Literature Review

Khazima Tahir

Muhammed Riaz

La Saundra Haynes

Contents 1. Literature review – What and why2. Searching and finding print and online sources3. Evaluating sources for relevance and reliability4. Reading critically5. Analyzing and synthesizing findings6. Writing and presenting literature review7. Citing sources in text and reference list / bibliography8. Avoiding plagiarism

Literature ReviewLiterature Review

What is Literature Review?

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Literature review - DefinitionLiterature review - Definition A body of text that aims to review the critical points of

current knowledge on a particular topic A comprehensive survey of publications in a specific

field of study or related to a particular line of research Non-quantitative summary of existing published

literature made by experts who select and weigh findings available from the literature

A summary and interpretation of research findings reported in the literature

A process and documentation of the current relevant research literature regarding a particular topic or subject of interest.

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Purposes of literature reviewPurposes of literature review Define and limit problem

◦ Develop familiarity with topic◦ Limit research to a subtopic within larger body of

knowledge Place study in historical perspective

◦ Analysis of way in which study relates to existing knowledge

Avoid unintentional and unnecessary replication◦ Awareness of prior studies so as to avoid unneeded

replication◦ Replication is reasonable if it is needed to verify prior

results, investigate results that failed to be significant, or relate problem to a specific site.

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Purposes of literature reviewPurposes of literature review Select promising methods and measures

◦ Knowledge of and insight into specific research designs for investigating a problem

◦ Awareness of specific instruments, sampling procedures, and data analyses

Relate findings to previous knowledge and suggest future research needs◦ Relating prior research to what is known places current

study in perspective◦ This knowledge allows researcher to focus problem on

what is not known Develop research hypotheses

◦ Suggestions for specific research hypotheses

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Meta-analysis Quantitatively combines the results of studies that are the result of a systematic literature review. Capable of performing a statistical analysis of the pooled results of relevant studies.

Literature review designsNarrative review Selective review of the literature that broadly covers

a specific topic. Does not follow strict systematic methods to locate and synthesize articles.

Systematic review Utilizes exacting search strategies to make certain that the maximum extent of relevant research has been considered. Original articles are methodologically appraised and synthesized.

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When we need to do a When we need to do a literature reviewliterature review

At the beginning of the research project◦ Proposal◦ Chapter 2, 1 & 3

Constantly update during the research

When writing the discussion and conclusion chapters

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What is literatureWhat is literatureBooksJournalsConference papers

Theses and dissertations

BibliographiesMapsInternetIndexes/Abstracts

Audio-visual materialCDs/DVDsElectronic databasesGovernment reportsMagazinesNewspapersGrey literatureInterviews and other

unpublished research

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Three types of literatureThree types of literature

ActivityActivityEnlist the literature usually used in your

discipline.

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Searching and Finding Searching and Finding Information SourcesInformation Sources

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Start searchingStart searching

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Start searchingStart searching

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Finding information sourcesFinding information sources

Formal ways◦ University libraries◦ Special libraries and government departments◦ Inter-library loan

Informal ways◦ Authors◦ Personal libraries of experts◦ Your friends

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Bibliographic aidsBibliographic aidsLibrary catalogIndexing journalAbstracting journalBibliographyBibliographic databasePeople

◦ Experts◦ Librarians

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Online Searching TechniquesOnline Searching TechniquesBoolean OperatorsPhrase SearchingTruncation / Wildcard SearchingFocusing / Limiting a Search

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Boolean OperatorsBoolean Operators

AND

OR

NOT

Boolean operators allow you to join terms together, widen a search or exclude terms from your search results. This means you can be more precise in locating your information.

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Boolean Operators at EmeraldBoolean Operators at Emerald

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Phrase SearchingPhrase Searching

It narrows your search down by searching for an exact phrase or sentence. It is particularly useful when searching for a title or a quotation. Usually quotation marks are used to connect the words together.

For example“Towards a healthier Scotland”

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Truncation / WildcardTruncation / WildcardThese search techniques retrieve information on

similar words by replacing part of the word with a symbol usually a * or ?. However, different databases use different symbols, so check what is used.

In truncation the end of the word is replaced.◦ For example physiother* will retrieve physiotherapy,

physiotherapeutic, physiotherapist and so on. In wildcard searching, letters from inside the

word are replaced.◦ For example wom*n will retrieve the terms woman and

women.

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Focusing / Limiting a SearchFocusing / Limiting a SearchThere are many ways to focus your search and all

search tools offer different ways of doing this. Some of the ways of limiting your search are as follows:

Date Language Place Publication type Age groups Type of material e.g. you could just need to

find case studies

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General Search EnginesGeneral Search EnginesGoogleYahooAltaVistaFAST SearchMSN SearchLycosExcite

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Google Simple SearchGoogle Simple Search

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Google Advanced SearchGoogle Advanced Search

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Scholarly Search EnginesScholarly Search EnginesGoogle ScholarInfomineLibrarians’ Internet IndexIntutePinakesBusiness ResearchISI Web of Science

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Librarians’ Internet IndexLibrarians’ Internet Index

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Subject DirectoriesSubject DirectoriesAlso called Information Gateways and Virtual Libraries Yahoo Directory Google Directory Librarians’ Internet Index About.com Infomine The WWW Virtual Library Specialized Subject Directories

◦ Abi Logic◦ Solid Crawler◦ Academic Info◦ SOSIG - Social Science Information Gateway

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Yahoo DirectoryYahoo Directory

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Electronic Theses and Electronic Theses and Dissertations - ETDsDissertations - ETDs

Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations◦ Catalog of theses and doctoral dissertations contributed by some 176 universities and 27 institutions worldwide

British Library EThOS◦ 250,000+ theses of British universities◦ Many are free

Proquest Dissertations & Theses Database◦ World’s most comprehensive collection of dissertations and theses with over 2.7 million titles

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Networked Digital Library of Networked Digital Library of Theses and DissertationsTheses and Dissertations

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Online DatabasesOnline DatabasesBibliographic databases

◦ERIC, Agricola, Medline, EconLit, PsychINFONumeric databases

◦Stat-USA, UN Common DatabaseFull text databases

◦ScienceDirect, Emerald, JSTOR

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ERIC DatabaseERIC Database

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Science Direct DatabaseScience Direct Database

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Free e-booksFree e-booksGigapedia

◦300,000+ books, the largest e-book repositoryThe Online Books Page

◦35,000+ booksProject Gutenberg

◦30,000+ booksInternet Public Library

◦20,000+ books

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HEC – Online ResourcesHEC – Online ResourcesNational Digital Library

◦Over 30 databases with over 23,000 journals◦Accessible by 250 institutions in Pakistan◦50,000 e-books◦Links to open access resources

Pakistan Research Repository◦Full text of over 1800 Pakistani doctoral theses

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HEC – National Digital LibraryHEC – National Digital Library

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Pakistan Research RepositoryPakistan Research Repository

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Library web OPACsLibrary web OPACsLibdex

◦Worldwide index of library catalogsWorldCat

◦1.4 billion items from 10,000+ libraries worldwide

Library of CongressThe British LibraryNational Library of Pakistan

ActivityActivityEnlist 10 keywords related to your

research topic. Search these online resources and

mention 10 most relevant and helpful resources of your discipline.

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Evaluating Information Evaluating Information SourcesSources

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Evaluating information sources for Evaluating information sources for relevance – Bookrelevance – Book

Skim its index for your key words, then skim the pages on which those words occur.

Skim the first and last paragraphs in chapters that use a lot of your key words.

Skim introduction, summary chapters, and so on.Skim the last chapter, especially the first and last

two or three pages.If the source is a collection of articles, skim the

editor’s introduction.Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your

topic.

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Evaluating information sources for Evaluating information sources for relevance – Articlerelevance – Article

Read the abstract.Skim the introduction and conclusion, or if

they are not marked by headings, skim the first six or seven paragraphs and the last four or five.

Skim for section headings, and read the first and last paragraphs of those sections.

Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your topic.

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Evaluating information sources for Evaluating information sources for relevance – Onlinerelevance – Online

If it looks like a printed article, follow the steps for a journal article.

Skim sections labeled “introduction,” “overview,” “summary,” or the like. If there are none, look for a link labeled “About the Site” or something similar.

If the site has a link labeled “Site Map” or “Index,” check it for your key words and skim the referenced pages.

If the site has a “search” resource, type in your key words.

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Use colour post-its to mark Use colour post-its to mark relevancerelevance

◦Red - high relevance◦Blue – medium relevance◦Yellow – low relevance

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AudienceAuthorityBiasCurrencyScope

Evaluating information sources for reliability

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AudienceAudienceWhat age group/education level/political affiliation/etc. is the audience?

Is this for a person with in-depth knowledge or a layperson?

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AuthorityAuthorityDoes the author’s name appear on the

Web page?What are his/her credentials?Does the author provide contact

information?

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BiasBiasIs the source objective?Could the writer or the organization’s affiliation put a different spin on the information presented?

What is the purpose of the source?

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CurrencyCurrencyWhen was the work published?When was the work last updated?How old are the sources or items in the bibliography?

How current is the topic?If a Web page, do the links work?

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ScopeScopeWhat does/doesn’t the work cover?

Is it an in-depth study (many pages) or superficial (one page)?

Are sources and statistics cited?If a site, does it offer unique info not found in any other source?

ActivityActivityWhat was your practice for searching the

literature? How would you incorporate these tips for enhancing your searching skills?

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Critical ReadingCritical Reading

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What is “critical reading?”What is “critical reading?”“Critical” is not intended to have a negative

meaning in the context of “critical reading.”Definition: An active approach to reading that

involves an in depth examination of the text. Memorization and understanding of the text is achieved. Additionally, the text is broken down into its components and examined critically in order to achieve a meaningful understanding of the material.

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Passive vs. Active ReadingPassive vs. Active ReadingPassive Reading: - (4 traits)1. Largely inactive process.2. Low motivation to examine the text

critically or at an in-depth level.3. Important pieces of data and

assumptions may be missed. 4. Data and assumptions that are

perceived by the passive reader are accepted at face value or are examined superficially, with little thought.

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Passive vs. Active ReadingPassive vs. Active Reading• Active Reading: - Active reading involves

interacting with the text and therefore requires significantly more energy than passive reading.

• Critical reading ALWAYS involves active reading. The active reader invests sufficient effort to understand the text and commit important details to memory.

• The active reader identifies important pieces of data, the assumptions underlying arguments, and examines them critically. They rely on their personal experiences and knowledge of theory to analyze the text.

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Techniques of Critical ReadingTechniques of Critical Reading

1. Previewing2. Writing3. Critical Reading (at least two times)4. Summarizing5. Forming a Critical Response6. Finding a Focus for Your Paper

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PreviewingPreviewingForm meaningful expectations about the

reading.Pace yourself – decide how much time

you will dedicate to the reading.Skimming.

◦Look for Title, Section Headings, Date◦Expectations about the Author (previous

works)◦Define the important vocabulary words◦Brief summaries of chapters◦The goal is to obtain a general grasp of the

text

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WritingWriting1. Writing While Reading

a. Marginb. Divided Page Methodc. Landmark/Footnote Methodd. Reading Journale. Online Documents

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Writing - MarginWriting - MarginMark, highlight, or underline parts of the

text that you think are very important. Option 1 - Write a few words in the margin

that capture the essence of your reaction.Option 2 – Write a few words that will help

you to remember the passage. This is useful for learning definitions or parts of a theory.

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Divided Page MethodDivided Page MethodOn a separate piece of paper, divide your

page into two columns.Label one column “text” (meaning from

your reading) and the other “response” (meaning your response).

Write down a part of the text you think is important in the “text” column and then write a reaction to it in the other column.

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Landmark/Footnote MethodLandmark/Footnote MethodOn a separate piece(s) of paper or in your

reading journal, dedicate an adequate amount of space to an article, book, chapter, etc, you are reading.

Highlight, mark, or underline a critical part in your reading. In the margin, indicate that you are going to write a footnote. For example, write a 1 or a (or whatever you want).

In your reading journal, write a ‘1’ or ‘a’ (or whatever symbol you chose) and then write your critical response.

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Reading JournalReading Journal In addition to the other uses described above, use

the reading journal to track what you are reading and to form critical responses to articles, chapters, etc you have read in their entirety.

Try to summarize the entire article, describe the main points, define key terms, and express your reactions.

Remember, do NOT refer back to the text until you absolutely have to! Give your memory a workout! Force yourself to learn the material as you read and be able to write it down clearly afterwards.

Also, put concepts into your own words. A general rule is 3-5 pages of notes per 100 pages of

text.

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Online DocumentsOnline Documents

Two ways to write while reading online documents…

1) Reading Journal2) Cut and Paste in Word Processor, then

insert comments

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First ReadingFirst ReadingRead in an environment where you will

be free from distractions.Read steadily and smoothly. Try to

enjoy the work.Write notes, but do so sparingly.What works best for you?We suggest avoiding your cell phone,

television, computer, and music.

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Second ReadingSecond Reading

Re-read the material more slowly than during your first read.

The two most important objectives are:1. Understand the content of the material2. Understand the material’s structure

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3 Responses to Texts3 Responses to Texts

Restatement- Restating what a text says; talking about the original topic.

Description- Describing what a text does; identifies aspects of text.

Interpretation- Analyze what a text means; asserts an overall meaning.

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SummarizationSummarization

Summarization: Pull out the main points of the text and write them down.

The summary’s complexity and length will vary according to the complexity and length of the text you have read!

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Forming Your Critical ResponseForming Your Critical ResponseAnalysisInterpretationSynthesisIn forming your critical response, you will

now go beyond what the author has explicitly written to form your impressions of the text.

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AnalysisAnalysis Analysis is the separation of something

into its parts or elements, which helps to examine them more closely.

To analyze reading, you can take at least these two approaches:

1) Choose a question to guide analysis.2) Look at the author’s argument

structure.

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Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)Examine the argument structure.Claims: Statements that require support

by evidence.Assumptions: The writer’s underlying

beliefs, opinions, principles, or inferences that connect evidence to the claims.

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Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)Types of evidence

◦Facts: Verifiable evidence.◦Opinion: Judgments based upon facts.◦Expert Opinion: Judgments formed by

authorities on a given subject. ◦Appeal to Beliefs or Needs: Readers are asked

to accept a claim in part because they already accept it as true WITHOUT factual evidence or because it coincides with their needs.

◦Appeal to Emotion: A claim that is persuasive because it evokes an emotion within the reader, but may or may not rely on factual evidence.

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Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)

To judge the reliability of evidence, look at the following areas:◦Accuracy◦Relevance◦Representativeness◦Adequacy

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Analysis (continued)Analysis (continued)

Logical Fallacies: Errors in reasoning.Examples:

◦Red herring- introduction of an irrelevant issue in an argument.

◦Non sequitur- linking two or more ideas that have no logical connection.

◦Making broad generalizations without proven empirical evidence.

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InterpretationInterpretationAfter breaking down the text into its

components and examining them, ask yourself about the conclusions you can draw from this evidence.

What claims does the author make?What evidence supports these claims?Can you infer anything beyond what

the author has explicitly written that either strengthens or weakens the claims made by the author?

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SynthesisSynthesisNow that you have broken down the text

into its parts, analyzed them, and interpreted it all, you should make new connections with what you know.

Ask yourself again:◦What are the main points of this text?◦Were my expectations for this article met?◦If I “read in between the lines” do I learn

anything else about what the author is saying?◦Overall, what can I conclude from this text?

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Analyzing and Analyzing and Synthesizing FindingsSynthesizing Findings

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Completely in each topic togetherCompletely in each topic togetherTake notesTake notes in an organized manner: in an organized manner:

computer files, note cards, etc.computer files, note cards, etc.Include all bibliographic info, especially Include all bibliographic info, especially

page number when quoting!page number when quoting!Flag like information with same color post-Flag like information with same color post-

its across articles.its across articles.

Read the articlesRead the articles

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SummarizeSummarizemain purpose (research questions)main purpose (research questions)methodologymethodology

◦qualitative/quantitative qualitative/quantitative ◦subjects, controls, treatmentssubjects, controls, treatments

findingsfindingsrelevant detailsrelevant details

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varying definitions of key termsvarying definitions of key termsmethodology usedmethodology used

◦ size & generalizability of subject size & generalizability of subject pool pool

◦innovative methodology innovative methodology enough evidence?enough evidence?findings consistent with those of similar findings consistent with those of similar

studies? studies?

AnalyzeAnalyze

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AnalyzeAnalyze

currency: lit review shows the latest work currency: lit review shows the latest work done in subject area. (last 5 years on done in subject area. (last 5 years on average)average)Include older articles if: Include older articles if: landmark study landmark study only evidence on a topic only evidence on a topic helps explain the evolution of the helps explain the evolution of the research research

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Synthesize the LiteratureSynthesize the LiteratureHow does each article relate to your topic How does each article relate to your topic

and purpose?and purpose?Define your argument/thesis.Define your argument/thesis.Identify major trends or patterns emerging Identify major trends or patterns emerging

from your reading.from your reading.

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SynthesizeSynthesize

Reassemble your notes based on results of Reassemble your notes based on results of reading, using organizational aids such as post-reading, using organizational aids such as post-its, flags, etc.its, flags, etc.

Revise original outline of categories Revise original outline of categories Create a detailed topic outline Create a detailed topic outline

◦ begin with your “argument” or claim begin with your “argument” or claim ◦ present evidence from articles researched that proves present evidence from articles researched that proves

your claimyour claimDo not string together a summary of articles. The Do not string together a summary of articles. The

outline is topic driven.outline is topic driven.

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SynthesizeSynthesizeNote landmark studies and if replicated.Note landmark studies and if replicated.Note how individual studies help illustrate Note how individual studies help illustrate

or advance theoretical notions.or advance theoretical notions.Note gaps or areas needing more Note gaps or areas needing more

research.research.Make sure your detailed outline follows a Make sure your detailed outline follows a

logical sequence of topics and subtopics. logical sequence of topics and subtopics. This will give your literature review the This will give your literature review the coherence it needs.coherence it needs.

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Writing and Presenting Writing and Presenting Literature ReviewLiterature Review

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Structure of review articlesStructure of review articles

Literature reviews are in reality a type of research

Should conform to the anatomy of a typical scholarly article ◦Abstract◦ Introduction◦Methods◦Results◦Discussion◦Conclusion◦References

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Structure of literature reviewStructure of literature review

Introduction• Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review,

such as the central theme or organizational pattern.

Body• Contains your discussion of sources.

Conclusions/Recommendations• Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature

so far. Where might the discussion proceed?

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Organization of literature Organization of literature reviewreview

A general organization looks like a funnel

◦Broader topics◦Subtopics◦Studies like yours

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How to organize studiesHow to organize studiesChronological

◦By publication date◦By trend

Thematic◦A structure which considers different themes

Methodological◦Focuses on the methods of the researcher, e.g.,

qualitative versus quantitative approaches

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Making links between studiesMaking links between studiesAgreements Similarly, author B points to… Likewise, author C makes the case that… Author D also makes this point… Again, it is possible to see how author E agrees with author

D…

Disagreements However, author B points to… On the other hand, author C makes the case that… Conversely, Author D argues… Nevertheless, what author E suggests…

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Summary tableSummary table It is useful to prepare. Such a table provides a quick overview that

allows the reviewer to make sense of a large mass of information.

The tables could include columns with headings such as◦ Author◦ type of study◦ Sample◦ Design◦ data collection approach◦ key findings

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Citation Sample Environment Method Conclusions

Colour

Bellizzi, Crowley and Hasty (1983)

125 Adults Furniture store Laboratory experimentPhotographic slide simulations

Warm and cool colours created different emotional responses. Customers view red retail environments as more negative and unpleasant than blue.

Bellizzi, & Hite (1992)

70 Adult women107 Students

Televisions shown with different colour backgroundsFurniture stores

Laboratory experiments Photographic slide simulations

Study based on PAD affect measures and approach-avoidance behaviours.More positive retail outcomes occurred in blue environments than red.

MusicSmith and Curnow (1966)

1100 Supermarket shoppers

Retail store Field experiment

Time in store reduced with loud music but level of sales did not.

Milliman (1982) 216 Shoppers Supermarket Field experiment

The tempo of background music influenced the pace at which customers shopped. Slow tempo music slowed customers down but resulted in increased volume of sales.

Hui, Dubé and Chebat (1997)

116 Students Bank branch- waiting for service.

Laboratory experimentVideo simulation

The positive impact of music on approach behaviours is mediated by an emotional evaluation of the environment and the emotional response to waiting. Pleasurable music produced longer perceived waiting times.

Lighting

Areni and Kim (1994) 171 Shoppers Wine store Field experiment

The investigation found that brighter in-store lighting influenced shoppers to examine and handle more of the merchandise in the store

Summers and Hebert (2001)

2367 Customers Hardware storeApparel store

Field experiment

Confirmed Areni and Kims (1994) results. Increased levels of lighting will produce arousal and pleasure and increase the approach behaviours of customers.

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Citation stylesCitation stylesInformation prominent citation

Example:◦ For viscoelastic fluids, the behaviour of the time-

dependent stresses in the transient shear flows is also very important (Boger et al., 1974).

Author prominent citationExamples:◦ Close (1983) developed a simplified theory using

an analogy between heat and mass transfer and the equivalent heat transfer only case.

◦ Several authors have suggested that automated testing should be more readily accepted (Balcer, 1989; Stahl, 1989; Carver & Tai, 1991).

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Active or passive voiceActive or passive voiceYou should use, where appropriate, both

active and passive voiceAs a general rule, use active voice unless

there is good reason not to

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A Good Literature Review is:A Good Literature Review is: Focused - The topic should be narrow. You should only

present ideas and only report on studies that are closely related to topic.

Concise - Ideas should be presented economically. Don’t take any more space than you need to present your ideas.

Logical - The flow within and among paragraphs should be a smooth, logical progression from one idea to the next

Developed - Don’t leave the story half told. Integrative - Your paper should stress how the ideas in the

studies are related. Focus on the big picture. What commonality do all the studies share? How are some studies different than others? Your paper should stress how all the studies reviewed contribute to your topic.

Current - Your review should focus on work being done on the cutting edge of your topic.

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PitfallsPitfalls Vagueness due to too much or

inappropriate generalizations Limited range Insufficient information Irrelevant material Omission of contrasting view Omission of recent work

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Common errors in Common errors in reviewing literature reviewing literature

Hurrying through review to get started could mean that you will miss something that will improve your research.

Relying too heavily upon secondary sources.Concentrating on findings rather than methods.Overlooking sources other than academic

journals. Don’t forget newspaper articles, magazines, blogs, etc.

Searching too broad or too narrow of a topic.Inaccuracy in the compiling of bibliographic

information.

ActivityActivityWhat do you know about good literature

review?

Citing ReferencesCiting Referencesin Your Researchin Your Research

(APA Style)(APA Style)

Some Important Terms Some Important Terms Used in Research WorkUsed in Research Work

• Citation• References• Footnote

Learning CheckLearning CheckWhat is the sharp difference between

Citation, References, bibliography and foot-note.

CitationA reference or listing of the key pieces of information about a work that makes it possible to identify and locate it again.

What we quoted in the text consists of author name (Not inverted), title and pages of sources it could be as footnote, at the end of chapter or at the end of thesis.

ReferenceReference

In the context of academic research, a list of books or references to sources cited, for further reading, usually printed at the end of an article or in the back matter of a book includes author name (inverted), title, year, place of publication, publisher.

BibliographyBibliography

Any note used to further explain a detail outside of the main text. The term usually refers to notes at the bottom of a pageOP Cited (for reference already given in list)op. cited ref No 11, H.M DeitelIbid (for the same reference use)

Foot NoteFoot Note

Various Style ManualsVarious Style ManualsAPA – American Psychological

AssociationMLA – Modern Language Association Chicago Style – Chicago Manual of StyleTurabian Style – based on Chicago

StyleHarvard Referencing SystemASA – American Sociological

AssociationCBE - Council of Biology Editors

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APA styleAPA styleAmerican Psychological

AssociationIn 1929, published

instructions for authors on how to prepare manuscripts for APA journals

Later used for theses, term papers, etc.

Latest edition 6th in 2009Widely used in social

sciences

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Citing references – OutlineCiting references – OutlineIdentifying and formatting citing elementsCiting in textPreparing reference list / bibliography

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Citing ElementsCiting Elements

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Citing ElementsCiting ElementsThe elements of a citation normally include:Author or authoring bodyDate of publicationTitle of the workEditionPublisherPlace of publicationTitle of the sourceLocation information within the sourceURL or DOINon-routine information (page no, Volume no,

etc.)

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AuthorAuthorSurname and initials

Kernis, M. H.Hyphenated first name

Sun, C.-R.Editor’s name

Robinson, D. N. (Ed.)No author

Entry under titleDelete Prof., Dr., Maj., Retd., etc.

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Authoring body or groupAuthoring body or groupFull name

National Institute of HealthSubordinate body

University of the Punjab, Institute of Business Administration

Government agencies Pakistan, Ministry of Finance

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Date of publicationDate of publicationJournal, book, AV media

1993Meeting, Monthly magazine, Newsletter

1993, June 1993, Spring

Daily, Weekly 1994, September 28

Accepted work but not yet published in press

No date available n.d.

Publication over long period 1959-1963

Republished work, a note at the end (Original work published 1923)

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Title of the workTitle of the work

Title of bookTitle of book chapterTitle of journal articleTitle of encyclopedia articleSubtitle with colon

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EditionEditionEdition you usedEdition in Arabic numeral

2nd ed. Rev. ed. 4th rev. ed.

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PublisherPublisherPublisher name for non periodicalsIn a brief formOmit superfluous terms, such as Publishers,

Publications, Co., Inc. Sage Wiley McGraw-Hill Prentice Hall Ferozsons

Use only word “Author” when author and publisher is the same

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Place of publicationPlace of publicationName of cityIf city is not well known then add state/province

and/or country Jaipur, India Medford, NJ

US postal service abbreviations for states (2-digit codes) CA for California

If more cities are given, use the first or the publisher’s head office if clearly mentioned

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Title of the sourceTitle of the sourceTitle of the book in case of a book chapterTitle of the journal in case of journal articleJournal title in full

Harvard Business Review Not Har. Bus. Rev. Not HBR

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LocationLocationJournal volume and issue number in Arabic numerals

33(4)Volume of a book

Vols. 1-20 (Vol.26, pp. 501-508)

Start and end (inclusive) page numbers for journal article or book chapter 215-224 (pp. 215-224)

Discontinuous pages 5-7, 11-12

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URL or DOIURL or DOIUniform Resource Locator (URL) http://www.topicsinclinicalnutrition.com

Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.482

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Non-routine informationNon-routine informationGive nonroutine but important information

in square brackets

[Letter to the editor][Special issue][Brochure][Abstract]

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Citing in textCiting in text

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Author’s name in sentenceAuthor’s name in sentence

Schwepps (1998) states that the

solution sat dormant for several months

before any of the employees tested it (p.

743).

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Author’s name in parenthesesAuthor’s name in parentheses

When the solution had been sitting for a

number of months, the employees tested for

bacteria (Schwepps, 1998).

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Short quotationShort quotationWhen fewer than 40 wordsPut prose quotation in running textPut quote marks around quoted materialAuthor’s last name, publication year, and

page number(s) of quote must appear in the text

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Example – Short quotationExample – Short quotationCaruth (1996) states that a traumatic

response frequently entails a “delayed, uncontrolled repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena” (p. 11).

A traumatic response frequently entails a “delayed, uncontrolled repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other intrusive phenomena” (Caruth, 1996, p. 11).

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Long quotationsLong quotationsWhen 40 words or moreIn block formIndent 5-7 spaces and omit the quotation

marks. If the quotation has internal paragraphs, indent the internal paragraphs a further 5-7 spaces

Do not use quotation marksDouble space the block quoteCite the source after the end punctuation of

the quote

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Example – Long quotationExample – Long quotationMeile (1993) found the following:

The “placebo effect,” which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited again, even when real drugs were administered. Earlier studies were clearly premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect. (p. 276)

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Secondary referenceSecondary reference

In 1947 the World Health Organization proposed the following definition of health. “Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity” (World Health Organization, as cited in Potter & Perry, 2001, p. 3).

130

Multiple authorsMultiple authors2 authors – cite both names separated by

& Example: (Kosik & Martin, 1999, p. 127)

3-5 authors – cite all authors first time; after first time, use et al. Example: (Wilson et al., 2000)

6 or more authors – cite first author’s name and et al.Example: (Perez et al., 1992)

131

Multiple citations Multiple citations Multiple sources from same author –

chronological order, separated by comma (Burke, 1998, 1999, in press)

Within same year: (Burke, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, in press)

Multiple sources – separated by semicolon, alphabetical order (Burke, 1998; Perez, 1992; Wilhite, 2001)

132

Personal communicationPersonal communicationPersonal communication (email, phone,

conversation, letter, etc.) (T.K. Lutes, personal communication,

September 19, 2001)

Not included in reference list

133

Handling parenthetical Handling parenthetical citationscitations

More than one author with the same last name

(H. James, 1878); (W. James, 1880)Specific part of a source

(Jones, 1995, chap. 2)

134

Handling parenthetical Handling parenthetical citationscitations

If the source has no known author, then use an abbreviated version of the title:Full Title: “California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers”Citation: (“California,” 2009)

135

Sample parenthetical citationsSample parenthetical citationsRecently, the history of warfare has been significantly

revised by Higonnet et al (1987), Marcus (1989), and Raitt and Tate (1997) to include women’s personal and cultural responses to battle and its resultant traumatic effects. Feminist researchers now concur that “It is no longer true to claim that women's responses to the war have been ignored” (Raitt & Tate, p. 2). Though these studies focus solely on women's experiences, they err by collectively perpetuating the masculine-centered impressions originating in Fussell (1975) and Bergonzi (1996).

However, Tylee (1990) further criticizes Fussell, arguing that his study “treated memory and culture as if they belonged to a sphere beyond the existence of individuals or the control of institutions” (p. 6).

136

Reference List / Reference List / BibliographyBibliography

137

Reference listReference listPlace the list of references cited at the end of the

paperStart references on a new pageBegin each entry flush with the left marginIndent subsequent lines five to seven spaces

(hanging indent)Double space both within and between entriesItalicize the title of books, magazines, etc.

138

Reference list orderReference list orderArrange sources alphabetically beginning with

author’s last nameIf author has more than one source, arrange entries

by year, earliest firstWhen an author appears both as a sole author and,

in another citation as the first author of a group, list the one author entries first

If no author given, begin entry with the title and alphabetize without counting a, an, or the

Do not underline, italicize or use quote marks for titles used instead of an author name

139

Example – Reference list orderExample – Reference list order◦Baheti, J. R. (2001a). Control …◦Baheti, J. R. (2001b). Roles of …◦Kumpfer, K. L. (1999). Factors …◦Kumpfer, K. L. (2002). Prevention …◦Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., Smith, P., …◦Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Preventions …

140

Group authorGroup author

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

141

Book with one authorBook with one author

Carter, R. (1998). Mapping the mind. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

142

Book with two authorsBook with two authors

Struck, W., & White, E. B. (1979).The elements of style (3rd ed.).New York: Macmillan.

143

Book with six or more authorsBook with six or more authors

Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N.,Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L.,et al. (2000). An experimentalevaluation of…

144

Book with no authorBook with no author

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary(10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA:Merriam-Webster.

145

Book with editorsBook with editors

Allison, M. T., & Schneider, I. E. (Eds.).(2000). Diversity and the recreationprofession: Organizationalperspectives. State College, PA:Venture.

146

Chapter in bookChapter in book

Stern, J. A., & Dunham, D. N. (1990). The ocular system. In J. T. Cacioppo & L. G. Tassinary (Eds.), Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements (pp. 513-553). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

147

Multivolume bookMultivolume book

Koch, S. (Ed.). (1959-1963). Psychology: A study of science (Vols. 1-6). New York: McGraw-Hill.

148

Journal articleJournal article

Sellard, S., & Mills, M. E. (1995). Administrative issues for use of nurse practitioners. Journal of Nursing Administration, 25(5), 64-70.

149

Article in pressArticle in press

Jones, R. (in press). The new healthcare lexicon. Journal of Health.

150

AbstractAbstractMisumi, J., & Fumita, M. (1982). Effects

of PM organizational development insupermarket organization. JapaneseJournal of Experimental SocialPsychology, 21, 93-111. [Abstract]Psychological Abstracts, 1982, 68,Abstract No. 11474

151

MagazineMagazine

Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science, 262, 673-674.

152

NewspaperNewspaper

Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.

153

Encyclopedia articleEncyclopedia articleBlaser, L. (1996). Relativity . In Gale

encyclopedia of science (Vol. 15,pp. 82-86). New York, GaleEncyclopedia Co.

154

ThesisThesisHo, M. (2000). Coping strategies of

counseling professionals(Unpublished master’s thesis,Nanyang Technological University,Singapore).

155

VideotapeVideotape

National Institute on Mental Health. (1980). Drug abuse [videotape]. Bethesda: Author.

156

Electronic sourcesElectronic sources

Velmans, M. (1999). When perception becomes conscious. British Journal of Psychology, 90, 543-566. Retrieved from the Expanded Academic ASAP database.

157

Web pageWeb page

Green, C. (2000, April 16). History & philosophy of psychology web resources. Retrieved from http://www.yorku.ca/dept.htm

158

Article with DOIArticle with DOIStultz, J. (2006). Integrating exposure therapy

and analytic therapy in trauma treatment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 482–488. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.482

159

Preprint version of articlePreprint version of article

Philippsen, C., Hahn, M., Schwabe, L., Richter, S., Drewe, J., & Schachinger, H. (2007). Cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress is not affected by alpha2-adrenoreceptor activation or inhibition. Psychopharmacology, 190(2), 181–188. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0597-7

160

Online dictionaryOnline dictionaryHeuristic. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s

online dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.m-w.com/dictionary

161

Presentation slidesPresentation slidesColumbia University, Teachers College,

Institute for Learning Technologies. (2000). Smart cities: New York: Electronic education for the new millennium [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ publications/index.html

162

Press releasePress releaseAmerican Psychological Association. (2006,

April 30). Internet use involves both pros and cons for children and adolescents [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/releases/ youthwww0406.html

163

Message posted to an Message posted to an electronic mailing listelectronic mailing list

Smith, S. (2006, January 5). Re: Disputed estimates of IQ [Msg 670]. Message posted to ForensicNetwork electronic mailing list, archived at http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/ForensicNetwork/message/670

164

Weblog postWeblog postbfy. (2007, January 22). Re: The unfortunate

prerequisites and consequences of partitioning your mind. Message posted to http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/

165

Sample Reference ListSample Reference List References

Calvillo, D. (1999). The theoretical development of aggression. Retrieved August21, 2002 from: http://www.csubak.edu/~1vega/dustin2.html

Flory, R. K., (1969a). Attack behavior as a function of minimum inter-foodinterval. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 12, 825-828.

Flory, R. K., (1969b). Attack behavior in a multiple fixed-ratio schedule ofreinforcement. Psychonomic Science, 16, 383-386.

Flory, R. K., & Everist, H.D. (1977). The effect of a response requirement onschedule-induced aggression. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 9,

383-386.Gentry, W. D. (1968). Fixed-ratio schedule-induced aggression. Journal of the

Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11, 813-817.

166

For More InformationFor More Information

APA Manual Website:www.apastyle.org

ActivityActivityArrange the bibliographic details provided

to you according to APA.

168

Avoiding PlagiarismAvoiding Plagiarismin Researchin Research

169

Plagiarism – DefinitionPlagiarism – Definition

Taking and using the thoughts, writings, and inventions of another person as one's own

Using someone’s ideas without citing or quoting; thereby, receiving credit for someone else’s intellectual effort

170

How to avoid plagiarismHow to avoid plagiarismUse quotes for

◦Information that comes directly from any source

◦Words, spoken or written, that you use directly from another person

Make sure you document the source

171

Plagiarism detection Plagiarism detection softwaresoftware

172

Penalties for teachers, Penalties for teachers, researchers and staffresearchers and staff

Dismissal from service Demotion to the next lower grade Warning Freezing of research grants Promotions/annual increments of the offender may be

stopped University may debar the offender from sponsorship of

research funding, travel grant, supervision of Ph.D. students, scholarship, fellowship or any other funded program

Offender may be “Black Listed” and may NOT be eligible for employment in any academic / research organization

Notification of “Black Listing” of the author may be published in the print media or may be publicized on different websites

173

Good luckGood luck