Writing Skills - Notes

8/10/2019 Writing Skills - Notes

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COURSE AIMS

This series of lectures concentrates on improving your technical writing and speaking skills. The mainaims are:

to give you an understanding of the elements involved in the communication process.

to make you aware of the criteria to be used when judging the accuracy and acceptability oftechnical communication.

to give you advice and guidance on the tactics and techniques needed for effective technicalwriting and speaking



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CONTENTSPage No.

1. TACTICS AND TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 41.1 The Communication Process 4

1.2 Preparing to Communicate Effectively 4

2. THE WRITING PROCESS 5

2.1 The Stages of Writing 5

2.1 Using Computer Software during Writing 63. HOW THE READER

DECODES TEXT INFORMATION 6

4. HOW THE WRITER ENCODES INFORMATION INTO TEXT FORM 7

5. PLAIN ENGLISH FUNDAMENTALS 75.1 Basic Sentence Construction 7

5.2 Expanding the Sentence 8

5.3 Punctuation 95.4 Sentence Length 11

5.5 The Paragraph 116. STYLE FOR READABILITY 12

6.1 Choice open to the writer 12

6.2 Some Questions to Ask when Analysing Style 14

7. INFORMATION STRUCTURE 167.1 The two levels of information structure 167.2 Microstructure 17

7.2.1 Deciding on microstructure 177.2.2 Cohesion within the text 177.2.3 Examples of microstructure 18

7.3 Macrostructure 207.3.1 Example of Macrostructure 20

8. ORGANISATION OF REPORTS AND PAPERS 228.1 Example of titles 228.2 Examples of summaries 228.3 Contents Page 24

8.4 Examples of Introductions 258.5 Examples of Discussions 258.6 Examples of Conclusions 26

8.7 Equations 268.8 Showing Use of References 27

9. ILLUSTRATING TECHNICAL WRITING 289.1 Types of Illustration 289.2 Principles of design 289.3 Illustration examples 28

10. EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL SPEAKING 3210.1 Differences between written and spoken communication 3210.2 General tactics of preparation 32

10.3 The actual presentation 3210.4 Visual aids 33

10.4.1 General points 3310.4.2 Commonly used aids 33

10.5 Using the Storyboard Technique 34



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1. TACTICS AND TECHNIQUES FOR EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

1.1 The Communication Process

Communication during education vs. professional communication

During education, you are writing and speaking for teaching staff who already know. You (the sender)tend to focus your attention on message content and the teacher (the receiver) assesses the correctness

of the content.

In professional life, the purpose of communicating and the audience (the receiver) are different. Thereceiver does not know, but wants to learn and use the information in your message. Hence yourmessage must be clear and quickly understood.

Noise sources (distractions):

Mechanical (visual) - poor layout of written report; poor presentation style for a technical talk;distractions from surroundings.

Psychological (mental) - not taking account of how people take-in and understand information;not taking account of how people will react to presented information.

Linguistic (style) - inappropriate writing or speaking style; imprecise and unclear meaningbecause of poor word choice.

Always consider how people may react to your message

1.2 Preparing to Communicate Effectively

i. Clarify aim

What am I trying to achieve with this report/paper/handbook/ memorandum/instruction-sheet/interview/presentation?

What do I want my audience to do after they have read/listened? What will my audience do afterreading/listening/

To describe

To explain

To instruct

To specify

To evaluate and recommend

To persuade

To…………

ii. Consider audience

Who is to listen to/read what I present?What will my audience expect?

Their knowledge



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Their needs

Their attitudes

Their attention

The context

iii. Communication thesis

Write a one or two sentence summary specifying what the thesis is aiming to communicate.

iv. Select material

Which items from the available information are necessary to fulfil this communication for thisaudience in this context?

v. Arrange material

How should I structure my information to gain the maximum advantage for this audience? What thesisorganisation will command attention, be quickly informative, and be easy to assimilate?

Almost always from outline to detail, from general to particular.

Order of importance e.g. spatial/topographical order

Sequence of operation

Fault-finding sequenceChronological order

vi. Prepare a synopsis/talk outline

Discuss and finalise before going ahead.

2. THE WRITING PROCESS

2.1 The Stages of Writing

Aim

AudienceInformation

Communication

Thesis

Planned Presentation

of Selected Material

i. Outline headings for structure

one page of A4, e.g. as for a talk.

ii. Sketch in ideas and chunks of information to go under each heading.

iii. Write a rough draft as quickly as possible

without feedback. concentrate on getting the plan and organisation of information correct, rather than word

choice, sentence structure, and spelling.



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get continuity of thought and flow.

avoid the 'photocopy fallacy'.

write summary and conclusions/recommendations last.

iv. Read rough draft

mark areas for revision (not major changes).

check continuity.

v. Mark and rewrite after a few days

use word processor if the norm.

criticise your own writing (for joint reports hand to other group nembers).

vi. Complete final version

clear layout and legible writing.

run spell check

final detailed read (independent party if possible)

2.2 Using Computer Software for Writing

Word processors: research has shown that when some writers use pen and paper alone, their thoughtsand information tend to have better planning and organisation. When using word processors alone,writers tend to plan more at a surface level, focussing on such aspects as word choice, sentencestructure, and spelling. If, though, you are comfortable with immediate drafting on word processors,continue to do this, but break up the writing and planning processes into different sessions. For example,initial outline planning on paper is still valuable to clarify the direction of the report.

Style-analysis software: programmes are available which will proof read documents to analyse grammar,writing style, and punctuation. From the feedback given, the writer can use such software as an editorand decide whether or not to make changes. However, it is important to realise that these programmesoperate at the textual level of writing only. They do not check the context or the cognitive structures of the

information presented by the text. Reading the report thoroughly before submission is always worthdoing.

3. HOW THE READER DECODES TEXT INFORMATION

Links this information into

existing information in

long-term memory

Holds several pieces of

information (or ideas)in short-term memory

Linear pattern of text

information

Process is sorting,

classifying and

sorting as in a

library

Text decoding by the reader proceeds by:

recognising the words,

recognising the role of the words in the sentence (i.e. their grammatical role),identifying the idea conveyed by the whole sentence, and finally, associating that idea with what

has gone before and assessing its significance.



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4. HOW THE WRITER ENOCOES INFORMATION INTO TEXT FORM

Text encoding by the writer involves 3 key skills:

i. Plain English Fundamentals - using words and phrases to give acceptably (in a grammaticalsense) coded text.

ii. Style - using preferred forms of expression when writing to promote ease. of reading andunderstanding

iii. Information Structure - using appropriate information structures to give well signposted routesthrough the text (microstructure) and organisation of the report (macrostructure).

5. PLAIN ENGLISH FUNDAMENTALS

5.1 Basic Sentence Construction

The basic sentence construction is one in which a single idea is expressed by a subject and a predicate.The predicate asserts something about the subject.

subject predicate I gave the book to him

verb object

The verb is the word or group of words which expresses the action. In a sentence, the verb combineswith a subject to have its meaning limited by tense, person and number. It is then called a finite verb.

There are transitive and intrasitive verbs. Transitive verbs are only complete in meaning when they havean object to receive their action. An intransitive verb does not require an object to complete its meaning.

The machine has broken down. (Intransitive)

The gears whine. (Intransitive)

The press formed the body panel. (Transitive)

All the other verb forms are non-finite. They name actions rather than assert actions and can be used tomodify the meaning of other sentence elements. They are called verbals, namely gerunds, participlesand infinitives. A verbal must be used with a finite verb to make a complete sentence.

Balancing the shaft made the operation smoother. (Gerund)

To clamp the shaft was the first. job. (Infinitive)

The falling weight hit the floor. (Participle)

The voice of a finite verb indicates whether the subject of the verb performs the action or receives the

action. In the active voice the subject performs the action. In the passive voice the action is done to thesubject.

The oscilloscope was set up by the technician. (Passive)

The technician set up the oscilloscope. (Active)

The passive voice of a verb is made by adding its past participle to some form of the verb to be.Excessive use of the passive voice can make technical writing cumbersome and tedious to read, leadingto awkward expression and long sentences. Writing in the active voice can express ideas more clearlyand concisely.

On checking plasticities after seven days, no drifting of the gumplasticity was found to haveoccurred. (Passive)

After seven days the gum plasticity had not drif ted. (Active)



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It should be noted, however, writing entirely in the active voice is generally not considered good practicefor technical writing. This is because it can lead to a subjective feel to the report where t echnical reportsshould be objective and present the facts. So a balance must be sought between the two styles. Findingthis passive/active balance is a skill which can only be developed from experience. Therefore if thewriter is new to technical writing, writing in the passive sense is recommended until more experienceallows appropriate mixing of the two styles.

5.2 Expanding the Sentence A simple sentence is a group of words that has a subject and a finite verb, and expresses a single idea.

The engine stopped making the noise.

Simple sentences are limited in the amount of information which they can carry, and a succession ofthem would be monotonous and boring. To explain something of complexity it is necessary to introducequalifications into the simple sentence which expand the original single idea. Sentences then becomeknown as compound or complex sentences, and are made up of groups of clauses. The linking word (orconjunction) used between individual clauses will tell the reader whether the additional clausesintroduce dependent or independent ideas. It is important that technical writing distinguishes betweenthese two types of idea.

The roller is case hardened and the surface has a bright polished surface. (One sentencecontaining two independent ideas)

The gear failed because the teeth were worn. (One sentence containing two dependent ideas)

Sentences are expanded by modification, co-ordination and subordination.

a) Modification: Adjectives modify the meaning of nouns. Adverbs modify the meaning of verbs.Phrases can be similarly used to do the work of adjectives, adverbs or nouns. A phrase is asmall group of words which is not complete by itself since it contains no finite verb.

The engine with the black exhaust gradually stopped making the scuffing noise.

phrase adverb adjective

b) Coordination : Coordination is the building of a compound sentence by joining independent ideas(or clauses). The ideas have equal importance in the sentence. To show the correct relationshipbetween them, they should be joined by using the appropriate coordinating conjunction andpunctuation. The following is a guide.

Addition

; then ; also

; besides; furthermore

, and

Choice or Alternative

; otherwise

, or

, but

Contrast

; however; still; nevertheless

, for

Interference or Consequence

; consequently; hence; therefore

c) Subordination: Subordination is the building of a complex sentence by joining dependent ideas. Oneidea (expressed by an independent clause) is the main idea, and the other ideas (expressed bysubordinate or dependent clauses) clarify and explain this main idea. The ideas are joined by using







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Parenthesis The purpose of a parenthesis is ordinarily to insert an illustration, explanation oradditional piece of information into a sentence that is grammatically complete. Aparenthesis may be marked off by commas, dashes or brackets. Commas are themost satisfactory; they are less abrupt:

Ferric oxide, a red solid, is a pigment.

The reaction products (formed by adding fuming nitric acid to a suspension is polyethylene in water) contain traces of carboxylic acid.

Most of the results - all but three - contained the same error.

5.4 Sentence Length

One of the factors which affects how easily text is read is the number of words used in sentences.Communication breaks down when too many ideas are crammed into a sentence. Avoid complicatedsentences by splitting them into shorter, simpler ones. Here is a very poorly constructed sentence:

The rate for production for the latest financial year is higher than that of the previous year becausethis was the year that the new, automatic, high-speed, hydraulic stamping machines were installed,

thus increasing the number of forms stamped over the period, as well as being the year that newtime-saving and work-saving methods were introduced, which also contributed to the higherproduction rate.

A better style is to use three short sentences:

The production rate for the latest financial year is higher than that of the previous year. Newautomatic, high-speed hydraulic stamping machines were installed, and new time-saving and work-saving methods were introduced. Both improvements increased the number of forms stamped duringthe period.

The rewritten version contains sentences which are short but varied in length. A rule of thumb is to use

sentences with not more than 25 words.

Varying the length and style of sentences avoids monotony and increases readability. Do not have a string ofshort sentences each with a subject-verb construction:

Copper is well known as an excellent conductor. It oxidizes at slightly elevated temperatures. Copperwire, therefore, is constantly reduced in diameter because of the oxidizing action. The enamelcoating on the wire is damaged by this oxidizing action.

The above paragraph may be rewritten:

Copper, well known as an excellent conductor, oxidizes at slightly elevated temperatures. Thisoxidizing action constantly reduces the diameter of copper wire and damages the enamel coating.

5.5 The Paragraph

A paragraph usually contains more than one sentence. It deals with the development of a central idea. Aparagraph is written to a specific plan and must have a logical progression of ideas based, for example, on achronological development, a spatial development, a sequence of manufacturing operations, etc.

If it is necessary to take more than one paragraph to develop the various aspects of the central idea, theseparagraphs should be connected by suitable linking words - moreover, however, for this reason,consequently.

A rule of thumb is to aim for paragraphs about 100 words long. If paragraphs run above 150 words or aremuch below 100 words, examine them carefully. If they are too long, they may have more than one mainidea. If they are too short, make sure that the main idea is not continued into the next paragraph. If it is, thencombine the two paragraphs. However, do not arbitrarily combine paragraphs just because they are short

ones. A simple idea will only require a short paragraph, but a long paragraph will be necessary to express acomplicated idea.

The central idea of a paragraph must be stated in a topic sentence. All other sentences depend on the topic



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sentence, and they support and clarify the central idea. In technical writing, the topic sentence is usually thefirst of the paragraph. However, it is also effective to put it last and have all other sentences leading up to it.The topic sentence is never placed somewhere in the middle of the paragraph.

The following two paragraphs illustrate these guidelines. Notice how disorganised the first paragraph iscompared to the second. The central idea should be the trend of automation in industry. This is stated by thefirst sentence - the topic sentence - in the second paragraph. Then the other sentences progressivelydevelop that idea.

Today, entire assembly lines can be made to function without human intervention at any stage in theassembly process. Automatic manufacturing, or automation, is the trend in all types of industries.Someday, whole factories will be automated to the point where the machinery will even repair itself,eliminating humans from the manufacturing chain entirely. Consequently engineers are constantlyseeking ways to automate manufacturing processes that were thought impossible to automate only afew years ago.

Automatic manufacturing, or automation, is the trend in all types of industry. Consequently,engineers are constantly seeking ways to automate manufacturing processes that were thoughtimpossible to automate only a few years ago. Today, entire assembly lines can be made to functionwithout human intervention at any stage in the assembly process. Someday, whole factories will beautomated to the point where the machinery will even repair itself, eliminating humans from the

manufacturing chain entirely.

6. STYLE FOR READABILITY

6.1 Choices open to the writer

No writer chooses consistently from only one side of the following oppositions, but the final choicedetermines writing style.

i) Sentences - short v long

simple v complex

ii) Paragraphing - use v non-use

careful paragraphing and the appropriate use of lists make for less tiring reading byintroducing white space which breaks-up solid blocks of type.

iii) Punctuation - careful use v casual, random use.

iv) Verb forms - active v passivepersonal v impersonal

continuous use of impersonal, passive construction can lead to dull and monotonous writingand perhaps alters meaning:

"No tests have been conducted on the pipes."

(We have not tested the pipes).

"I do not accept the idea."

( One cannot accept the idea The idea cannot be accepted).

a preferred style for technical reports will mix both active and passive styles. Theinexperienced writer should follow the passive style:

v) Vocabulary - short v long

familiar v unfamiliar

non-technical v technical

concrete v abstract

(denotative) (connotative)



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use short, familiar, non-technical words whenever possible.

accordingly so

activate start

magnitude size

terminate end

utilise use

hyperbaric oxygen high pressure oxygen

occupies a juxta-nuclear position is next to the nucleus

purchase buy

avoid unnecessary technical jargon:

"The ideal fungicide must combine high fungitoxicity with low mammalian toxicityand phytotoxicity."

(The ideal fungicide must kill fungus effectively, but must be harmless to animalsand plants).

use words which express precise, accurate meaning:

"The technician must examine the condition of the filter to determine its degree ofcontamination."

(The technician must weigh the filter to determine how much sludge it holds).

"After the test the water was warm."

(The water temperature immediately after the test was 20°C).

avoid vague descriptions and use specific information whenever possible.

the results were interesting the results follow trends published by Smith…

the results compare well the results match to within 2% of peak pressure

the graph has a nice trend the graph follows a 1/7th power law characteristic

the result is excellent the result matches the drag polar to withinexperimental error

vi) Phrasing - normal, comfortable expression v special stiff scientific writing

direct, precise v roundabout, verbose

eliminate roundabout expressions (wordiness, verbosity).

due to the fact that because

in the event that if

it is apparent that apparently

exposed to elevated temperature heated

in the first place first

it is essential that X X must

it is obvious that (why say it then!)

avoid ambiguity of meaning.

"An instant coffee heater" "An instant-coffee heater.""We look forward to hearing from you at your convenience."

"Salesmen will be supported by collapsible stands."



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avoid stringing together words with imprecise meanings, e.g. to generate buzz phrases.

integrated management options

total digital mobility

functional reciprocal concept

optional organization hardware

balanced incremental programming

where appropriate, use direct, active writing.

"This research is being carried out for a number of reasons."

(There are a number of reasons for this research)

avoid nominalisation, the habit of turning verbs into nouns.

"Storage of information could be achieved by use of microfilm."

(Information could be stored on microfilm).

vii) Abbreviations, Numbers and Capitals.

establish a standard and be consistent.

use standard terms and symbols.

define whenever there is doubt about reader understanding.

viii) Pace and Variety.

the pace at which information is fed to a reader is correct if he can understand what you aresaying as he reads along. He should not have to stop and reread. Whenever your material iscomplex or heavily detailed, slow down your pace, especially if the subject is unfamiliar toyour reader. Achieve this by breaking long, overcrowded sentences into a series of two orthree short sentences and building short paragraphs.

the key to effective writing is variety. Excessive use of abstract words and passive verbs willmake writing uncomfortable and boring to read. But this is not to suggest that these featuresof style should be banned completely. To produce comfortable, digestible writing, use avariety of structures and vocabulary, as you do in careful conversation.

viii) Tense.

describe the set-up of an experiment or model in the past tense.

The experimental rig consisted of a laser and two cameras.

The final grid used for the model contained 2 million cells.

Discuss the results in the present tense.

The drag results show a good match to previously reported work…

6.2 Some Questions to Ask when Analysing Style

Did you find the passage easy or difficult to read?

How much of the passage did you understand?

How much of the vocabulary did you understand?

Which type of sentence did you find most difficult?(long, short, both, neither)

How many sentences contained too much information for you to absorb in one reading?



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How many sentences were poorly constructed and affected your understanding?

Can you recall the theme of the passage?

How could the passage be improved?

(Shorter sentences; simpler sentence structure; simpler vocabulary).

Was the subject matter familiar or unfamiliar before you read the passage?

Are you specialised or qualified in this subject?

What is Good Style for Engineering Writing?VERSION F Time-independence of distributions, indicative of stable flow pattern in the packed bed, occurredin all experiments, confirming most previous liquid distribution work. The degree of dependence of thispattern on bed structure and/or production of wetted paths through the packing by randomly moving particlesof the initial liquid is of interest, as in any specified packing arrangement, complete bed overload by highliquid flow-rate (pre-flooding) might be expected to result in alteration of a flow pattern, dependent on whichpaths through the packing were wetted, while changes in bed structure might result from re-packing or"stirring" the bed. Liquid-spread measurements by salt tracer techniques were made before and after eitherpre-bed pre-flooding or structure-changing by stirring (utilizing 1/2" rings), other conditions, packed heightand liquid rate, being maintained constant. The effect of repacking on flow pattern stability was far in excessof that of pre-flooding. Hence flow pattern stability is determined mainly by bed structure.

VERSION H - All our experiments showed that the distributions did not depend on time. This has beenshown by most previous work on liquid distribution, and it suggests that the flow pattern in the packed bed isstable.

We thought it would be interesting to know to what extent this flow pattern depends on bed structure and towhat extent it depends on the random movement of the initial liquid particles making wetted paths throughthe packing. In any given packing arrangement, re-packing or "stirring" might be expected to change thestructure of the bed; complete overloading of the bed with a high liquid flow-rate (pre-flooding) might beexpected to alter a flow pattern, depending on which paths through the pattern were wetted.

So we used salt tracer methods to measure liquid spread before and after stirring (using 1/2" rings) andbefore and after pre-flooding. Other conditions - packed height and liquid rate - were kept constant. Bothstirring and pre-flooding affected the stable flow pattern, but stirring had much greater effect than pre-flooding: obviously, the structure of the bed is mainly responsible for the stable flow pattern.

VERSION T - In all the experiments in the present work it was found that the distributions were time-independent (this has been noted by most previous workers on liquid distribution) and this tends to indicatethe existence of a stable flow pattern in the packed bed. It is thought to be of interest to determine to whatextent it is dependent on movement of a purely random nature of the initial liquid particles producing wettedpaths through the packing. The effect on any given arrangement of packing on complete overload of the bedby high liquid flow-rate (pre-flooding) might be predicted to be the alteration of a flow pattern, dependentupon which of the paths through the packing experienced wetting, whereas the effect of repacking or"stirring" the bed will be changes in the structure of the bed. Liquid spread measurements utilizing salttransfer techniques were carried out both prior to and subsequent to either pre-flooding of the packed bed oreffecting changes in the structure of the bed by stirring (1/2" rings were used), other conditions, packedheight and liquid rate, being kept constant. It was apparent from the results that both pre-flooding and bed-stirring exerted a considerable influence on the stability of the flow pattern but that re-packing exerted a

substantially higher degree of influence than pre-flooding, hence indicating that bed structure is the factor ofgreatest importance in the determination of flow pattern stability.

VERSION T (amended) - In all the experiments presented in the present work, it was found that thedistributions were time-independent. This has been noted by most previous workers (Reference) andindicates the existence of a stable flow pattern in the packed bed.

The purely random nature of the wetted initial liquid particle paths through the packing is also of interest.However, although their effect in a given packing arrangement on bed overload may be predictable, theresulting flow pattern is also dependent on the wetted packing paths. Bed overload occurs at high liquid flow-rates and is also termed pre-flooding.

Furthermore, the effect of repacking or "stirring" the bed changes the structure of the bed. Liquid spreadmeasurements using salt transfer techniques were carried out before and after pre-flooding the packed bed.

During these tests, the stirred bed structure and other conditions including packed height and liquid rate werekept constant. It was apparent from the results that both pre-flooding and bed-stirring exerted a considerableinfluence on the stability of the flow pattern. In addition, re-packing exerted a greater influence than pre-



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flooding. Therefore these results show the bed structure is a major factor influencing flow pattern stability.

ANALYSIS OF WRITING STYLE*

VERSION F - dense, complex sentence construction, tightly packed phrasing, passive, impersonal,one paragraph.

shows a common feature of engineering writing of stringing qualifications together.

smallest number of words but not the easiest to digest.

VERSION H - direct, active, personal, economical but not too terse, plain language.

short sentences and paragraphs.

VERSION T - verbose, passive, cumbersome phrasing and structure, impersonal, one paragraph.

largest number of words.

VERSION T - passive and impersonal but broken into shorter sentences and paragraphs with simple

(amended) phraseology and structure.

VERSION F is not acceptable. VERSION H is too personal and subjective but is direct and succinct.VERSION T is poorly structured. VERSION T (amended) is much improved. Therefore the direct style of

VERSION H and passive style of VERSION T (amended) would give the best writing style.

*Reference: "Good Style Writing for Science and Technology", John Kirkman. E & FN Spon, London 2001.

7. INFORMATION STRUCTURE

7.1 The two levels of information structure

Links new information into

existing information structure in

long-term memory

Holds information from

several sentences in short

term memory. Too much

information causes overload

Linear pattern of text

information

Short-term memory

can hold about 7

pieces of information

while classifying and

linking to existing

information

Difficulty is that writing produces a linear patterning of information.

writer knows the completed jigsaw.

reader must piece jigsaw together as he goes along.

The writer needs to understand the nature of the information.

different types and ways of organising - hence different structures.



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Two levels of structure:

Microstructure Macrostructure

Pieces of prose; standard sections of reports(e.g. introduction). Relationship betweensentences and paragraphs to developargument

Headings and subheadings identify chunks ofinformation (microstructure). Provides acoarse map through blocks of microstructure

Choose macrostructure first and then write microstructure

7.2 Microstructure

7.2.1 Deciding on microstructure

The usual approach is:

Use inherent information structures of material, e.g. chronology, classification, comparison, argumentand reasoning.

Proposals/case presentation/recommendations: outline the position and resent problems, suggestpossibilities for change and alternative courses of action, thus leading to a preferred proposal orrecommendation. (Sequence is: position, problem, possibilities, proposal).

Descriptions/Explanations: give overall picture first, do not swamp with detail. Reader can cope withdetail when he has a firm picture in his mind onto which he can hang detail. Explanations go beyonddescriptions by focussing on why something works or occurs.

7.2.2 Cohesion within the text

Cohesion is the semantic relation between an element in the text and some other element that is crucialto the interpretation of it. This other element is also somewhere in the text.

It is the specific task of some words, particularly conjunctions, to form cohesive ties within and acrosssentences. Without these cohesive ties, writing becomes a collection or list of information statements.When the reader processes such text, the absence of cohesive ties tends to overload the reader's shortterm memory because he has to sort out the relationships between information as well as retain the

information before linking it into his long term memory.The words underlined in the following examples show how text cohesion

can be improved.

Example 1:

Many departments were involved in installing and commissioning the plant. A goodcommunications system was necessary. A complete set of drawings for the scheme wasunavailable at the start of the installation. Without these drawings planning proved difficult.

Many departments were involved in installing and commissioning the plant. Therefore, a goodcommunications system was necessary. However, a complete set of drawings for the schemewas unavailable at the start of the installation. Without these drawings planning provideddifficult.





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between failures for a vehicle is almost a week and the mean time to restore service is a mere sixminutes.

But the real interest in these new transport systems is in more complex city centre systems which m ightbe a compromise between a bus and a tube. Called group rapid transit (GRT) these systems operatewith medium size vehicles (10-50 passengers) on 3 to 60 second headways. Routes are more complex,usually with stations located on sidings off the main line so that traffic can bypass some stations. Themini-train system proposed and rejected for Sheffield was GRT.

Two GRT systems are now in operation. Both are in the US and both suffer from technical troubles and

massive cost overruns. The most elaborate system is at Dallas-Fort Worth airport and consists of 13miles of guideway, 55 stations, and 68 vehicles. It opened in January 1974 but has still not beenaccepted by the airport authority. The system, known as Airtrains, has cost at least $53 millioncompared with the estimated $35 million. The airport management keeps buses on standby status foruse when service interruptions exceed 15 minutes. This happened five times in the first three months of1975.

The third form of AGT is personal rapid transit (PRT), with small vehicles (1-10 passengers) moving atheadways of less than three seconds. Several prototypes are now being tested, but many technicalproblems remain to be solved, and no actual PRT's are in operation or under construction.

See Figure 2, 3 and 4 for discussion of information structure)

FIGURE 2 MATRIX PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION

FIGURE 3 HORIZONTAL NEGOTIATION OF INFORMATION



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FIGURE 4 VERTICAL NEGOTIATION OF INFORMATION

7.3 Macrostructure

Headings and subheadings which signpost the reader to blocks of information. The content andarrangement of these blocks must be logical. The sequence of the information structure moves thereader from material which is familiar towards material which is new and unfamiliar.

Some blocks may have standard headings, e.g . Summary, Introduction, Discussion, Conclusions. Thesestandard sections fulfil a specific role and thus the reader expects to find particular information in eachof the standard sections.

Section Function of the Information in the Section

Title To give an accurate and concise description of coverage. Read first by allreaders as an information retrieval device.

Summary (Abstract) To give a map of information and present the main findings. Read first by nearlyall readers. Informative type is best, not Descriptive.

Introduction To give preliminary information which briefs the reader on the purpose of thereport and why it is needed. Use Single step type for specialist and Expandedtype for general reader.

Main Sections To give detailed evidence of report.

Discussion/Analysis To lead to conclusions by drawing inferences about the meaning of the evidence.

To state implications and draw cause and effect relationships. To compare withprevious work. To identify future trends.

Conclusions To give succinct and definitive statements as a result of thediscussion/analysis/evaluation.

Recommendations To give a list of succinct and definitive statements which recommend action as aresult of the discussion/analysis/evaluation.

7.3.1 Example of Macrostructure

Functional Parts Headings used in report

The Orientation containing the title, author,date, report reference number, distributionlist, and the name of the organisation. Placethe summary on the title page or separatelyon the next page. The contents page mapsthe blocks of information.

SELECTING CONTROL SYSTEMS FORSPACE VEHICLES

SUMMARY

CONTENTS

NOMENCLATURE

The Briefing (2 pages)

Sets the scene. Puts content selection intocontext

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problems of stabilization and attitudecontrol.

1.2 Criteria for selecting control systems

The Evidence (12 pages) Heading break upsolid blocks of type.

Headings left justified.Use white space to show structure. Ifpossible place figures and tables, on a page

2. STABILISATION SYSTEMS

2.1 Gravitational gradient stabilisation

2.2 Aerodynamic stabilisation

2.3 Spin stabilisation



21

next to where referred to in the text.Otherwise place in a separate section afterthe section for references, especially if thereare so many that the text becomes toobroken up.

Number pages at top or bottom centre (Arabicnumerals).

2.4 Comparison of stabilisation systems

3. ATTITUDE CONTROL SYSTEMS

3.1 Control using gyroscopes

3.2 Control using the earths magnetic fields

3.3 Control using reaction jets

3.4 Control using combined systems

The Evaluation (3 pages) 4. GENERAL EVALUATION

5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHERWORK

6. REFERENCES

TABLES

FIGURES

APPENDICES (e.g. theoretical derivation ofequations in the text, additional data orfigures or interest)



22

8. ORGANISATICN OF REPORTS AND PAPERS

The complete format which will be effective for most reports is listed below. However, not all reports willrequire all these sections: never write a section just to use the heading.

Title page

Summary page

Table of contents

List of symbols, abbreviations, definitionsIntroductory material

Report of the work done (Methodology / Set-ups)

Results/findings

Discussion/analysis/evaluation, leading to conclusions/recommendations

Conclusions

Recommendations

Acknowledgements

References

Tables

Figures

Appendices

For a laboratory report (experimental or numerical), the introductory material (Introduction) will be veryshort (200 words). The ‘Work Done’ should contain enough information about the methodology toreconstruct the experiment or model by an independent reader. So this may contain a sectio n title suchas ‘Experimental Set-up’ or ‘Computational Model’. The results section will present all relevant results.

Any additional results of interest, but of less relevance can be placed at the back of the report in an Appendix.

8.1 Examples of Titles

The MIT Electrostatic Memory Tube.

Instrumenting a Blind Man's Cane.

Digital Techniques Advance Tactical Radar.

Thin-Film Transducers for Ultrahigh Frequencies

Waste Paper and Waste Plastic Make Hardboard.

Selecting the Control Systems for Space Vehicles.

8.2 Examples of Summaries

i)

Informative

The MIT Digital Computer Laboratory is developing an electrostatic memory tube that will store

binary-coded information at two stable potential levels, 100 volts apart. A 2000-volt electron beam"writes" a coded binary digit as a charged spot at any one of the 400 positions on a 4 x 4 inchtarget. A 100-volt electron flood retains stored information indefinitely. Access time is 25microseconds. Future developments should increase reliable storage density to 1024 binary digitsand access speed to 6 microseconds.

Descriptive

This report describes an electrostatic memory tube being developed by the MIT Digital ComputerLaboratory for storing binary-coded information in an electronic computer. Details of the designand operation of the tube are given and future developments that will increase speed and storagedensity are discussed.

ii)Informative

This pamphlet describes a circuit that is as reliable as it is simple. A differential reed relay



23

monitors one or more lamp pairs. If a lamp fails, the magnetic field balance is upset; the reedcontact closes, causing a warning lamp to light. Only two relays are needed to monitor a completecar lighting system. Test facilities may be included to check circuit continuity.

Descriptive

A reed contact is employed for switching because it is dependable, cheap, small and notsusceptible to dust, shock or vibration; moreover, it operates over a wide temperature range.

Generally informative summaries are preferred for technical repor t writing.



24

8.3 Contents Page

Avoid uninformative list of contents:

CONTENTS

Page No

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. STABILIZATION 3

3. ATTITUDE CONTROL 84. EVALUATION 14

5. RECOMMENDATIONS 17

6. REFERENCES 18

TABLES

FIGURES

A preferable layout would be:

CONTENTS

Page No1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problems of stabilization and attitude control 1

1.2 Criteria for selecting control systems 2

2. STABLISATION SYSTEMS

2.1 Gravitational-gradient stabilization 3

2.2 Aerodynamic stabilisation 5

2.3 Spin stabilisat ion 7

2.4 Comparison of stabilisation systems 7

3. ATTITUDE CONTROL SYSTEMS

3.1 Control using gyroscopes 8

3.2 Control using the earth's magnetic field 10

3.3 Control using reaction jets 11

3.4 Control using combined systems 13

4. GENERAL EVALUATION 14

5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK 17

6. REFERENCES 18

TABLES 19 - 21

FIGURES 22 - 25

APPENDIX 1: Theory of stabilization control 26

APPENDIX 2 Thuory of attitude control 28



25

8.4 Examples of Introductions

i)

Single-Step

Westinghouse has developed a method of producing transducers that will withstand highfrequency pressure pulsations without shattering. The technique involves depositing a thin filmof cadmium sulphide from vapour in a vacuum chamber onto a substrate...

Expanded

Piezoelectric transducers, which convert pressure pulsations into electrical voltages, ordinarilyconsist of a thin wafer of a crystalline material such as quartz. To respond to high frequencypressure variations, these ordinary piezoelectric crystals must be so thin that they shatter; theyare so fragile, in fact, that it is nearly impossible to handle them without breakage.

A new way of making crystal wafers produces transducers that are much more durable. Thesetransducers have been operated at frequencies up to 75,000 megacycles, and the techniqueshould eventually provide transducers which operate at frequencies approaching a millionmegacycles.

The transducers are thin films of cadmium sulphide deposited on a substrate from vapour in avacuum chamber....

ii)

Single-Step

A cane still is the best mobil ity or guidance device available to the blind peracn. It is easier touse and is more reliable than any of the existing sonar or optical-scanning devices that havebeen developed during the past twenty years.

Expanded

It is not known why a cane works as well as it does; nor have all of the useful stimuli it providesthe user been evaluated. Development of a better device, therefore, cannot be expected untilthe job of evaluating the cane's performance is completed.

The purpose of this investigation was to measure all of the physical variables that the caneproduces and to correlate these with the user's responses so that the relative importance of thestimuli could be evaluated. Firstly the following report describes the methods used to measurethe variables. It then presents the results of the tests which correlate the variables and theuser's responses, followed by the evaluation and recommendations.

8.5 Examples of Experimental Methods (replacing Introduction / Work Done)

Fluid measurements were taken using an angular stereoscopic 3D-PIV [1]. This system hasseveral different components as shown in Fig. 1 located around a rotating to obtain theconfiguration in Fig. 1c and to allow for a light sheet perpendicular to the wall.

A trigger laser was used to trigger each PIV experiment. This system consisted of a 1mW photodiode laser and a in-house receiver box that produced a TTL pulse when the trigger laser wascut by the sedimenting sphere. This pulse then synchronised the cameras and laser.

Each of the tested fluids was seeded with fluorescent Rhodamine 6G and dichloro-fluoresceinencapsulated particles. The cameras were also fitted with Kodak Wratten #21 gel filters. Thiscombination allowed measurement of the velocity near the sphere surface by filtering the 585nmfluorescent particle light from the 532nm laser light.

ILA VidPIV software was used to process the images. A primary interrogation region of 16 x 16pixels was used yielding 3D vectors with spatial resolution of 0.0125mm to 0.0708mm. Previouswork has shown the overall experimental error to be 1.5% of full scale velocity [reference2].

Note: in the example above, as much information as possible is included in the description to allow afuture experimentalist to set up the same experiment again. This would be the same for a numericalmethod description. Statement of experimental error is expected. For computational work verificationand validation evidence is expected.

8.5 Examples of Discussions

i)The tests on the effect of heating the gauge after it had accumulated a change in resistanceshowed that some of the acquired increase in electrical resistance was lost when the gauge was



26

heated (see Table 2). Since the increased electrical resistance is associated with the strainhardening of the material, the result is believed to be due to the annealing effect of the heatwhich tended to restore the gauge material to a softer condition. However, even taking intoaccount the limitations of the gauge's behaviour as discussed above, the gauge may still beuseful for monitoring relative rates of fatigue damage between different components subjected tosimilar load spectra.

ii)

The evidence shows that during the next few years it is likely that progress will be made onautomatic draughting but the problem of finding a cost effective solution is a very difficult one.Maybe, once NC machining and auto inspection become foolproof, drawings will not be requiredfor some machined items. Perhaps a scale outline plus a machining/inspection tape will suffice,sizes being obtained from a computer store on request. To a large extent this is alreadyaccepted in the case of printed circuit masters.

iii)

Apart from the cases where cathodic protection has been used, the fie ld trials show thatcorrosion deterioration occurs more rapidly where the steel leaves of the spring are alternatelysubmerged and exposed by tidal movement. This is particularly so in the tropics where saltconcentrations occur on the sea water surface because of rapid evaporation. In this respect the

presence of mineral oil on the water surface has been found useful rather than harmful to thesprings. This is because it is not absorbed to a depth which interferes with the spring function,but it does penetrate thin protective coatings and thus slows down the corrosion rate.

8.6 Examples of Conclusions

i)

The gauge does not record fatigue damage in the same way as damage is accumulated by arepresentative structural element under loading conditions commonly experienced in aircraftstructures.

Some unexplainable effect of heat on the resistance change acquired by the gauge was noted.

ii)Strain gauge measurements of the strain distribution at the surface of a cylindrical tensile testspecimen show that bending strains are superposed on the direct tensile strains.

Bending strains were caused by the loading axes of the machine grips being offset by 0.1mm.

Measurements of bending strain agree with those predicted by eccentric loading theory.Maximum values were within 10% of the nominally applied axial strains for all loading ranges.

iii)

The development of the small computer and its decreasing capital cost will bring computer aideddrawing and manufacturing within the reach of many more companies.

The provision of computer programs will remain a problem area for several years because of the

long times and high costs associated with their development.

8.7 Equations

Equations should be the same font size are the main text, use appropriate variable names and benumbered in ascending order. Also define any variables when introducing the equation for the first timein addition to listing the variables in the nomenclature. For example:

Considering a given volume of gas, the first law of thermodynamics states that the followingrelationship is independent of the process by which the changes in the various quantities occur:

Qe + Qi = E + pV (1)

where Qe is the heat supplied, Qi is the heat developed internally, E is the internal energy andpV is the work done on an object by pressure expanding or contracting given ‘’ is a small change



27

in value.

8.8 Showing Use of References

The need for improved experimental techniques which characterise the rheological behaviour offibre reinforced polyester compounds has been emphasised during recent years by theincreased engineering usage of these materials. Rheological measurements are needed whichbetter describe material characteristics under flow conditions that are directly relevant to theactual moulding process [1]. A characteristic of the many conventional flow tests (for example

see Appendix 1) is that none provides such data directly. Additionally, they cannot handle thecomplications of flow behaviour introduced by long fibre reinforcement and cross-linkingreactions.

A physical representation of the compression moulding process for producing flat parts is thesqueeze flow of material between parallel plates. Many rheological studies, for examplereferences 2 to 4, have examined squeeze flow behaviour of Newtonian and non-Newtonianmaterials from a basis of Scott's original work [5]. Burns and Gandhi [6] used this approach fortheir rheological characterisation of dough moulding compound (DMC) by assuming DMC was apower law fluid. Perhaps this was a realistic assumption for their low fibre content, short fibrelength polyester slurry. However, applications of squeeze flow theory to the high fibre content,long fibre sheet moulding compounds (SMC) need to account for the significant viscoelasticresponse shown by these materials during the compression moulding process [7,8].

The basic idea behind the work reported in this paper is that the squeeze flow of SMC discsbetween two parallel plates (one fixed and one mobile) provides a good foundation for thetheoretical and experimental analysis of the rheolcgical behaviour of SMC….

REFERENCES

1. W.L. Wilkinson, "GRP Processing: a review of progress and future developments inunderstanding", Plastics and Rubber: Processing, March 1979, 1-9.

2. G. Brindley, J.M. Davies, and K. Walters, "Elastico-Viscous squeeze films. Part 1", J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, 1(1976) 19-37.

3. P.J. Leider, and R.B. Bird, "Squeezing flow between parallel discs", Ind. Eng. Chem Fund., 13(1974), 336-342.

4. K.G. Laws, "The development of a parallel plate rheometer for shear properties of pastes". M.Sc.

Thesis, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, England. March 1995.

5. J.R. Scott, "Theory and application of the parallel plate plastimeter", Trans. Inst. Rubber Ind., 7(1931), 169-186.

6. R. Burns, and K.S. Gandhi, "The rheology of glass reinforced polyester moulding compounds",32nd. Annual Tech. Conf., Reinf. Plastic/Comp. Institute, 1977, Section 7 -C.

7. C.F. Sieglaff, "Use flow properties to improve bulk and sheet moulding operations", PlasticsDesign and Processing, Nov. 1972. 16-18.

8. J.M. Maxel, "Rheology of SMC at moulding temperatures", 32nd Annual Tech. Conf., Reinf.Plast/Comp. Institute, 1977, Section 2-E.

Note: the increasing use of the internet is leading to common use of internet links as references. This

practice has two major problems:

i) In many cases, there is no way of verifying the reference material in the link is genuine

ii) The link can be volatile, i.e. in one year from using the reference, it may not be active

These two problems can be addressed in two ways:

i) Do not use internet links as references, use only journals, book and official reports andconference papers as sources of references

ii) If an internet reference must be used, print the reference material out and place it in theappendix of the report, referencing the appendix in the text and in the reference.

Of the two approaches, i) is always preferable.



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9. ILLUSTRATING TECHNICAL WRITING

without diagrams, charts, etc., the reader must build pictures (mentally visualise) from words. Thisis not only a difficult process but usually requires considerable use of words.

question: will the reader handle this information more easily in text form or diagram or chart form?If illustrations are used the reader will use both his verbal and pattern memories. This helps theprocesses of visualising and understanding. Note that some readers can handle tables, drawings,block diagrams, etc., quite readily, while others cannot.

decide whether an illustration is intended to make a point or act as a reference source. To make apoint, the illustration needs a simple structure with a carefully judged information load, and shouldbe as close as possible to the relevant text. An illustration for reference can be packed tightly withinformation, and perhaps placed in an appendix

in technical writing it is usually essential to include illustrations. Words are limited in the visualimages which they can create. Examples of illustrations will be found in handbooks, operatinginstructions, reports, papers, design proposals, etc.

9.1 Types of Illustration

Tables: open

closed

semi-closed

Charts: bar/divided bar

histogram

pie

pictorial ISOTYPE

Graphs: linear

Logarithmic

Flow diagrams

Tree diagrams

Design Charts

Photographs

9.2 Principles of design

Decide the aim of the illustration, consider the reader.

not too crowded, leave adequate white space, use bold printing and enough spacing to allow forpossible reduction.

show supressed zeroes on graphs, use different line designs

place illustration next to text, or in separate section at end of report.

state the point of the illustration in the text.

identify the point of the illustration with carefully worded caption.

refer to tables as Table 1, etc. and all other illustrations as Figure 1, etc

9.3 Illustration Examples

The following shows preferred layouts and examples for technical reports and theses. The majority ofthe figures were generated in standard packages such as Microsoft Powerpoint and Excel. However,more complex graph formats and contour plots are better presented through other software such asTecplot if available.



29

Note: in table, state variable name and units

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0%

Relative momentum rate ( )

R e a t t a c h m e n t p o s i t i o n ( Y R / W )

Y1/W=0.12

Y2/W=-0.28

Y3/W=-0.68

0

5

10

15

20

25

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Relative jet momentum rate ( )

A n g l e o f d e f l e c t i o n ( )

2D LDA

3D CFD

Theoretical model

V

y

/ d

z ' / d

0 10 20 30 40 50 600

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

h/d = 10

h/d = 7

h/d = 5

h/d = 4

h/d = 3

n

v

v

n

-1e

Symbols: solid y /d , hollow z' /dnv nv

n

n

n

n

n



30

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

t*=t.St,W.V1 /W

u / V 1

2D LDA 2D std k-e newf 3D std k-e 3D std k-e newf 3D rlz k-e 3D rlz k-e newf

include axes names and variables.

use a font size equivalent to main text for ease of reading

plot non-dimensional variables where possible

no more than 4 significant figures on graph axes

error bars included where possible for each variable

use clear symbology for each variable

fit sensible curves when possible through data

for numerical / theoretical results, only show curve or if appropriate use both curves and data points.

for contour plots, plot non-dimensional variables where possible

no more than 4 significant figures on index

use sensible colour scheme

for photographs add scale and annotate if necessary.



31

Flow control

valves

Volumetric

flowmeter

Manometer

Primary

nozzle

Secondary

nozzle

Outflow

resistance plate

Primary jetSupply pipe

Overflow

pipeline

Centrifugal pump

250WCentrifugal pump

250W + 45W

Header tank

Reservoir

Note: for schematics include as much information as possible to help the reader understand the keyvariables and which may allow them to construct a similar model or experiment. Make sure schematictext is at least the same size as the main text font.



32

10. EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL SPEAKING

10.1 Differences between written and spoken communication

Just as with writing, it is vitally important to decide your presentation tactics and techniques byconsidering your audience, aim and material selection. But there are differences:

spoken English is different to written English; do not speak technical writing at your audience;do not unload too much detail.

the opening to your talk is extremely important; first impressions count; research shows thatyour audience forms lasting impressions of you within the first 3 minutes.

there is immediate feedback; talk to your audience, develop eye contact; adjust yourpresentation style to your audience size.

listeners cannot recap as with a written report; more signposting and transition statementsare necessary than in writing to guide your audience through your talk.

10.2 General tactics of preparation

Aim: what am I trying to achieve?

what does my at audience expect?

what action do I want my audience to take after listening to me?

Audience: do I know enough about the people I will be talking to?

attention: ability willingness to concentrate

memory: existing knowledge/background, short-terrm/long-term memory capacities

motivation: drive enthusiasm for absorbing /retaining/showing interest

response: rational /emotional to my theme, to me (as speaker), to my mode of presentation,physical/political/emotional contexts.

Material: how should I select for this communication task for this audience in this context.

time available, aids primary and secondary material, number of points, amount of detail.

possible structures: order of importance, chronology, manufacturing sequence, persuasive (4P's: position, problem, possibilities, proposal).

Presentation strategy: what is my best strategy for this communication task for this audience in thistime allocation.

opening framework: intention/objective and outline.

coherence of development: structuring and linking the main points

balance of content, digestibility of information, unloading rate

drawing inferences/conclusions, formulating recommendations, discussing implications

summing up: leaving a clear impression of what has been said/what is now needed

Planning: there are 3 parts to your total presentation.

have a well prepared beginning; who you are, title of talk; aims and stages of talk; the reasonwhy.

have 4 or 5 main points to the body of your talk; do not confuse with too much detail.

have a well prepared end which finishes your talk crisply, leaving a clear impression of whathas been said/what is needed now; don't just tail off.

10.3 The actual presentation

Confidence: comes from through preparation; knowing your audience, purpose and subject; havinga well prepared beginning and end, gives confidence.





10.5 Using the storyboard technique

to finalise the link-up between talk and visual aids.

Note: leave the overhead on long enough for audience to absorb information

Documents

Writing Skills - Notes