Central African Republic 93 -2.8 -17.5 -10.8 9.4 382 7.4 90.3 -14.7 10.4

Comoros 14 1.5 14.4 -27.8 -16.7 206 6.9 -2.2 -23.2 -3.3

Ethiopia 4,612 16.0 39.0 -11.3 -8.3 16,588 13.6 27.2 8.8 -1.9

Gambia 111 27.8 -2.1 4.8 1.7 411 4.3 10.6 7.6 -1.3

Guinea-Bissau 263 10.3 8.7 55.0 2.2 249 8.1 17.2 5.9 9.9

Kiribati 11 8.9 52.0 8.4 0.0 85 1.3 10.5 7.2 -26.1

Liberia 170 2.4 -20.5 -40.3 -36.1 1,311 14.0 73.6 -15.5 -22.3

Malawi 1,017 6.5 11.1 -19.5 -5.8 2,425 6.9 -2.5 -16.7 4.9

Rwanda 744 17.6 2.9 -5.4 8.9 2,293 15.5 7.2 -3.7 -3.6

Sao Tome and Principe 12 5.3 33.6 -34.3 5.9 142 10.0 11.6 -16.4 0.1

Solomon Islands 415 13.5 -5.9 -12.4 3.4 430 8.0 -7.0 -6.4 -8.0

Somalia 440 5.3 -1.9 -13.7 0.0 1,080 5.0 -3.8 -12.0 -1.8

Timor-Leste 20 8.6 -12.2 16.4 11.1 780 19.6 1.9 6.0 -14.3

Togo 1,290 6.3 -12.9 -0.4 -2.3 2,382 7.6 -8.7 -9.2 3.7

Uganda 2,543 10.9 -6.1 0.2 12.2 5,099 8.6 4.4 -9.0 -7.8

Vanuatu 51 2.7 62.9 -38.1 30.1 424 10.0 -0.8 18.0 15.7

Fuel exportersa 46,402 -0.4 -10.5 -41.5 -20.6 57,301 7.8 6.4 -19.7 -5.6

Angola 25,164 0.4 -13.3 -43.9 -24.2 19,246 7.9 8.5 -27.6 -7.0

Bhutan 470 5.6 7.3 -5.8 -14.4 1,030 9.3 2.5 13.8 -2.9

Chad 1,600 -5.8 0.0 -31.6 -38.5 2,200 7.9 3.3 -16.1 -15.4

Equatorial Guinea 4,800 -3.5 -14.3 -48.4 -26.2 2,800 7.1 -1.8 -38.2 -17.6

Myanmar 11,000 10.2 2.0 -0.2 -3.8 16,600 21.7 34.7 4.1 -1.7

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Exports Imports


2016 2005-16 2014 2015 2016 2016 2005-16 2014 2015 2016

Sudan 2,368 -6.3 -7.0 -28.8 -25.3 8,656 2.3 -7.1 3.2 -9.0

Yemen 1,000 -14.5 -6.0 -87.2 0.0 6,770 2.1 -9.3 -45.4 3.0

Manufacture exporters 49,711 11.4 4.2 8.5 9.1 71,847 10.2 11.8 -5.0 6.8

Bangladesh 34,956 12.8 4.4 6.5 8.0 41,490 10.5 14.0 -6.6 5.1

Cambodia 10,040 11.3 2.7 24.8 17.5 12,600 11.2 11.0 6.3 -0.1

Haiti 1,002 7.1 -4.4 21.7 -2.8 3,466 8.2 4.6 -1.1 -6.4

Lesotho 911 3.1 -2.4 2.1 7.9 1,827 2.4 -1.4 -5.9 -9.5

Madagascar 2,063 8.3 14.2 -6.7 0.7 2,814 4.7 -1.0 -13.4 0.7

Nepal 740 -1.4 1.2 -18.9 2.7 9,650 14.0 15.1 -12.0 45.1

Exporters of non-fuel mineralsb 30,354 9.3 1.3 -18.4 -3.8 43,221 8.6 0.4 -7.1 -16.2

Congo, Dem. Rep. of 5,400 7.6 11.3 -15.9 -6.9 4,800 5.4 4.8 -4.5 -23.8

Eritrea 345 36.4 104.0 -22.5 -30.8 1,055 7.2 8.7 -9.7 3.4

Guinea 1,839 7.2 18.0 -28.4 28.0 2,151 9.2 26.2 -6.8 -2.2

Lao People's Dem. Rep. 3,020 16.7 17.6 4.0 9.1 4,720 16.5 38.6 22.5 -9.8

Mali 2,538 7.9 18.8 -2.3 -6.6 3,509 7.8 2.8 -2.9 -7.7

Mauritania 1,299 6.9 -27.0 -28.3 -6.5 1,825 2.3 -13.1 -26.4 -6.3

Mozambique 3,355 5.9 9.9 -22.8 -1.7 5,295 7.4 -8.1 -10.2 -36.5

Niger 1,050 7.2 -9.4 -24.1 -4.5 1,650 5.2 8.4 -9.6 -16.7

Sierra Leone 635 13.4 -19.0 -67.0 24.1 1,560 14.7 -11.9 -2.4 2.0

Tanzania 5,072 10.6 1.5 6.6 2.9 9,611 10.2 -0.8 -10.0 -10.9

Zambia 5,801 11.2 -8.6 -27.9 -16.9 7,045 9.6 -6.1 -11.7 -16.3

Diversified and othersc 2,781 5.0 3.6 -4.7 1.3 6,479 5.0 0.5 -8.4 -3.5

Djibouti 140 12.2 8.0 3.4 5.2 974 12.1 11.6 34.5 -9.9

Senegal 2,640 4.8 3.4 -5.0 1.1 5,478 4.2 -0.8 -14.0 -2.1

Tuvalu 0 12.9 460.5 -12.0 13.2 28 7.3 7.1 66.3 -24.0

Worldd 15,464,200 3.8 0.3 -13.5 -3.3 15,798,526 3.7 0.6 -12.5 -3.2

a Includes exporters of electricity (Bhutan). b Includes exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamonds

(normally included in manufactures according to the UN classification). c Includes exporters without a clear specialization in a specific category of goods. d Excluding re-exports of Hong Kong, China; including EU-intra trade.


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Annex Table 2: Export prices of primary commodities, 2005-2017 (Q2)

(Indices 2005 = 100)

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2016 2017

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2

Food and beverages 100 110 127 157 136 153 182 175 175 171 144 146 139 151 148 146 151 150

Food 100 111 127 157 134 150 180 176 178 170 141 144 136 149 146 144 151 150

Cereals 100 122 159 222 161 166 230 236 218 218 149 131 136 141 126 120 131 134

Wheat 100 126 167 214 147 147 207 206 205 187 143 110 125 123 99 94 111 114

Maize 100 124 166 227 168 189 297 303 263 196 173 162 163 174 156 155 163 160

Rice 100 106 116 243 205 181 192 202 180 148 132 135 128 140 145 127 128 142

Barley 100 123 181 211 135 167 218 251 217 154 135 136 126 145 138 136 142 148

Vegetable oils and protein meals 100 103 143 193 154 170 209 216 206 191 153 156 144 164 159 158 161 151

Meat 100 95 99 103 98 117 134 132 136 136 137 126 122 131 130 122 133 147

Beef 100 97 99 102 101 128 154 158 155 189 169 150 142 151 156 151 155 168

Lamb 100 96 101 106 91 91 93 63 66 81 67 66 59 63 69 75 78 86

Swine meat 100 94 94 96 82 110 132 122 128 152 100 92 89 107 98 74 99 103

Poultry 100 94 106 115 116 116 118 128 141 149 155 151 152 151 150 150 159 189

Seafood 100 121 113 113 114 140 139 113 160 162 132 162 149 165 163 170 179 178

Fish 100 125 112 119 121 151 146 117 166 163 131 176 160 181 178 184 195 193

Shrimp 100 105 116 91 85 98 115 97 136 160 136 107 107 102 103 114 117 117

Sugar 100 133 102 117 152 172 211 175 148 146 118 152 128 147 167 167 159 130

Bananas 100 118 117 146 147 153 169 171 161 162 166 174 178 172 177 167 179 188

Oranges 100 98 114 132 108 118 102 99 111 90 77 102 79 90 114 125 105 89

Beverages 100 108 123 152 154 176 206 167 147 178 173 164 159 164 170 164 156 148

Coffee 100 112 129 150 132 165 231 180 147 185 154 156 140 150 164 170 167 155

Cocoa beans 100 103 127 167 187 203 193 154 158 198 203 187 193 201 193 162 136 128

Tea 100 112 98 125 145 146 160 161 123 110 157 133 134 116 132 150 171 172

Agricultural raw materials 100 109 114 113 94 124 153 133 136 139 120 113 108 114 116 116 120 117

Timber 100 108 107 109 102 101 111 107 107 109 105 100 97 103 102 99 98 100

Cotton 100 105 115 129 114 188 280 162 164 151 128 135 121 129 145 143 154 157

Wool 100 104 144 138 115 153 234 215 196 178 163 179 167 177 188 184 199 200

Rubber 100 140 153 174 128 243 321 225 186 130 104 109 87 110 112 128 169 137

Hides and skins 100 105 110 98 68 110 125 127 144 168 134 113 111 112 113 116 117 108

Minerals and non-ferrous metals

(excluding crude petroleum) 100 156 183 169 136 202 229 190 182 164 126 120 110 115 120 133 147 135

Copper 100 183 194 189 141 205 240 217 199 187 150 132 127 129 130 144 159 154

Aluminum 100 135 139 136 88 114 126 106 97 98 88 84 80 83 85 90 97 100

Iron ore 100 119 130 219 285 522 597 457 482 347 200 208 172 201 209 252 305 225

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2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2016 2017

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2

Tin 100 119 196 250 184 276 353 286 302 297 218 243 209 229 252 282 271 270

Nickel 100 163 251 143 99 148 155 119 102 114 80 65 58 60 70 73 70 63

Zinc 100 237 235 137 120 157 159 141 138 157 140 151 122 139 163 182 201 188

Lead 100 132 265 215 177 221 246 212 220 215 184 192 178 176 192 220 234 222

Uranium 100 171 355 230 167 165 201 175 138 120 132 94 117 99 91 70 86 77

Total of above 100 123 140 151 127 161 190 171 169 162 134 131 124 133 133 136 144 139

Energy 100 119 132 185 117 147 201 203 196 180 99 81 64 83 85 94 68 86

Natural gas 100 115 117 174 110 113 154 171 165 160 107 70 74 64 69 73 82 70

Crude petroleum 100 121 133 182 116 149 204 208 201 184 97 80 61 84 84 92 61 84

Coal 100 104 138 266 149 206 254 202 177 149 121 138 108 111 142 193 174 167

All primary commodities 100 121 135 172 121 152 197 191 186 173 112 100 86 101 103 110 96 105

Note: Beginning with the first quarter of 2011, the crude oil price index is computed excluding West Texas Intermediate (WTI), in order to better reflect prices in international trade. The price of WTI, which accounts for one third of the IMF's original crude oil index, became largely dislocated from international markets in early 2011. Although suited for measuring oil price worldwide, the WTI inclusion in a crude oil price index would however considerably distort an index meant to measure oil prices in international trade.

Source: IMF commodity prices.

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Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2005-2016 (Million dollars and percentage)

All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures

Regions and major

markets Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016 2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016 2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016 2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016

Africa 2,834 7,925 100 -3 10 816 1,775 22 3 7 1,299 4,068 51 -8 11 714 2,041 26 0 10

South Africa 752 3,045 100 -7 14 118 281 9 24 8 514 2,201 72 -13 14 120 560 18 6 15

Mali (2012) 438 1,240 100 ... 16 25 92 7 ... 20 286 779 63 ... 15 126 369 30 ... 17

Zambia (2015) 113 1,106 100 ... 26 20 10 1 ... -7 77 676 61 ... 24 16 419 38 ... 38

Kenya 126 417 100 -18 12 51 256 61 -28 16 18 43 10 34 8 57 118 28 0 7

Côte d'Ivoire 157 411 100 20 9 125 300 73 26 8 15 48 12 -21 11 16 62 15 39 13

Egypt 245 321 100 -11 2 118 141 44 1 2 111 148 46 -17 3 16 31 10 -25 6

Ghana 114 280 100 5 8 33 135 48 10 14 4 13 5 -4 11 77 101 36 -22 2

Malawi (2015) 243 239 100 … 0 105 98 41 … -1 91 38 16 … -8 47 104 43 … 8

Sudan (2015) 77 168 100 ... 8 27 88 52 ... 13 31 0 0 ... -40 19 80 48 ... 15

Nigeria (2006 and 2014) 274 157 100 … -7 71 128 82 … 8 78 6 4 … -27 124 18 12 … -21

Ethiopia 137 130 100 14 -1 22 29 22 93 2 47 68 53 -4 4 69 33 25 18 -6

Tanzania, United Rep. of 23 127 100 -9 17 8 57 45 -8 19 4 28 22 7 19 10 42 33 -17 14

Morocco 70 127 100 5 6 61 78 61 8 2 4 0 0 -62 -19 5 47 37 18 23

Mauritius 52 117 100 10 8 25 73 62 10 10 15 3 3 1,807 -13 11 41 35 4 13

Senegal 13 42 100 -15 11 7 10 24 10 3 4 16 39 22 14 3 16 38 -41 17

Americas 23,074 20,804 100 -5 -1 688 1,167 6 17 5 15,081 4,962 24 -22 -10 6,999 14,461 70 1 7

North America 21,149 19,665 100 -4 -1 673 1,116 6 17 5 13,214 4,438 23 -20 -9 6,956 13,898 71 1 6

USA 19,469 16,548 100 -3 -1 603 940 6 17 4 12,455 4,212 25 -12 -9 6,304 11,206 68 0 5

Canada 1,568 2,571 100 -12 5 48 140 5 10 10 745 169 7 -76 -13 575 2,243 87 10 13

Mexico 112 546 100 15 15 21 36 7 72 5 14 57 10 165 14 77 449 82 4 17

South and Central America 1,925 1,139 100 -20 -5 15 51 4 9 12 1,866 524 46 -35 -11 43 563 49 -1 26

Brazil 316 415 100 -54 2 5 11 3 -20 7 301 253 61 -60 -2 10 151 37 -41 28

Uruguay 66 243 100 1,707 13 0 1 0 -40 6 64 233 96 5,738 12 1 9 4 17 25

Chile 1,200 124 100 -29 -19 1 4 3 -15 12 1,197 14 11 -86 -33 2 107 86 44 43

Argentina 13 78 100 -30 18 2 14 18 68 22 0 25 32 -66 71 11 40 51 27 12

Peru 288 77 100 37 -11 1 4 6 39 12 276 0 0 17 -49 11 72 94 37 19

Colombia 4 75 100 17 31 2 8 10 35 12 0 0 0 425 -6 1 67 89 15 43

Venezuela 5 67 100 60 27 1 5 7 4,900 18 0 0 0 - -79 4 62 93 48 28

Ecuador 28 29 100 8 1 0 1 3 -75 18 27 0 0 -15 -48 0 29 97 19 64

Costa Rica 1 20 100 38 28 0 0 2 38 0 0 0 0 10 48 1 19 98 38 32

El Salvador 2 7 100 -28 12 1 3 35 -56 11 0 0 0 - 1,016 1 5 64 11 12

Guatemala 2 3 100 37 4 1 1 33 10 -1 0 0 0 - -65 1 2 67 71 8

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All Commodities Agricultural products Fuels and mining products Manufactures

Regions and major

markets Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

Value ($mn)

Share

of

total

Annual

percentage

change

2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016 2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016 2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016 2005 2016 2016 2016

2005-

2016

Asia and Pacific 29,174 65,465 100 -11 8 4,317 11,356 17 1 9 22,751 38,880 59 -19 5 2,024 11,724 18 -5 17

China 15,270 32,721 100 -14 7 1,189 3,981 12 -5 12 13,968 25,638 78 -13 6 110 2,046 6 -48 30

India 2,044 10,089 100 -13 16 1,066 3,471 34 3 11 242 4,322 43 -25 30 731 1,563 15 10 7

Thailand 3,560 6,013 100 -7 5 589 972 16 18 5 2,849 3,808 63 -20 3 111 885 15 2 21

Japan 3,466 4,533 100 -9 2 548 696 15 -13 2 2,556 543 12 -59 -13 351 3,280 72 17 23

Korea, Rep. of 1,148 3,260 100 -15 10 79 409 13 6 16 986 1,806 55 -25 6 83 1,045 32 3 26

Singapore 459 2,087 100 78 15 114 181 9 31 4 184 206 10 -71 1 122 509 24 67 14

Taipei, Chinese 1,771 1,893 100 -4 1 139 105 6 3 -2 1,601 1,614 85 -6 0 30 172 9 13 17

Hong Kong, China 376 1,161 100 56 11 110 234 20 36 7 7 2 0 -28 -12 259 791 68 39 11

Australia 153 999 100 7 19 39 57 6 -8 4 43 83 8 5 6 63 836 84 6 26

Malaysia 373 883 100 -7 8 164 342 39 3 7 121 261 30 -32 7 85 277 31 20 11

Indonesia 118 876 100 -39 20 83 313 36 17 13 10 444 51 -59 41 24 119 14 20 16

Pakistan 275 697 100 -3 9 178 507 73 4 10 54 152 22 -13 10 42 38 5 -34 -1

New Zealand 138 128 100 27 -1 4 29 23 35 20 127 0 0 -69 -49 8 98 77 25 26

Philippines 23 125 100 33 16 17 60 48 57 12 2 1 1 -65 0 5 63 51 23 26

Europe and CIS 21,826 53,957 100 9 16 3,887 5,780 11 0 4 7,746 8,916 17 -31 16 10,026 34,587 64 30 20

EU (28) 20,640 47,179 100 6 8 3,515 5,558 12 7 4 7,165 8,757 19 -31 2 9,795 32,627 69 31 12

Switzerland 146 4,615 100 34 37 45 161 3 -6 12 0 0 0 -98 -10 101 671 15 20 19

Norway 139 453 100 7 11 23 61 14 20 10 39 42 9 -43 1 77 349 77 18 15

CIS 666 1,710 100 28 10 191 625 37 73 12 368 117 7 -11 -9 105 940 55 12 37

Russian Federation 374 1,097 100 12 10 136 266 24 -6 6 213 3 0 82 -32 24 801 73 15 37

Belarus 4 300 100 926 47 3 280 93 3,296 52 0 0 0 -10 27 1 20 7 -4 37

Ukraine 149 244 100 -1 5 30 69 28 11 8 116 100 41 -12 -1 3 74 30 7 34

Kazakhstan 10 64 100 -12 18 5 9 14 21 6 5 14 21 -12 10 1 41 65 -17 48

Azerbaijan (2015) 33 3 100 ... -20 0 1 22 ... 35 32 0 0 ... -54 0 3 77 ... 52

Kyrgyzstan 0 2 100 -20 13 0 0 4 -16 -10 0 0 2 172 6 0 2 94 -21 20

* Regional totals are based on the information available, and may not coincide with aggregated trade figures. … Not available. - Not applicable.

Source: UN Comtrade database and Global Trade Atlas (IHS).


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Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2016 (Million dollars and percentage shares)

HS (4 digits) Product description

Value ($mn)

Annual

percentage change (%)

Share in LDC

total exports (%)

LDCs' share in

world exports (%)

2005 2016 2005-2016 2005 2016 2005 2016

2709 Petroleum oils, crude 38,456 32,004 -1.7 47.7 23.2 4.9 5.1

6203

Men's or boys' suits,

ensembles, jackets, blazers,

trousers

1,827 7,260 13.4 2.3 5.3 5.9 19.9

6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, waist-coats and similar

articles, knitted or ...

3,081 6,791 7.4 3.8 4.9 7.5 14.5

6109 T-shirts, singlets and other

vests, knitted or crocheted 1,882 6,592 12.1 2.3 4.8 7.8 20.4

6204

Women's or girls' suits,


dresses, skirts

1,816 5,382 10.4 2.3 3.9 3.8 12.0

7108 Gold (including gold plated

with platinum) 562 5,211 22.5 0.7 3.8 1.2 1.7

7403 Refined copper and copper

alloys, unwrought 1,454 3,168 7.3 1.8 2.3 5.4 7.1

7402 Unrefined copper; copper anodes for electrolytic refining

28 3,100 53.3 0.0 2.3 0.8 43.5

6104

Women's or girls' suits,


dresses, skirts

258 3,088 25.3 0.3 2.2 3.3 13.7

6205 Men's or boys' shirts 1,040 2,934 9.9 1.3 2.1 9.3 22.9

2711 Petroleum gases and other

gaseous hydrocarbons 1,682 2,882 5.0 2.1 2.1 0.9 1.4

4403

Wood in the rough, whether

or not stripped of bark or

sapwood, or roughly s ...

1,091 1,852 4.9 1.4 1.3 8.4 12.9

7102

Diamonds, whether or not

worked, but not mounted or

set

1,673 1,812 0.7 2.1 1.3 1.9 1.7

0713 Dried leguminous vegetables, shelled

368 1,795 15.5 0.5 1.3 10.7 17.5

2401 Unmanufactured tobacco;

tobacco refuse 790 1,505 6.0 1.0 1.1 11.5 15.4

9999 Commodities not specified

according to kind 325 1,479 14.8 0.4 1.1 0.1 0.5

1207 Other oil seeds and

oleaginous fruits 404 1,424 12.1 0.5 1.0 24.9 37.7

6403

Footwear with outer soles of

rubber, plastics, leather or composition leath ...

247 1,391 17.0 0.3 1.0 0.6 3.1

0901 Coffee, whether or not

roasted or decaffeinated 851 1,365 4.4 1.1 1.0 6.6 5.0

6108

Women's or girls' slips,

petticoats, briefs, panties,

nightdresses

361 1,235 11.8 0.4 0.9 4.2 12.9

2606 Aluminium ores and

concentrates 513 1,206 8.1 0.6 0.9 28.7 31.7

7112

Waste and scrap of precious

metal or of metal clad with

precious metal

38 1,115 35.9 0.0 0.8 0.6 5.4

6111 Babies' garments and clothing accessories, knitted or

crocheted

93 1,108 25.3 0.1 0.8 1.9 17.0

6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted

or crocheted 387 1,101 10.0 0.5 0.8 7.8 16.2

6206 Women's or girls' blouses,

shirts and shirt-blouses 323 1,021 11.0 0.4 0.7 3.5 7.5

2603 Copper ores and concentrates 357 1,019 10.0 0.4 0.7 2.3 2.4

6201 Men's or boys' overcoats, car-

coats, capes, cloaks, anoraks 246 934 12.9 0.3 0.7 3.6 8.3


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HS (4 digits) Product description

Value ($mn)

Annual

percentage

change (%)

Share in LDC

total exports

(%)

LDCs' share in

world exports

(%)

2005 2016 2005-2016 2005 2016 2005 2016

6202

Women's or girls' overcoats,

car-coats, capes, cloaks,

anoraks

166 924 16.9 0.2 0.7 1.9 6.2

2601 Iron ores and concentrates 526 922 5.2 0.7 0.7 1.3 1.1

2609 Tin ores and concentrates 20 893 41.3 0.0 0.6 9.6 79.3

8105

Cobalt mattes and other

intermediate products of

cobalt metallurgy

330 892 9.5 0.4 0.6 17.1 39.5

0306 Crustaceans, whether in shell

or not 892 890 0.0 1.1 0.6 6.0 4.1

2710 Petroleum oils, other than crude

1,646 851 -5.8 2.0 0.6 0.5 0.2

6103

Men's or boys' suits,


trousers, bib and brace ...

151 840 16.9 0.2 0.6 5.4 13.5

7601 Unwrought aluminium 1,289 818 -4.0 1.6 0.6 3.4 2.0

0801 Coconuts, Brazil nuts and

cashew nuts, fresh or dried 271 795 10.3 0.3 0.6 11.1 14.8

6210

Garments, made up of fabrics

of heading 56.02, 56.03,

59.03, 59.06 or 59.07 ...

108 757 19.3 0.1 0.5 2.6 10.0

6107

Men's or boys' underpants,

briefs, nightshirts, pyjamas,

bathrobes

132 729 16.8 0.2 0.5 3.6 13.4

7103

Precious stones (other than

diamonds) and semi-precious

stones

129 681 16.3 0.2 0.5 4.5 6.5

5201 Cotton, not carded or combed 1,158 666 -4.9 1.4 0.5 12.2 8.9

6404

Footwear with outer soles of

rubber, plastics, leather or

composition leath ...

30 658 32.5 0.0 0.5 0.4 2.2

0303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish

fillets 544 643 1.5 0.7 0.5 3.9 3.9

2701 Coal; briquettes, ovoids and similar solid fuels

manufactured from coal

43 611 27.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.8

4202

Trunks, suit-cases, vanity-

cases, executive-cases,

brief-cases

19 593 37.0 0.0 0.4 0.1 1.1

6402

Other footwear with outer

soles and uppers of rubber or

plastics

49 566 24.8 0.1 0.4 0.3 2.3

0905 Vanilla 82 564 19.2 0.1 0.4 64.1 71.4

6302 Bed linen, table linen, toilet

linen and kitchen linen 230 561 8.4 0.3 0.4 1.9 3.6

6212

BrassiFres, girdles, corsets,

braces, suspenders, garters and similar artic ...

74 519 19.4 0.1 0.4 1.0 5.1

6211 Track suits, ski suits and

swimwear; other garments 195 518 9.3 0.2 0.4 2.9 5.8

4001

Natural rubber, balata, gutta-

percha, guayule, chicle and

similar natural g ...

308 486 4.2 0.4 0.4 3.1 4.0

Source: UN Comtrade database (importer data based on available reporters).


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Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2016

(Million dollars and annual percentage change)

Exports Imports


2016 2005-

2016 2014 2015 2016 2016

2005-

2016 2014 2015 2016

LDCs 31,878 12 6 -3 -4 64,759 9 8 -16 -6

Afghanistan 281 ... 23 -46 -55 1,139 ... -11 -16 -24

Angola 1,156 19 28 -25 -8 12,041 6 13 -32 -27

Bangladesh 1,916 10 7 2 15 8,163 13 20 0 11

Benin 371 7 -9 -25 9 704 9 16 -25 6

Bhutan 142 12 1 1 15 191 4 7 3 1

Burkina Faso 401 19 -7 -14 9 1,229 12 -8 -11 6

Burundi 18 10 8 -37 -6 184 4 11 -16 -12

Cambodia 3,850 12 11 2 2 1,943 11 7 1 3

Central African

Republic ... ... 8 -9 ... ... ... 44 -14 ...

Chad ... ... 7 -8 ... ... ... 3 -13 ...

Comoros ... ... 2 6 ... ... ... -9 -17 ...

Democratic Republic of the Congo

... ... 40 -51 ... ... ... 18 -36 ...

Djibouti ... ... 9 21 ... ... ... 12 25 ...

Equatorial Guinea ... ... 3 -15 ... ... ... 11 -12 ...

Eritrea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Ethiopia 2,763 12 -4 1 -1 3,579 11 28 12 12

The Gambia ... ... 12 12 ... ... ... 78 5 ...

Guinea ... ... 5 ... ... ... ... -5 ... ...

Guinea-Bissau 35 20 19 -25 3 135 11 33 13 3

Haiti 569 18 8 5 -16 781 4 10 -11 2

Kiribati ... ... -3 ... ... ... ... -24 ... ...

Lao People's

Democratic Republic ... ... -1 6 ... ... ... -6 18 ...

Lesotho 34 1 -9 61 -21 257 -3 -12 -4 -13

Liberia 47 -5 ... -14 -23 196 6 -9 -27 -32

Madagascar 975 8 3 -17 -9 909 6 -10 -11 -6

Malawi 89 3 -2 6 -19 223 4 11 8 -16

Mali 407 4 9 0 0 1,390 8 -3 -2 21

Mauritania 149 7 52 -21 -27 626 5 -10 -29 5

Mozambique 422 3 12 0 -42 3,174 16 -6 -18 6

Myanmar ... ... 16 22 ... ... ... 4 8 ...

Nepal 993 13 14 -4 -6 1,238 10 21 1 5

Niger 238 10 92 -19 9 1,028 13 6 -7 6

Rwanda 597 20 4 47 2 958 17 9 72 8

Sao Tome and

Principe 83 23 93 11 7 55 17 78 -20 -12

Senegal 1,067 4 -1 -11 3 1,340 5 0 -10 5

Sierra Leone ... ... -8 ... ... ... ... 76 ... ...

Solomon Islands 102 10 -11 -9 3 210 13 -8 -19 19

Somalia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

South Sudan 30 ... ... 13 -8 362 ... ... -12 -14

Sudan 1,526 25 50 7 -7 1,429 0 0 -13 -14

Tanzania 3,693 11 7 10 0 2,029 5 7 1 -22

Timor-Leste 62 ... 26 -7 8 444 ... 8 5 18

Togo 481 11 1 1 9 396 4 -10 -13 6

Tuvalu 3 4 -2 -13 5 18 7 -16 7 20

Uganda 1,327 10 -20 5 -31 2,248 13 -2 1 -17

Vanuatu 327 8 -6 -13 18 154 8 -3 24 -13

Yemen ... ... -3 -63 ... ... ... 22 -54 ...

Zambia 885 6 12 1 3 1,340 12 -10 -13 -3

Memorandum item:

World 4,807,690 6 7 -6 0 4,694,086 6 8 -6 1

… Not available.



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Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non-reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by Members, 2017 or latest available yeara

Preference granting Member

Description Duty-free tariff line

coverage (and major exclusions)b

References

Australia (2016)

Duty- and quota-free entry for LDCs Entry into force: 1 July 2003

100% WT/COMTD/N/18

Canada GSP – Least-developed Countries' Tariff Programme (LDCT) Entry into force: 1 January 2000. Extended until 31 December 2024.

98.6% (dairy and other animal products, meat, meat preparations, cereal products)

WT/COMTD/N/15 WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1 WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2 WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3

Chile (2016) DFQF scheme for the LDCs Entry into force: 28 February 2014

99.5% (cereals, sugar, milling products)

WT/COMTD/N/44 WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1 WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1

China Duty-free treatment for LDCs Entry into force: 1 July 2010

96.6% (chemicals, transport vehicles, machinery and mechanical appliances, electrical machinery, paper)

WT/COMTD/N/39 WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1 WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2

European Union

GSP – Everything But Arms (EBA) initiative Entry into force: 5 March 2001

99.8% (arms and ammunition) WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6 WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7

Iceland GSP – Tariff preferences for the world’s poorest countries Entry into force: 29 January 2002

91.8% (meat, food preparations, vegetables, dairy and other animal products, plants and trees)

WT/COMTD/N/17, WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1

India (2016) Duty-Free Tariff Preference Scheme (DFTP) Entry into force: 13 August 2008

94.1% (plastics, coffee and tea, alcoholic beverages, tobacco, food residues)

WT/COMTD/N/38 WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1

Japan (2016)

GSP – Enhanced duty- and quota-free market access Entry into force: 1 April 2007. Extended until 31 March 2021

97.9% (fish and crustaceans, footwear, milling products, cereal products, sugar)

WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14 WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.15 WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16

Korea, Republic of

Presidential Decree on Preferential Tariff for LDCs Entry into force: 1 January 2000

89.9% (fish and crustaceans, mineral fuels, oil seeds and oleaginous fruits, wood products, vegetables)

WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1 WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1

New Zealand

GSP – Tariff Treatment for LDCs Entry into force: 1 July 2001

100% WT/COMTD/27

Norway GSP – Duty- and quota-free market access Entry into force: 1 July 2002

100% WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4 WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5 WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1 WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6

Russian Federation

GSP scheme in the context of the Customs Union between Belarus, Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation. Entry into force:

1 January 2010

37.1% (machinery and mechanical appliances, chemicals, electrical machinery, iron and steel products, transport vehicles)

WT/COMTD/N/42

Switzerland GSP – Revised Preferential Tariffs Ordinance Entry into force: 1 April 2007

100% WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3 WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4 WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5


- 43 -

Preference granting Member

Description Duty-free tariff line

coverage (and major exclusions)b

References

Chinese Taipei

Duty-free treatment for LDCs Entry into force: 17 December 2003

30.8% (machinery and mechanical appliances, chemicals, electrical machinery, fish and crustaceans, plastics)

WT/COMTD/N/40 WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1

Thailand (2015)

DFQF scheme for the LDCs Entry into force: 9 April 2015

74.7% (transport vehicles, electrical machinery, machinery and mechanical appliances, iron and steel products, apparel and clothing)

WT/COMTD/N/46

Turkey (2015)

GSP Entry into force: 31 December 2005

81.7% (iron and steel products, fish and crustaceans, food preparations, meat, oil seeds and oleaginous fruits)

WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1

United States of America

GSP for least-developed beneficiary developing countries (LDBDC). The

Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015 (Title II) authorizes GSP until 31 December 2017 and makes GSP retroactive to 31 July 2013.

82.4% (apparel and clothing, cotton, fibres, footwear, dairy and other animal products)

WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4 WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7 WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8

WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.9

African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) Entry into force: 18 May 2000. Extended until 30 September 2025 (Title I)

97.5% WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3 WT/L/970 WT/L/1006 WT/COMTD/LDC/M/71

Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA) Entry into force: 1 October 2000. Extended until 30 September 2025 (Title III)

Duty free for most products, including textiles and apparels. The Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement (HOPE) Act of 2006 provided new trade benefits, especially of apparel imports from Haiti. The HOPE II Act of 2008 enhanced duty-free treatment for qualifying apparel imports from Haiti. The Haiti Economic Lift Program (HELP) Act of 2010 provided duty-free treatment for additional textile and apparel products from Haiti.

WT/L/950 WT/L/1012

a This table represents a non-exhaustive list of non-reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives undertaken in favour of LDCs.

b The duty-free tariff line coverage can slightly differ with the one shown in Table 6 due to different reference years. Major exclusions refer to HS Chapter descriptions.


__________

Documents

WT/COMTD/LDC/W/65/Rev - tralac · 24/10/2017 · and fuels and mining products, 2005-2016.....23 Chart 19: LDCs: GDP by selected economic activities 2005-2014 .....23 Chart 20: LDCs