Written Script Alexander's Campaign in Bactria

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ALEXANDER’S CAMPAIGN IN BA CTRIA

THEME

In 331 BC after finally defeating the Persian king Darius III in the battle of

Guagamala, Alexander pursued him into a region called Bactria. Bounded by the river

Oxus in the north, china in the east, India in the southeast and Persia in the west, the

region is generally akin to present day Afghanistan. Alexander’s campaign in Bactria

has been termed by the historians as one of the most difficult of his conquests and

amounted to a low intensity conflict in ancient times. It was also the longest of his career

where he battled not only relentless enemies but also extremely unreliable allies anduncontrollable weather. In trying to control this volatile territory he on one hand restored

to extreme brutality by annihilating complete towns and cities and on the other, tried to

pacify its hardy people by number of administrative measures including settling of his

troops in the region and encouraging local marriages. One of his wives Roxana also

belonged to Bactria, his campaign against Bactrian also consumed large portion of his

army otherwise required for expansion eastwards into India. Over millenniums, other

foreign invaders also met the same fate in the region whether they were the British, or

the Soviets or lately the Americans.

Carryout the study of Alexander’s campaign in Bactria and its outcome, drawing

comparison with other foreign invaders or armies which came later in time with the view

to drawing pertinent lessons as relevant in today’s environment.

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Introduction

1. The land of Bactria (present day Afghanistan), is a conflux of rugged mountains

and battle hardened people, which has proved to be a grave yard of many great military

powers/leaders throughout history.(modern day part of Afghanistan) is the world’s inexhaustible well spring of warlords and

fighting tribes, who have left undeletable prints in the history. Alexander took only six

months to conquer Iran, but it took him nearly three years (from 330–327 BC) to subdue

this area. Macedonian leader encountered fierce resistance from the local rulers. In a

letter to his mother, Alexander described his encounters as: "I am involved in the land of

a 'Leonine' (lion-like) and brave people, where every foot of the ground is like a well of

steel, confronting my soldier. You have brought only one son into the world, but

everyone in this land can be called an Alexander.” Local resistance and the difficult

terrain made it difficult for Alexander's forces to subdue the region as many invaders

have found the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan similar to a maze that often trapped

outside invaders. The location of Afghanistan astride the land routes between the Indian

subcontinent, Iran, and central Asia has enticed conquerors throughout history.

Afghan’s resistance to invaders was exemplary, irregular in nature, where lightly armed

warlords rendered a superior, heavily armed and ponderous army ineffective by

concentrating their strength against the weaknesses of the enemy.2. During last three centuries, superpowers had trained their sights on the tragic

land. All endeavors began with confidence and ended in catastrophe. This land has

never been captured by foreign invaders and if was done, then they could not sustain it,

rather had to withdraw with heavy losses which ultimately became cause of their defeat.

This exactly explains where US stands today, Soviets did in 1980, British in nineteenth

century and even Greeks and Macedonians in 329 BC. To change Afghan history it will

take a little luck, a lot of blood and much more time.

Aim

3. To analyse Alexander's campaign in Bactria and subsequent invaders with a

view to draw pertinent lessons relevant to prevailing environments.

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Sequence

4. Following shall be sequence of presentation:-

a. Part-I -Alexander The Great and Bactria Major Salman

b. Part-II -Alexander’s Campaign in Bactria Major Raheel

c. Part-III -Other Invaders in Bactria Major Iftikhar

d. Part-IV -Allies Invasion in Bactria Major Qaiser

e. Part-IV -Analysis and Lessons Learnt Major Asghar

PART – I

ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND BACTRIA

Old Topography of Bactria and What it is Now a Days

5. Geographical Location of Bactria . Bactria, the name of an ancient

country in Central Asia, was the home of Iranian-speaking people from about the eighthcentury BC. At the time of Alexander’s campaign it was part of the ancient Persian

Empire. It lies between the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya River, in today's

Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. A branch of the Hindu Kush

Mountains separated it from the territories of the Sakas (Sacae), the Iranian nomads.

Its capital city, Bactra, was situated in northern Afghanistan, but since the nineteenth

century, the site has been no more than a village near the modern city of Mazar-i-

Sharif.

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1. Name. The most common name found in the history for this region is

Bactria. However, few other names are also found in different languages of that time:-

(a) Bactriana : Ancient Greek(b) Bahtri / Bakhtar : Ancient Persian(c) Bahdi : Avestian(d) Bhalika : Arabic /Indian(e) Daxia : Chinese

2. Topography . Bactria was a mix of mountainous, plain and desertterrain. Towards its South and East were the mountains of Hindu Kush. In the central

region it was plain area noted for its fertility. It was well watered and produced almost

all types of fruit and crops. Because of this fertility it was also known as “The pride of

Ariana” and the people used to call it “Bactria the Beautiful”. However all along the

Western frontier lay the great shifting sand dunes forming an almost impenetrable

barrier to invaders. After the North-western gale it was not uncommon for the whole

face of the country to be altered, roads being blotted out, landmarks obliterated and

fresh sand hills piled up. One of the most characteristic features of Bactria was the

succession of great forts scattered over the face of the country which provided it a

great strength against the foreign intruders.

3. Neighbours. On the Southern and Eastern flanks of Bactria the

great mountain barriers divided it from India and Gandhara. On its Western side were

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the great Carminian desert and the grassy downs of Aria and Margiana (Modern Heart

and Merv). Beyond the Oxus to the North was the sparsely inhabited region of

Sogdiana (Modern Bukhara and Turkestan).

4. People. The original population of Bactria was largely Scythianswho had occupied the plains of Oxus long before the advent of Aryans. The Iranians

conquered Bactria around 8th century BC but did not exterminate the primitive

inhabitants and lived with the aboriginal inhabitants. This created a mix of the

Scythians and the Aryans. The whole population was an obstinate and valiant race.

The inhabitants were warlike people of pure Aryan stock, who were determined to fight

for their freedom. They were rough and outspoken and were continually at war which

kept their martial spirit alive.

5. Language. The language used in the region of Bactria was known as

“Bactrian”. It was of the Indo - Iranian sub – family of the Indo – European family. Since

it was written predominantly with the Greek alphabets, it was also referred to as

“Greeco – Bactrian”. Its extinction took place somewhere in 9 th century AD.

6. Religion. Bactria is thought to have been the birthplace of Zoroaster,

the prophet of Persian religion. Hence the religion being followed in this area was

Zoroastrianism. “Avesta” is the holy book of the Zoroastrians (Modern day Parsi’s). The

great temple of Iranian goddess Anahita was also located here.

7. Strategic Importance of Bactria . Despite its rugged mountainous

and desert terrain, Bactria was strategically located on the Silk Road linking Europe

and China via Western Asia. It was the centre from which other parts of the area could

be checked. For example, Bactria was a block to the northern nomads, and had easy

access to the eastern and western provinces. The presence of great temple of Iranian

godess “Anahita” also increased its importance. Another important feature of Bactria

was the succession of mighty forts spread over the country, asserting to the traveller

the safety and excellent strategic position of the country. This strategic location of the

area was always the source of trouble for this region. The area had been subjected to

the invasions by various armies of the world in different times. A brief account of

different rulers till Alexander the Great’s campaign is given below.

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Overview of Alexander’s Life

8. IN 336 B.C.E., A PROUD, INTELLIGENT, AND SUPREMELY ambitious

young man rose to the throne of Macedonia, a kingdom on the northern border of

modern-day Greece. Only 20 years old, he was already bristling to rule the mighty

Persian Empire to the east. The fact that he accomplished this feat and much more,

despite the wealth, power, and, often, the huge military strength of his foes and in just

under 12 years illustrates his extraordinary gifts as a leader and military strategist. It

has also kept his name in the forefront of legendary “action figures” even into the 21st

century, more than 2,300 years later. He is still known throughout the world as

Alexander the Great.

9. Born to Greatness. Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 B.C.E.) was the

son of King Philip II of Macedon (382–336 B.C.E.) and Olympias of Epirus (c. 376–316

B.C.E.) (in what is now modern-day Albania), daughter of King Neoptolemus I.

Alexander’s birth, which some historians say probably occurred in the month of July,

was accompanied by various unusual events. One of these was the burning down of

the Temple of Artemis, the goddess of the wilderness, wild animals, and the hunt.

Soothsayers (those who foretold the future based on signs) consulted by King Philip

prophesied that these events indicated his son’s great destiny. Whether or not the

prophecies were legitimate, the fact remains that Alexander became the most

successful warrior in the history of the world. From the age of 20 until his death at only

32, Alexander and his armies swept across a vast region that included Persia, Asia

Minor, Syria, and Egypt. He traveled thousands of miles with his troops and ultimately

ruled an empire that stretched approximately 2 million square miles over three

continents. In his conquest of the known world, he overcame armies far more powerful

than his by being smarter, more resourceful, and more determined than his enemies.

His life was instructional for many other great conquerors and rulers as well, including

Julius Caesar, Queen Cleopatra VII, and Napoleon Bonaparte. The young prince had

the best possible background for someone with great ambitions. King Philip II was an

aggressive leader who set an example for his son by conquering neighboring lands

when Alexander was just an infant. As he grew up, Alexander spent much of his

childhood among the soldiers of his father’s army. Another important influence on the

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young prince was his teacher Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.), one of the greatest Greek

philosophers ever to have lived. Aristotle, who wrote or edited several hundred books,

taught the young prince geography, botany, zoology, logic, and many other subjects.

10. Alexander’s Education. As a Macedonian prince being groomed for the

throne, Alexander received a first-rate education. But he did not always enjoy his

educational experiences. His first tutor was a man named Leonidas. The stern

Leonidas toughened Alexander physically. The young student was required by his

teacher to engage in physical exercise before dawn and sometimes had to march for

hours before breakfast to increase his appetite. Leonidas insisted on a lean, simple diet

and believed being hungry was good discipline. He would search Alexander’s

belongings to make sure his mother, Olympias, had not snuck him any treats. Leonidas

taught Alexander skills such as running, memorizing lessons, riding a horse bareback,

driving a chariot, and using a sword and a spear. Historians have credited Alexander’s

later ability to endure the many extreme hardships of his war campaigns to the tough

discipline he was subjected to under Leonidas’s tutelage. When Alexander was 13, his

father hired Plato’s student, Aristotle, to replace Leonidas. With this great teacher

Alexander studied literature, philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, geography, zoology,

botany, scientific criticism, drama, poetry, art, law, and politics. Both physical and

spiritual qualities were emphasized in the young prince’s education. He learned to sing

and play a lyre and received training in physical fitness and warfare. Aristotle also

instilled in his young student a lifelong love of the writings of Homer. Alexander believed

in the Homeric concept of personal success for the sake of honor and glory, and tried to

emulate his heroes Heracles and Achilles. Alexander had a great respect for learning,

and during his years in the Middle East he often ordered books to be sent to him from

Greece. He also sent Aristotle a great deal of money over the years to fund his

research and educational projects. In some cases, the king also looked after the

education of his troops’ children. As the army moved from place to place, many soldiers

left behind children who were half Persian and half Greek or Macedonian. Alexander

made many of these children wards of the state and arranged for their education. They

were given military instruction and also learned about the ideals of Greek culture.

11. Alexander’s Weapons

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a. Catapult. The Greeks invented catapults in about 400 B.C.E. Philip was the first

commander to use siege weapons on the battlefield, and Alexander adopted the

same practice. His soldiers used smaller, mobile catapults to fire large arrows

aimed at individual soldiers and

stones, or bags of stones, capable of

killing or wounding a number of men

with a single shot. Catapults were still

in use in the 20th century. In World

War I, soldiers in trenches made

catapults by hand. They would use

them to propel grenades and poison

gas canisters at the enemy. Since World War II, catapults have been used to

launch jets from aircraft carriers. During that war catapults were hydraulic, but

later the British invented a steam-powered catapult. Commonly used today, the

steampowered catapult launches a jet fighter at full throttle, giving it the power to

accelerate from zero to 165 miles in two seconds— enough to get it airborne

from the relatively short distance of the aircraft carrier’s deck. In the 21st century

experimentation is in progress with even more sophisticated and powerful

catapults.

b. Battering Ram. The battering rams used by ancient armies were most often

made of the largest tree trunk possible, which had been hacked to a point at one

end. The tree trunk would then be set on wheels, or sometimes carried by men,

and rammed through the doors and walls of fortresses and castles. Sometimes a

battering ram was slung in a support frame so that it could be repeatedly swung

against the barricade. Modern battering rams are usually used by police forces,

most often by special paramilitary units known as SWAT (special weapons and

tactics) teams, which are specially trained for dangerous missions. Sometimes

these battering rams are attached to cars or other heavy vehicles and sometimes

they are smaller, operated by just two or three officers to break down a door.

c. Ballistae. Ballistae were giant crossbows, powerful enough to shoot huge

darts or arrows, singly or in bunch. Ballistae were generally designed on a

horizontal plane with arms of wood. Human hair or animal sinew was wrapped

around each arm and acted like a spring to send the darts or arrows hurtling

forward. Ballistae were extremely accurate in hitting intended targets but had the

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disadvantage of not being able to travel very far. The Greek word ballista

originates from another Greek word, ballei, meaning “to throw.” These words are

also the ancient roots of our modern word ballistics, the science of the way

projectiles move in flight, or more specifically, the study of what happens when

firearms are fired. Most people today have heard of ballistic missiles. These are

one of the more destructive modern equivalents of ancient projectile weaponry.

12. Alexander’s Army. During Alexander’s time, soldiers fought on foot and

on horseback, meeting each other on the battlefield face to face. There were no guns,

bombs, or tanks; weapons included bows and arrows,

swords, spears, chariots, javelins, catapults, and special

artillery used for sieges. Alexander inherited from his

father the best army of his day. When Philip became

king of Macedonia in 359 B.C.E., Greek armies

consisted of both civilians and professional soldiers. His

first innovation was to create the world’s only

completely professional army. By using only

professionals, warfare was no longer a seasonal activity

fought when the soldier/farmers did not have to tend their fields but became possible

year round. All the helmets, shields, and weapons were made by skilled metalworkers,

who beat the armor into shape from sheets of bronze. Iron was used for spearheads

and swords because it is a much harder metal. The infantry was the backbone of

Alexander’s army. More than twice as many soldiers made up the infantry as the

cavalry. The infantry included mercenary soldiers from a variety of places, including

Agranians (natives of modern Bulgaria), Thracians, Cretans, and Paeonians, and was

broken up into units according to nationality. Each unit had its own distinctive armor.

Infantry soldiers were called

hoplites, and they generallyfought in a formation called a

phalanx, which was

developed by the Greeks.

13. The Companion

cavalry was an elite body of

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upper class Macedonians led in battle by Alexander himself. He adopted this

innovation from his father. A highly disciplined cavalry could turn an enemy’s flank, cut

off its retreat, or pursue fleeing soldiers, and Philip’s cavalry was just such a body. The

Macedonian cavalry changed the nature of warfare, in particular because the phalanx

was such a sophisticated and terrifying method of attack, later adopted by other

leaders. Alexander went on to develop his father’s methods further, employing them to

great advantage across two continents. Alexander’s cavalry squadrons were divided

into platoons. Their commanders were chosen for personal merit rather than race or

birth. Armed with sarissas and outfitted with open-faced iron helmets and short body

armor that protected their chests and backs, these troops were the most effective

cavalry in the ancient world. The cavalry used formal, strict formations, such as wedges

and diamonds. The officer at the tip of the formation would find weak points in the

enemy’s line and then order a charge.

General Line of Move of Alexander’s Campaign

14. Greek Decline . Alexander came of age just after the so-called Golden

Age of Greek civilization, which as at its height between 500 and 400 B.C.E. The

Greeks were renowned as statesmen, philosophers, builders, poets, dramatists, and

sculptors. But by the time Alexander was born, Greek civilization had begun to decline.

Even so, the Greeks were justifiably proud of their knowledge, language, and

refinement, and their customs and ideas still had powerful influence in the world. They

thought very highly of themselves—and not so highly of their neighbors to the north,

the Macedonians. In fact, although the Macedonian kings claimed that the royal family

was descended from the Greek heroes Heracles and Achilles, for the most part the

Greeks considered the Macedonians to be uncivilized barbarians living on the fringes

of Greece. But these tough frontiersmen became effective soldiers under the

leadership of Philip II.

15. Alexander in Charge . Alexander was only 16 years old, when his father

named him as regent, or temporary ruler, of Macedonia while he was away for an

extended period of time. When Thrace, one of the Macedonian colonies, revolted,

Alexander quickly marched troops to the area. He conquered the rebels and renamed

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their stronghold Alexandroupolis. It was to become the first of several cities that he

founded and named after himself. In 338 B.C.E., at the age of 18, Alexander led the left

flank of the Macedonian cavalry (soldiers who fight on horseback) in the battle of

Chaeronea, northwest of Athens. This decisive battle crushed the final Greek

resistance to Philip’s rule.

16. How Alexander Beat Darius . Alexander was greatly outnumbered andovermatched by Darius in almost every way. The Persians had many more troops and

ships and much greater wealth. With a force of Greek mercenaries estimated at up to

50,000, they may have even had more Greek soldiers fighting on their side than

Alexander had on his. Even the size of the two men made them unequal. Darius, then

in his mid-40s, was said to have been nearly six and a half feet tall—huge for the time.

Alexander was of medium height. Yet Alexander had a number of advantages that

enabled him to overcome his enemy’s strength and stature. Alexander’s troops,

inherited from his father, were the most powerful fighters in the world. They were

extremely disciplined and committed, even devoted, to their leader. Not until

gunpowder was introduced 18 centuries later did a stronger army come along. The

Persian forces were not as well trained, well disciplined, or devoted. Their size even

worked against them at times, as they were not as fast or flexible as Alexander’s army.

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Alexander was an expert at analyzing what his available men and weapons could do,

at coordinating his troops for complex battle maneuvers, and at hiding their real

numbers. An incredible tactical genius, he was able to seize opportunities that opened

up during a battle and organize his troops on the spot to make the most of their abilities

and to exploit his enemy’s weaknesses and mistakes.

17. The Battle of Granicus . Between 334 and 331 B.C.E., Alexander won

three decisive battles against the Persian Empire. The first of these was at the

Granicus River (today Kocabas Cay in Turkey) in May of 334 B.C.E. Darius III was so

disrespectful of his young foe that he did not come to the battlefield at all. Instead, he

sent the local satrap, or regional governor, and a force of Persian cavalry and Greek

mercenaries to turn back the invaders. The Persian troops met Alexander’s forces at

the river. The Persians held a strong position, lined up along the eastern bank of the

Granicus, but Darius’s commanders made a fatal error. They had positioned their

cavalry in front and their infantry in back, the standard defensive formation of the

Persian army. Alexander, always shrewd in the heat of battle, quickly saw that this

formation would keep the Persian cavalry boxed in and unable to maneuver easily. The

Macedonian king attacked at once, even though it was late in the afternoon; he feared

that if he waited, the Persians might realize their mistake and reorganize their troops.

Alexander himself led the charge of the main cavalry, sending his infantry directly

across the river. The Macedonians had to cross the deep, rapid river and climb the

steep banks of the Granicus to attack. There was savage fighting. Alexander was

injured and lay unconscious for a short time as the battle raged around him. He

regained consciousness, got back on his horse, Bucephalas, and charged into the

center of the enemy troops. Soon, the Macedonians had gained the upper hand. As the

frantic Persians retreated, many men were trampled by their fleeing comrades. The

Macedonians butchered the Persian soldiers.

18. Capturing Key Ports Of Persia . After the battle at Granicus, Alexander

saw the wisdom of capturing Persia’s coastal cities before driving deeper into the

country. The Persians had a powerful fleet of warships, and he did not have the naval

strength to defeat them at sea. As long as the Persian fleet sailed the Mediterranean,

they would remain a threat. Alexander realized that by capturing key ports that supplied

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the Persian ships with food and water, the navy would eventually have to surrender. He

also needed to control the ports in order to ship reinforcements and supplies to his

army. The coastal city of Miletus resisted, and a Persian fleet of 400 ships with 80,000

men headed there to reinforce the city. Alexander’s brilliant solution was simply to

blockade the harbor, so the Persian ships could not bring their troops ashore. Miletus

fell quickly. But Alexander was so impressed by the courage of the Greek mercenaries

who fought there that, unlike earlier battles; he accepted them into his army. Alexander

used the same technique along the east coast of the Aegean Sea. This kept the

Persian fleet from being able to get fresh water and supplies. Despite its huge size,

Persia’s mighty navy was defeated, simply because Alexander’s army managed to

capture so many coastal cities. About a year and a half after Alexander’s first

onslaught, the entire Persian fleet surrendered.

19. The Battle of Issus . By 333 B.C.E., Alexander reached the coast of

Syria. In October of that year, in a fierce battle at Issus (a coastal plain between what is

now Turkey and Syria), the Macedonians had their second major encounter with the

Persian army. This time, Darius was there to lead his troops into battle. The Persians

outnumbered the Macedonians, but once again they made a deadly mistake. They

chose to fight on a narrow plain bordered by the sea, a river, and mountains. Alexander

ordered his infantry to charge into a heavy shower of arrows. With his personal

regiment, the Companion cavalry, he charged directly into the Persian lines and broke

them up— they had no room to maneuver around the Macedonian charge. The

Macedonians quickly overwhelmed the Persians.

20. The Siege of Tyre . Alexander now marched south through Phoenicia

(a territory that now roughly comprises the coastal area of Lebanon). The major port

cities of Sidon and Byblos (now Jubayl in Lebanon) surrendered to him without a fight,

but when Alexander arrived at the fortified island of Tyre in February 332 B.C.E., the

city refused to let him enter. A walled fortress off the coast of what is now Lebanon,

Tyre was a strategic coastal base, and Alexander knew he had to capture it. But

gaining control of the island city would prove to be his most difficult military operation

so far. Tyre lay about a half mile off the mainland. The water surrounding it was about

18 feet deep, and its walls were about 150 feet high. Its harbor was well fortified and

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there was no land beyond the city walls. Alexander decided to lay siege to Tyre. He

hired thousands of local workers to help the Macedonian soldiers build a mole a

massive land bridge that reached from the mainland to the island. To build this, they

used debris from the old city of Tyre, by then an abandoned ruin on the mainland. They

drove wooden piles into the seabed to support the mole and piled rocks and logs on

top. The work was extremely difficult and dangerous, and the Tyrians did not make it

any easier. They used catapults to hurl stones and balls of burning debris at their

enemies, and shot arrows at them. They captured some of the Macedonians and

slaughtered them, then tossed them into the sea in view of their comrades. But

Alexander’s men, using screens and shields to protect themselves, continued building

the mole. When they finally finished, the mole was about half a mile long and 200 feet

wide. Unfortunately for the Macedonians, the wall where the land bridge came ashore

was too strong for them to batter down. But at the same time the mole was being built,

Alexander also constructed several 150-foot portable wooden towers, or siege towers,

which were covered with iron plates to make them fireproof. Battering rams, catapults

(machines that throw a projectile) were then mounted on these towers. Alexander also

commandeered about 120 ships from the nearby city of Sidon, and mounted siege

engines on their decks. In August 332 B.C.E., these ships moved in to attack Tyre from

both north and south. The Tyrians piled rocks in the water around their island to keep

the ships from drawing near, used their catapults to fling enormous boulders in hopes

of sinking the ships, and poured scalding liquids and red-hot sand on them. The

Tyrians held out for seven months against Alexander’s siege, but eventually were

defeated. Alexander and his men destroyed most of the city, massacred more than

8,000 Tyrians, and sold the remaining 30,000 residents into slavery. This slaughter was

intended as punishment for the way the Tyrians had treated Macedonian prisoners, as

well as a warning to other cities.

21. Onward to Egypt . After his victory at Tyre, Alexander headed for Egypt,

the richest part of the Persian Empire. Its farms grew the best wheat and fruit in all the

Mediterranean lands, and its ancient culture was widely admired. The Egyptians

welcomed Alexander as a deliverer who was freeing them from the rule of the

Persians, whom they detested. They turned over their entire treasury to him and

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crowned the 24-year-old Macedonian pharaoh (king) of Egypt. Along with the title came

the status of a god: The Egyptians considered Alexander (and all their pharaohs) to be

the son of Ammon, their most important god. This made a deep impression on the

young king, who had never considered himself an ordinary mortal. He began to wear a

headdress adorned with two rams’ horns, a sacred symbol also depicted by the

Egyptians as being worn by Ammon. Alexander spent six months in Egypt, where he

founded the great ancient city of Alexandria. Alexandria grew into a worldwide center of

culture and learning, and is still a thriving and respected metropolis today.

22. The Battle of Gaugamela . Alexander left Egypt in the spring of 331

B.C.E. and returned to Tyre to gather his troops. Through the spring and summer, they

prepared for their next battle, at Gaugamela, which would turn out to be the decisive

clash for the Persian Empire. King Darius had been preparing for this encounter with

Alexander since his humiliating defeat at Issus. He amassed a large number of soldiers

and added new weapons to his arsenal. He fitted the wheels of 200 chariots with razor-

sharp, curved blades that could slash the legs of the enemy’s horses and foot soldiers.

He also brought in 15 Indian war elephants. The battle took place near the village of

Gaugamela, east of the Tigris River in what is now Iraq. Darius chose the broad plain

as the battle site to make sure his troops would not get hemmed in as they had at

Granicus and Issus. He had workers smooth over rough spots on the field to level the

ground for his special chariots. In some spots, his soldiers placed metal spikes on the

ground to cripple the Macedonian horses. Alexander reportedly had 40,000 infantry

and 7,000 cavalry. Estimates of the size of Darius’s army range from 250,000 to 1

million soldiers. Alexander lured the Persians into attacking his right and left flanks.

This opened up a gap in their center, where Darius was fighting. Seizing the moment,

Alexander quickly led his cavalry through to the center and galloped toward Darius,

killing his chariot driver. Before he could get to the Persian king, however, Darius leapt

from the chariot and fled the battlefield on horseback. Most of his men soon followed.

23. Alexander’s Pursuit for Darius . After this, Alexander set off in pursuit of

Darius. Darius was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As

Alexander approached, Bessus killed Darius, declared himself king and retreated into

Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. With the death of

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Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance. His three years campaign, first

against Bessus and then against Spitamenes, the satrap of Sogdiana took Alexander

through Media, Parthia, Aria, Drangiana, Bactria and Scythia.

PART – II

B ACTRIAN CAMPAIGN

Theatre of War

24. The Bactria lay between the Hindu-Kush and the Oxus (Amu Daria). It was

a tangled mass of mountains and most of Sogdiana (Bokhara and Turkestan) was

either open plain land or desert. Except for Bactra, the last great city of the Persian

Empire, there were no towns to strike. The people were either village dwellers or

nomads. The Bactrian and Sogdians were warlike people of pure Aryan stock, who

were determined to fight for their freedom, they inhabited Bactria one of the most

difficult regions in the world for any army to operate.

25. Crossings the Hindu Kush. Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush

Mountains into Bactria with a force of about 64,000 troops with 10,000 cavalry and half

as many people accompanying as servants or camp followers in the spring of 329 BC.

Bessus, with 7000 Bactrian, accompanied by Spitamenes and Oxyartes (barons of

Sogdiana) lost the opportunity to attack the Macedonians as they descended in thin ,

weak lines from the Hindu Kush. Instead, alarmed by their approach he fled north and

held Aornus (Tashkurgan) near the upper Oxus. Although the Hindu Kush was deep in

snow, Alexander crossed Khawak Pass (11,600 feet high) and descended into Bactria.

He advanced northwards to Drap Saka (Kunduz) to reach Aornus form the east. His

move forced Bessus to withdraw beyond the Oxus and resulted in fall of Aornus andBactra (Balkh) without resistance.

26. In pursuit of Bessus. Form Bactra, Alexander marched to the Oxus

opposite Kilif. During the march a forty five mile stretch of desert sands cost him more

causalities than in any battle. Here the river was about three quarters of a mile wide

which he crossed in five days using skins stuffed with chaff. Alexander marched

16



rapidly north through ancient Sogdiana, a region that roughly corresponds to today’s

Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. During the march, Spitamenes sent a message that Bessus

had been arrested by him and was willing to surrender. Alexander dispatched Ptolemy

to accept the surrender. Bessus was mutilated and returned to Ecbatana for a horrible

execution.

27. To Maracanda and Jaxartes . Alexander now marched to Sogdian

capital Maracanda (Samarkand) and then to Jaxartes. A party of Macedonians was

attacked while foraging in the area and a number were killed and taken prisoners. Army

reacted at once lead by Alexander. He was shot in the leg with an arrow and suffered a

broken fibula; however the troops stormed the mountain and killed several thousand of

their antagonists. He conquered Maracanda with little resistance and decided to found

another city near Jaxartes.

28. The Real Menace . At jaxartes he learned that the entire territory from

jaxartes to Hindu Kush had erupted in rebellion behind him. Garrison of Cyrus’s seven

fortresses had been massacred. Spitamenes had descended on Maracanda with a

large force of cavalry reinforced by Scythians of the Dahae tribe(robbers); and Bactrian

leaders, after being summoned to a conference at Bactra which seemed a trap and

revolted instead.

29. Revolt at Cyropolis. Alexander sent a force of fifteen hundred

infantry men eight hundred cavalry and sixty companions to deal with Spitamenes.

With rest of the army he started knocking down Cyrus’s forts, one after the other.

Cyropolis was the strongest town. Alexander advanced to Cyropolis which was

surrounded by a high wall and garrisoned by tribesmen. He ordered the battering rams

to be brought up to the wall to divert the attention of tribesmen and gained access to

the city by way of the channels or tunnels, as part of his classical deception plan.

Probably under cover of night or morning twilight, they slipped through the channels.

When the tribesmen saw their city in enemy’s hands, they made a vigorous onslaught.

Alexander himself was struck violently with a stone upon his head and his neck but

finally subdued the tribesmen. Cyropolis was seized and eight thousand of the

17



tribesmen were killed along with 15,000 forced to surrender. The last two remaining

forts were taken with little trouble..

30. Battle at Jaxartes. Macedonians returned to erecting Alexandria the

furthest. While Cyropolis and the other fortified posts were reduced, the Scythianscontinued to assemble on the right bank of the Jaxartes. The Jaxartes at Eschate was

not very wide. Alexander deployed his catapults along the left bank to cover the

passage through the river and opened the bombardment on the Scythians. He took

advantage of their confusion and began to cross the river. First to cross the river were

the archers. He ordered them to shoot at the Scythians to prevent them approaching

the phalanx steeping out of the water.

31. On the far side of jaxartes the leading Macedonian elements advanced

inland too quickly and became surrounded. Alexander after arriving at the scene

improvised a solution and soon Scythians found themselves assailed in two sweeping

wings with Alexander leading the companions cavalry on the right. The Scythians could

no longer manoeuvre but were trapped between converging forces. A thousand were

killed and 150 captured.

32. Problem at Maracanda. The news of another disaster was received

there. The force sent to Maracanda had indeed relived spitamene’s siege of that city

citadel. After pursuing the rebels into the country side, however, the relief force hadfallen into a trap and now Spitamenes had laid a siege to Maracanda. Alexander failed

to realize the intensity of the rebellion until the Maracanda was besieged. Retribution

was immediate, as Alexander set out with half the companions, archers and the lightest

men. He covered 170 miles to Maracanda in three days and on fourth day at dawn,

came near the city. Spitamenes and his followers fled with Alexander at their heels, but

when he reached the battle field, he halted to bury dead of his force. He then marched

back to Bactra for winter of 329-28 BC.

33. March to Sogdiana. Before he set out to subdue Sogdiana in 328

BC, Alexander left Craterus with a strong force in Bactra with orders to patrol the

country and prevent any uprising. He divided rest of his army into five columns. He led

his own column to Maracanda, while the others swept the countryside, reduced the

Sogdian strongholds and then joined up with him at Maracanda. They built fortified

18



posts and garrisons to confine mounted commandos. He instructed Coenus and

Artabazus to advance their column into Scythia (Turkestan) where Spitamenes had

sought refuge and reinforcement of a tribe already famous for killing Cyrus the great. In

all his great battles, the organization of his army created a decisive point. Against

nomads, the only sure method was to compel them to mass in an area in which their

mobility will be restricted. He grasped the conditions which rendered the Scythians

invincible. He so shrewdly penetrated to compel them to do what they did not want to

do i.e. to enter a siege of trained, disciplined and better armed soldiers. Should this

interpretation of Alexander’s manoeuvre be correct, then it is a model of its kind.

34. End of Spitamenes. In the spring of 328 BC, Alexander returned to

Oxus. After Alexander had established his network of fortified posts, he allotted Coenus

two battalions of the phalanx, two squadrons of companions, all the mounted javelin

men and the newly raised Bactrian and Sogdian light horse and instructed him to

continue the operations against Spitamenes while he rested the army at Nautaca.

When Spitamenes saw every place was occupied by the Macedonians with garrisons,

and that there was no way to fight, he decided to attack Coenus. When Coenus saw

Spitamenes preparing for attack, he launched a sharp encounter in which 800

Spitamene’s followers were killed and Spitamenes deserted again. When the Coenus

was pursuing Spitamenes, one of his followers from Massagetae betrayed Spitamenesand sent his head to the Alexander. Thus perished the most formidable opponent who

ever faced Alexander. After Spitamenes death, Coenus and Craterus rejoined the army

at Nautaca, rest of the year was used for mopping up the entire area.

35. Battle of Sogdiana Rock. The most famous battle took place at

the sogdian rock, an in accessible precipice where Bactrian noble Oxyartes had taken

refuge with thousands of soldiers and ten years worth supplies. Alexander canvassed

his army for mountain climbers. Finding three hundred, he charged them with scalingthe nearly sheer cliff behind the rock. Over thirty fell but in the morning Oxyartes found

a triumphant force of Greek soldiers above his head and behind him. Oxyartes promptly

surrendered. In late spring of 327 B.C the king married daughter of Oxyartes, Roxane.

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PART III

OTHER INVADERS IN BACTRIA

British Campaign

“More fighting still ! When will this country be pacified?”

Alexander Burnes, Chief British political officer in Kabul, July 1841.

36. First Anglo–Afghan War . It lasted from 1839 to 1842. It was one of the

first maj conflicts during the Great Game, the 19th century competition for power and

influence in Central Asia between Great Britain and Russia, and also mark one of the

worst setbacks inflicted on British power in the region after the consolidation of India by

the East India Coy.

a. Problems Faced and Their Solutions (Factors contributing to Failure)

(1) Afghans resented the British presence and Shah Shuja

whom they took as British puppet.

(2) Invasion stemmed from intelligence failure, and confused /

optimistic policy.

(3) Britons raised taxes and attached existing customs and

interests, especially of chiefs and warriors, while the mere

presence of their garrisons caused inflation and irritation.

(4) In 1841-2, invasion sparked a combination of jihad, elite

coup, Pushtun war of national resistance, and banditry, not anational revolution, but dozens of loosely related risings. The

British had no friends; once they ceased to be feared, and

slashed their bribes, everyone struck opportunistically.

(5) As the occupation dragged on, MacNaghten (Britain's chief

representative to Kabul) allowed his soldiers to bring in their

20



families to improve morale; this further infuriated the

Afghans, as it appeared the British were settling into a

permanent occupation.

(6) Failure to introduce political reforms as follow up of mil

campaign.

(7) Major cause of war that is furtherance of British imperialistic /

expansionist designs.

42. Second Anglo–Afghan War. In the three decades after the First Anglo-

Afghan War the Russians advanced steadily southward towards Afghanistan. In 1842

the Russian border was on the other side of the Aral Sea from Afghanistan, but five

years later the Tsar's outposts had moved to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. By

1865 Tashkent had been formally annexed, as was Samarkand three yrs later. Russian

con now extended as far as the northern bank of the Amu Darya. To check further adv

of Russians towards south, in 1878, the British again invaded Afghanistan, beginning

the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

a. Problems Faced and Their Solutions (Factors contributing to

Failure)

(1) The cause of the second Afghanistan campaign had little to

do with the Afghans themselves but everything to do with the

Great power rivalry of the British and the Russians.

(2) Mindful of the disaster that befell the expedition during the

First Afghan War, the Indian government prep for this

campaign in a much more diligent manner.

(3) Constant attacks by Afghans on isolated supply and relieve

columns were of serious concern for the British.

(4) Britain found operations in Afghanistan hard, because the

population, including veterans of the Indian Army,

armed with effective rifles, played its hand against

Britain.

21



(5) Due to this campaign, there had been a considerable

financial burden to the Indian government.

(6) British forces were pleased to pull out of Afghanistan to

avoid the horrendous summer temperatures and to avoid the

constant attacks on isolated supply and relieve columns.

(7) Disaffection of many Afghans for the terms and conditions of

the British peace posed serious problems for the British.

(8) The timing of the campaign did not seem propitious. The

British troops entered their second uncomfortable winter in

the Himalayas.

(9) The British attempt at maintain any legal facade for their

undertakings was made more difficult as Yakub Khan

(the ruler of Afghanistan) attempted to abdicate. With

no obvious leader in sight, the country

descended into unpredictable tribal allegiances.

(10) The various tribes made it abundantly clear that as

little as they liked each other, they liked the British still

less.

(11) Failure to introduce political reforms as follow up of military

campaign.

Soviet Invasion

“There is no single piece of land in this country which has not been occupied by a

Soviet soldier. Nevertheless, the majority of the territory remains in the hands of rebels.

There is no single military problem that has arisen and that has not been solved, and

yet there is still no result. The whole problem is in the fact that military results are not

followed up by political”.

Sergei Akhrome’ev, Soviet Deputy Minister of Defence, Nov 1986

43. In 1979, the USSR took control of the Afghan capital, Kabul, and tried through

the following decade to gain control over the whole country and its people. The invasion

22



was a failure, costing thousands of lives and having serious consequences still felt

today.

a. Factors Contributing to Failure

(1) Lack of understanding regarding geo and culture of

AOO.

(2) The Communist governments in Kabul in the 1970s

lacked the popular sp of the rural population.

(3) Red Army of 1979 lacked adequate prep for ctr-insur

ops. Moreover, it had not fought a war since 1945.

(4) The Red Army was a conscript force whose sldrs

served for two-yr periods. It did not have an NCO

corps--in keeping with long Russian tradition, the Red

Army relied on junior officers to perform the

roles that NCOs perform in Western armies.

(5) Soviet conscripts were notoriously brutal, drunk, and

unprofessional.

(6) Resistance fighters, called mujahidin, saw the

Christian or atheist Soviets con Afghanistan as a

defilement of Islam as well as of their traditional

culture. Proclaiming a "jihad"(holy war), they

gained the sp of the Islamic World.

(7) US gave mujahidin sp incl weapons, trg and money -

Op Cyclone.

(8) Mujahidin successfully emp guerrilla tac against the

Soviets.

(9) Decentralized and scattered around Afghanistan, the

mujahidin were like a poisonous snake without a head

that could be cut off. There was no one strong cen

stronghold from which resistance operated.

(10) Alienating the civ populace - Soviet invasion had a

devastating eff on the Afghan people. Because the

23



rural population fed and housed the mujahidin, the

Soviets tried to eliminate or remove civilian

populations from the countryside where

resistance was based.

(11) Soviet invasion in Afghanistan elicited a strong

reaction from all over the world.

(12) From throughout the Arab world, people gave money

and aided the mujahidin.

(13) Although the primary reason for the Soviet wdr was

their mil failure, diplomatic pressure from around the

world hastened it.

PART IV

ALLIES’ INVASION

44. The US led coalition’s campaign in Afghanistan presents an interesting case

study in contemporary times where like previous invaders a superior force succeeded in

initially overrunning the country and got caught up in a protracted conflict thereafter. In

succeeding pages the analysis testifies that US strategy in Afghanistan bears many

similarities and some departures from Alexander’s model of conquering and retaining

Afghanistan. As a whole the US model can be assumed to be closer to Alexander’s

strategy than any other invader of Afghanistan. The US campaign in Afghanistan will be

dealt with in following sequence in this part of study:-

a. Background and reasons of invasion.

b. Brief conduct of operations.

c. Comparison with Alexander’s model including similarities and departures.

45. Background and Reasons of Op Enduring Freedom. On 11 September

2001, USA was struck with terrorist attacks precedented in its history only by Japanese

attack on Pearl harbour .The magnitude and degree of destruction left the Americans

flabbergasted; not only the invincibility of world’s sole super power had comprehensively

shattered but also the loss of lives and damage to the economy was colossal . Outraged

24



and shocked America was quick at pointing figure toward Al Qaeda and Afghanistan

and demanded for immediate extradition of Osama Bin Laden from Taliban regime.

Afghan government’s defiance to comply left Americans with no option but to undertake

a major military campaign and a policy statement enunciating “ Either you are with us

or with the terrorists” was made by US administration to coerce international support.

Pakistan had considerable stake in continuation of Taliban regime in Afghanistan and it

tried to persuade Afghan government to abide by the US demands failing which it took

the fateful decision of siding with the coalition in war against terror. The US along NATO

allies invaded Afghanistan with Pakistan providing intelligence, rights to use its air

space and logistic support in support of coalition efforts.

46. Conduct. The war can be categorized into four distinct phases:-

a. Air Campaign. “Operation Enduring Freedom” began with a massive

air campaign starting from 17th Oct 01. Soon Americans ran out of visible

targets to strike and resorted to special force operations as well as

bombing of front line Taliban positions. After a month of bombing, US

forces had nothing much to show to their credit except the collateral

damage.

b. Ground Offensive and Capitulation of Taliban. Northern alliance

started the offensive from Northern fringes by taking Mazar-e- Sharif with

Dostam’s militia. Local Taliban surprisingly did not put up much of fight.

Soon Kunduz, Herat and several other cities fell to Northern alliance. On

13 Nov 02, Northern Alliance troops entered into Kabul and claimed

victory. History repeated itself once again as Afghanistan was conquered

by a superpower without much of a resistance.

c. Resistance Phase. It is an ongoing phase. After the fall of Kabul, an

interim government was formed under Hamid Karzai. His cabinet has

Tajiks and Uzbeks from North but Pushtuns who form the majority of

population have very less representation in the government. Taliban

organized them once again and started raids, ambushes and suicide

attacks against NATO led ISAF forces in Afghanistan. US has only itself to

1 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:114

25



blame for shifting of its focus from Afghanistan to Iraq at a critical time,

and forces were divided to look after two fronts .

d. Strategy Revisited (Obama Administration). Subsequent to formation

of new American Government the strategy was a revisited and the issue

was viewed in regional context leading to announcement of Afpak

Strategy. Whereas the strategy is yet to be unfolded on ground in specific

terms additional dimensions of addressing the causes outside

Afghanistan, engaging the non hardline Taliban and empowering the

Afghan National Army are the salients.

47. Comparison With Alexander’s Campaign. US led coalitions’ campaign in

Afghanistan has so far been closest to the Bacterian model it bears many similarities in

its concept and conduct, however owing to variations in aim of the campaign and

contemporary geopolitical realities there are some departures from Alexanderian model

as well these similarities and departures are as under:-

a. Similarities

(1) Massive Use of Force. Like Alexander the coalition broke the

ground with massive use of force in the form carpet bombing the

country with state of the art weapons and potent support to the

Northern Alliance troops. Like Alexander and earlier invaders the

coalition was able to secure a victory in a quick time but the Taliban

instead of being annihilated melted in the country side with

considerable resistance potential entangling the invaders in a

protracted and bloody conflict which goes on todate.

(2) Engaging with Local Forces and Warlords. In a bid to

strengthen his hold over Bectria Alexander empowered local

warlords like Sismithers the policy did pay him rich dividends.

Coalition went a step ahead in securing the support from anti

Taliban forces not only in post operations stage but also during the

conduct of battle with Coalition boots touching the ground after the

Kabul had fallen to Northern alliance.

26



(3) Reconstruction Efforts. To quell the insurgency and win the

hearts and minds of the people in post war scenario the coalition

forces just like Alexander undertook considerable reconstruction

efforts these can be broadly divided into administrative, political and

economic developments. A brief review is a s under:-

(a) Political Initiatives. To alienate the feelings of being ruled

by foreign invaders the coalition followed a line of putting in

place Afghan governments in an early time frame major

developments are as under:-

(1) Establishment of Provisional Government. With

the campaign in its seventh week the coalition

commenced with the efforts to put in place a

provisional government accommodating as much

ethnic groups as possible. Resultantly an agreement

was reached on 5 December 20012 by various Afghan

stake holders at Bonn conference in Germany putting

in place an interim government under Hamid Karzai.

United States, United Nations and Japan played a

major role to help secure the agreement.

(2) Establishment of National Government. Going

further the coalition was successful in establishing an

Afghan National Government as a result of Loya Jirga

(as provided by the provision of Bonn agreement)held

on 11 and 12 Jun 2002.3Hamid Karzai was elected as

president for next two years.

(3) Formulation of Constituiton. The coalition played

a major role in settling the difference and persuading

all segments of Afghan national government in

adopting a constitution thus setting the stage for

nationwide elections in Jun 2004. The constitution put

2 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:1163 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:119

27



in place a presidential form of government and tried to

accommodate various ethnic groups by recognising

Pashto, Durri, Uzbek and Turkmen as official

languages.

(4) Nationwide Elections. By holding general

election s in 2004 and 2009 the coalition has stuck to

its effort to project Afghanistan being ruled by the

Afghans and put in place some democratic framework

in the country. The results of the effort however

remain marred owing to factors of Hamid Karzai being

viewed as American puppet and failure of the

government to extend its writ beyond Kabul.

(b) Economic Initiatives. Like Alexander coalition under took

several steps to improve the economic condition of the Afghan

government right from the outset. The international conference held

in Japan in January 2002 set a target of $15 billion assistance to

Afghanistan in next 10 years. The coalition was able to win the

commitment for provision of $ 4.8 billion over next five years.

America itself committed $ 296 4million in the coming year. This is

largest ever assistance from a single government in a single year.

Although considerable amount of this allocation did make it to

Afghanistan, however factors like government’s lack of capacity

and infrastructure to undertake development works compounded by

worsening security situation did not allow requisite results to be

achieved.

(c) Administrative Initiatives. Just like Alexander coalition

under took a number of administrative initiatives to win the

population on their side and put in place developmental

infrastructure, major steps are as under:-


28



(1) Establishment of ISAF. Although it later became to be

viewed as an extension of American presence in

Afghanistan, ISAF was established as an international

security assistance force under the umbrella of Unites

Nations for purposes like peace keeping, improvement of

security situation and undertaking development works. Thus

clearly differentiating its role form US prime aim of capturing

Osama Bin Laden and Taliban leaders.

(2) Establishment odf Afghan National Army. Although still

having a strength of 4700 people the establishment of

Afghan National Army was a major step towards achieving

security in the country. Failure to amalgamate local militias

with Afghan National Army owing to resistance by the war

lords and United States’ ceding to these war lords to keep

them on her side have seriously undermined the effects to

be achieved from establishment of Afghan National Army.

(3) Repatriation of Refugees. Another major initiative

was to go ahead with the repatriation of refugees. In 2004

alone 0.65 million of Afghan refugees returned to

Afghanistan. Overall 2.5 million refugees returned to

Afghanistan this is the single largest repatriation of the

refugees in past 30 years5. The worsening security situation

coupled with government’s lack of capacity to undertake

rehabilitation initiatives have marred the outcome from the

fact.

(4) Development of Communication Infrastructure. The

coalition undertook some major projects to develop road

communication network in the country. Joint construction of

Kabul- Kandhar-Heart road (by Saudi Arabia, Japan and US

government) and Torkham- Jalalabad road by Pakistan


29



coupled with several initiatives of local communication

arteries are some of the examples.

b. Departure from Alexandrian Model. The coalition model of invading

and retaining Afghanistan differs from Alexander’s campaign in many

ways. The phenomenon is rooted in the basic aim of coalition forces and

different geopolitical realities. Major departures are as under:-

(1) Basic Aim of Invasion. Unlike Alexander’s aim to conquer

Afghanistan, coalition’s declared aim was to topple the Taliban

regime, bring the perpetrators of 9/11 attacks to justice and

dismantle the terror infrastructure in the country. The fact

fundamentally alters the concept of waging the war and variations

are evident.

(2) Formulation of Coalition. Unlike Alexander America was able to

articulate a multinational coalition to undertake the campaign.

Although US was able to retain the role of major decision maker,

however the actions of coalition forces fell short of response

generated by single nation’s force under one single command.

(3) Alienation of Local Population. In later half of his campaign

Alexander tried to reach out to the local population by a variety of

measures. Contrarily the coalition stays in water tight

compartments with civil military relation and developmental

initiatives falling to the domain of ISAF.

(4) Encouraging Independent Power Centers. While Alexander

took on any independent power centres with an iron hand the

coalition seems to be settled with the existence of various warlords

and their militias partly attributable to the variation the aim of the

campaign.

(5) Shift of Focus Amidst the Campaign. Whereas Alexander

vigorously pursued the campaign being unifocal and without

engaging himself on any other front; the coalition on the contrary

30



lost focus of Afghanistan by getting entangled in Iraq seriously

affecting the outcome of the campaign.

48. Many of these departures are being undone in the new US policy for Afghanistan

and hopefully with these new initiatives the coalition will be able to prevail.

PART- V

ANALYSIS AND LESSONS LEARNT

Analysis of Bactrian Campaign

49. Securing the Base of Operation. Alexander always operated from a

secure base of operation and ensured its protection at all cost. Even in the

middle of the campaign he preferred to return for its protection then the

immediate objectives by retaliating quickly and ruthlessly. The testimony is

evident form his actions against the pursuit of Darius and Bessus, and the revolt

of Satibarzanes at Cyropolis.

50. Centre of Gravity. Alexander the Great led an Army of 40,000 for 12

years from one corner of known world to the other, across the most treacherous

of terrains, while fighting and defeating the greatest of his time. His personality asa leader captured the centre peace of his conquests. He was the centre of gravity

of his army mainly due to his determination and influence in the battle.

Macedonians never reached that glory after his death.

51. Speed of Operations. In the history, except Napoleon, no other general

appreciated as fully as Alexander the value of mobility in war. Throughout his

career, speed dominated all his movements and the result was increasing the

time at his disposal. Number of times in Bactrian campaign, he surprised his

enemies due to superior mobility. He manifested the application of mobility in

pursuit of Darius and Bessus, and execution of Satibarzanes. He covered the

distances with speed to reach at a place, where his enemy never expected him.

37. Pursuit. Alexander was the first general in history to understand that the

fruits of a battle are in pursuit. He in all the battles followed his enemies until they

31



were executed or murdered. Darius, Bessus and Spitemens are the few

examples.

38. Singleness of Purpose. Alexander’s tactical operations were invariably

subordinated to strategic aim of their respective campaigns. In his great battles,

his aim was to assault from a secure base and annihilates his enemy’s power of

resistance. He did so by subduing all Persian provinces along axis of advance.

His aim was to secure NE front so as to invade India after the Bactrian campaign.

39. Intelligence Network. Alexander always obtained advance information

about the country he decided to conquer and his intelligence network was so well

orchestrated that he could get first hand information about his enemy’s movement and

his intentions well in advance to take appropriate actions at his end. When this was not

possible, he stepped into his enemy’s shoes, looked at the situation through his enemy’s

eyes and fathomed his intentions.

40. Security. Alexander while at rest or during march or in battle, ordered

entrenchment to be dug and picketed the route along which he marched, as he

did in the Elburz Mountains. He also resorted to night move to hide his intentions

and to surprise his enemy. In the battle, the security of his army was guaranteed

by its organization. Its centre was impenetrable as long as phalanx maintained its

dressing and its mobile wings were self protective. They could adopt themselves

to attack or defence as occasions demanded.

41. Quelling Rebellions. Whenever Alexander confronted with any

revolt, he eliminated all uprisings by responding immediately and ruthlessly whether

inland or abroad, like the revolt of Satibarzanes.

42. Adaptation to Guerrilla Warfare. In this theatre, Alexander fought

a war with mounted guerrillas, who when he advanced would suddenly appear in his

rear. They entrenched themselves on inaccessible crags, and when pursued, they

vanished into the Turkoman steppes. That is why he took two years to subdue these

provinces which tested his generalship. In response to guerrilla warfare he lightened

the phalanx and there was a considerable expansion of his light troops both on foot and

on horse. Whatever changes he made, these were based on mobility and flexibility

32



coupled with use of large number of military posts and military colonies that restricted

his enemy’s mobility.

43. Concentrated Employment of Fire Power . Alexander used catapult as

his main field artillery gun. In the battle with Scythians at Jaxartes, he used this

weapon to cover river crossing and to cover the assault on Aornus. He has the

distinction of being the first field gunner in the history.

44. Socio-Politico Reforms. Alexander secured important bases and later

their administration was carefully organised. Peaceful conditions were resorted to, trade

was stimulated and police force was left to the colonies rather than armies of

occupation. As his conquest extended, he won peace as he waged war and bound the

whole into one by means of communication network.

45. Logistic Sustenance. Alexander knew the importance of continuous

Logistic support and he never left sight of it. He always appointed commanders

responsible for the route protection, and he normally chose locals for this task. When

Satibarzanes, the Governor of Aria submitted to him, he allotted him small police force

for the route protection. In the entire campaign, it was only once before the battle of

Issus, that his supply system broke down.

46. Promoting Inter Cultural Harmony. Alexander knew that his

existence in the area depends not on his endeavours, but on the good will and

contentedness of its people. To expunge his victories from their minds and show them

he was one of them, He introduced Persian etiquettes into his court and donned

Persian attire. He adopted a composite dress mid way between the Persian and the

Macedonian culture.

47. Impartial Justice. Alexander treated his followers impartially. When he

came across the Ariaspians and learnt that they not only enjoyed a form of government

unlike that of the other barbarians. He also observed that Ariaspians laid claim to justice

like the best of the Greeks, so he set them free and gave them adjacent country as they

asked for themselves.

48. Selection of Strategic Objectives. Bactrian campaign was beyond the

original mandate of League of Corinth. After the fall of Persia his allies considered this

33



campaign as an endless struggle instead of actual cause. Alexander was forced to

detach a considerable portion of his allies and was short of troops for capture of India.

Common Difficulties Faced by All Invaders in Bactria

64. Some of the common difficulties faced by all invaders in Bactria are as

under:-

a. Terrain. Bactria, present day Afghanistan, known as the

battleground of the world has received and became a "graveyard of

empires" from Alexander the Great through Genghis Khan followed by the

British, Russians and now probably the United States. This peculiarity has

remained a constant factor for all the invaders and posed a serious

problem for all. The ruggedness of terrain and hard mountains has always

provided safe sanctuaries to the local tribes who by virtue of local

inhabitants knew the terrain well and exploited that to the maximum. This

phenomenon resulted into transformation, from a concept of large scale

force into small and agile body of troops.

b. Geographic Location. Like terrain, geography has played a

very important role in history of Afghanistan. Despite its rugged

mountainous and desert terrain, its strategic location on the Silk Road

linking Europe and China via Western Asia, has played its part since

Alexander’s time. This pivotal location provided invaders a jump off point

towards India, China, Central Asian Republics (CARs) and Russia.

Without a strong hold in Afghanistan, the control of other region is affected

to a larger extent. Exploitation of other regions through Afghanistan

remained the major reason of most of the foreign invasions. The United

States / NATO Forces in Afghanistan at present are the true manifestation

of this, as it is not only dealing with the Taliban/Al-Qaeda but also keepingan eye over Pakistan, Iran, Central Asian Republics (CARs), Russia and

China.

c. Tribal Unity Against Foreign the Aggressor . Tribesmen

are tenacious fighters. They love freedom and have never compromised

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on it. This aspect remained a constant threat to all invaders, which

resulted in display of relentless fighting even by a small body of tribesmen.

These tribes never accepted the invaders on their land. Despite of mutual

rivalry they fought collectively against invaders and their joint struggle

against them is clear manifestation of the same. In the course of guerrilla

war during Soviet invasion and now the US/NATO, Afghan leadership

came to be distinctively associated with the title of "commander". It applied

to independent leaders, eschewing identification with elaborate military

bureaucracy associated with such ranks as general. As the war produced

leaders of reputation, "commander" was conferred on leaders of fighting

units of all sizes, signifying pride in independence, self-sufficiency, and

distinct ties to local community. The title epitomized Afghan pride in their

struggle against an overwhelmingly-powerful foe.

d. Severe Weather . The harsh winters always posed considerable

restrictions over the movement of forces in high snow clad mountains.

This always dictated the campaigning season to be in summers. Even in

modern times, the US/NATO operations are restricted to summers only

despite the sound log system.

e. Low Intensity Conflict. The rugged mountains and adverse

communication infrastructure facilitate hit and run tactics that make this

region conducive for Guerrilla Warfare. To off set this balance, any invader

is required to identify and destroy multiple centre of gravities, which may

include military targets, economic supports, local and foreign

sympathizers, and political influence.

f. Logistic Support. To sustain any operation in the region requires

a sound logistic support, which is true in any part of the world. However,

geographical factor changes its status in the priority table. Long lines of

communication are susceptible to interruptions and protection of these is a

major aspect in any conflict in the region. This dictates efficient logistic

system with minimum dependence on long line of commutation.

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65. US Invasion of Afghanistan. US invasion of Afghanistan ultimately

proved to be a strategic failure and its’ changed policy on war against terror in the

region is a clear manifestation of the same. Salient aspects that are hampering the US

efforts in Afghanistan include:-

a. Preoccupation with Iraq. Intense US forces engagement in Iraq

seriously effected the military operations in Afghanistan. Not only troops

but it also changed the focus of its military effort.

b. Non Representative Government. The US formed puppet

government in Afghanistan, has so far proved to be a total failure since it

don’t represents the major ethnic faction i.e. Pashtuns and it has yet to

establish its writ outside Kabul.

c. Revival of Taliban Insurgency. Taliban initially suffered heavy

losses but resurfaced as a potent force by adopting guerrilla warfare

tactics as they did against previous invaders.

d. Survival of Al Qaeda Leadership. Failure of coalition and

Afghan forces to eliminate the top Al- Qaeda and Taliban leadership

resulted in regrouping and strengthening of various fighting groups.

e. Economic Factor . Economy is not moving forward at the level

that benefits ordinary Afghan; rural development is very weak with major

problems like the narcotics trade. Current US and NATO aid and re-

habilitation activities in the war torn country are inadequate.

f. Insufficient Boots on Ground. The US and NATO have

insufficient force to secure the south and west, and key NATO partners

like France, Germany, Japan and Italy do not provide fighting forces due

to political constraints.

Application of Principles of War

49. Maintenance of Aim. Maintenance of aim as principle of war was the

predominant factor faced by invaders. Alexander’s tactical operations were invariably

subordinated to strategic aim of their respective campaigns. In his four great battles, his

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aim was to assault from a secure base and annihilates his enemy’s power of

resistance. On the other hand, The Soviet troops suffered from the confusion about

their goals. Initial official mission was to protect the government that changed to

overthrow Amin and his regime. Mission was changed once again, but the leadership

was not willing to admit that the Soviet troops were essentially fighting the Afghan civil

war for the government. This aspect contributed towards its defeat.

50. Mobility. In the history, except Napoleon, no other general appreciated

as fully as Alexander the value of mobility in war. Throughout his career speed

dominated all his movements and the result was by increasing the time at his disposal.

Number of times in Bactrian campaign, he surprised enemy due to his mobility i.e. In

Darius and Bessus pursuit, Satibarzanes execution, he covered the distance with

speed to reach a place where his enemy never expected him.

51. Offen sive Action. Like mobility offensives action also remained the

hallmark of Alexander’s campaign in Bactria. Pursuit of his enemies and response

towards any revolt was vigorously executed. Whenever Alexander confronted with any

revolt, he eliminated all uprisings by responding immediately and ruthlessly whether

inland or abroad, like the revolt of Satibarzanes.

52. Concentration of Force. To overcome the disadvantages, all the

invaders concentrated their forces at the point of application to put the opponents at a

disadvantage. Unlike other battlefield environments, this aspect is quite difficult in this

region mainly due to terrain and nature of enemy. Alexander covered 170 miles while

moving towards Maracanda in four days and concentrated his forces, which proved

decisive. US invasion in Afghanistan ultimately proved to be a strategic failure. Intense

US forces engagement in Iraq seriously effected the military operations in Afghanistan.

53. Intelligence. Nature of operations and the enemy pattern dictates an

effective intelligence network in the region. Most of the operations are premeditative, as

the target will appear at the place and time of his choosing, leaving us with little time to

react. Lack of effective intelligence network contributed heavily towards defeat of major

empires in the region. Alexander always obtained advance information about the

country he decided to conquer and got first hand information about his enemy’s

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movement and his intentions well in advance to take appropriate actions. Same

phenomenon is advocated by subsequent invaders in the region.

54. Unity of Command. Articulation of command plays a very important

role towards the outcome of any battle. The nature of enemy and geographical factor inthe region demands centralized control with decentralized execution. Alexander

controlled his massive campaign with tremendous results. Same aspect lacks in the

USSR and US invasion to a large extent.

Lessons Relevant Today

55. Relevance of Operation in FATA. Bactria though is different from

the own border region but still a lot of similarities exists in terms of mountainous terrain,

ethnicity of people and the harsh weather. Considering these similarities of the regionfew pertinent lessons relevant to today’s environment are discussed in subsequent

paragraphs:-

a. Geography. Geography of the region has played a very important

role in dictating the rules of engagement in the region. It has direct

implication on conduct of on going operations in FATA region:-

(1) Force Size. Large forces operating in the area should

transform into small and agile one. Large force is more prone to

ambushes and raids and it’s cumbersome to move at short notices.

Thus, employment of large scale force of any specific operation in the

region is debatable. Ongoing operation in FATA requires an agile,

but still potent enough force to carryout independent operation with

minimum time to react.

(2) Mobility. Mobility will play a major role in Low Intensity

Operations in the region. Considering the nature of operation and

the enemy, greater mobility will be able to curtail the inherent

geographical disadvantages. Employment of compatible mobility

means will synergize the effect created by a force at the point of

application.

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(3) Domination of Route. Under Low Intensity Operations

environments, occupation of dominant positions in the route of any

operation (operational or logistic support) carries its own

significance. With the nature of terrain in the FATA region requires

a major effort to clear and subsequently sustain it. Eviction of a

smaller size enemy from these positions requires a deliberate effort

which is expensive both in force and time. Any further development

without prior clearance of these life lines will be prone to sustained

interruptions.

b. Aerial Mobility. Aerial platforms have given a new dimension to

this type of warfare. Geographical disadvantages can be nullified to a

large extent with its employment. Disposition of any force in the enemy

rear can create the desired effect towards achievement of objectives.

Employment of these platforms in FATA, both in logistic and attack role,

produced commendable results which may not be possible with ground

mobility means.

c. Logistic Support. Geographical factor changes the status of

logistic support in the operational priority table as a whole. Long lines of

communication are susceptible to interruptions and protection requires

major effort. This dictates efficient logistic system with minimum

dependence on long line of commutation.

d. Political Solution. There could be no military solution to the

conflict in the region which dictates the employment of strong political

response. From Alexander to present day, any sort of peace achieved was

through political channel. A sustained peace in the region can only be

ensured through an effective political system. In FATA also, we should not

abandon the employment of political option for a sustained peace in the

region.

e. Mountain Warfare. Natives utilize the advantages of

geography even defeated major empires. Conventional military operation

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may be altered to gain desired results in any future conflict. Predominantly

the Low Intensity Conflict will dictate its employment parameters.

Protection of force, its size and the sustenance measures will require

revaluation at the conceptual plan.

f. Training. The conflict in the region is asymmetric in nature and

requires a major shift in military training and doctrines. Mastery in Guerrilla

Warfare, field craft and Low Intensity Conflict will contribute towards the

attainment of strategic objectives. Our army is trained for third generation

warfare, while we are confronted with forth generation warfare,

represented by Low Intensity Conflict. We should adopt the conduct of our

operation to forth generation warfare as only then we can counter this

threat.

g. Importance of Human Intelligence. To predict the Low

Intensity Conflict operations we should have considerable ingress into the

planning quarters of the terrorists. High altitude and sophisticated

surveillance means are of limited value in forth generation warfare

environments.

h. Respect Of Tribal Traditions. Tribal people are sensitive

towards their traditions, especially with regards to elders and women.

While operating in the region we must hold these traditions in respect.

Alexander was always respectful to the local populace. Pushton are

fiercely warlike and independent race. It will be facilitating for pursuance of

our policies that we leverage the tribal authorities to our advantages.

Conclusion

56. The history of Bactria i.e. present day (part of) Afghanistan spans 2500yrs. We should not forget the past as we run the risk of being condemned to relive it.

The Bactrian terrain, people, and weather have inflicted defeat on invaders throughout

the history. The lessons learnt from Alexander till US invasion are still relevant today,

and only avoiding the short falls of earlier invaders can ensure success of any future

operation in the region.

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Reference Material

74. Following reference material is used:-

a. Books

(1) Afghanistan from Alexander the great to fall of Taliban, StephanTener

(2) Afghanistan from tragedy to triumphs, Sadhan Mukhherjee

(3) Afghanistan of afghans, Sardar Iqbal Ali Shah

(4) Alexander the Great and Logistics of the Macedonian Army, Donald

W. Engels

(5) Great Empires of the Past, Empire of Alexander The Great, Debra

Skelton and Pamela Dell

b. Internet

(1) Battle of Wanat Historical Analysis Rough Draft Release by A

Battlefield Tourist.htm

(2) Afghanistan-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia..htm

(3) Bactria-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.htm

(4) bactria history, population, religion, tradition, speciality-Google

Search.htmc. Encyclopedia

(1) International military and defence encyclopedia, Trevor N.Dupuy

(2) The encyclopedia of warfare, from earliest times…..to present day,

Adrian Gilbert

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Documents

Written Script Alexander's Campaign in Bactria