Writing Research Papers: PY4007/PY4008 Physiotherapy Project 1 & 2

Writing Research Writing Research Papers:Papers:

PY4007/PY4008 PY4007/PY4008 Physiotherapy Project 1 Physiotherapy Project 1

& 2& 2

Writing Research Writing Research Papers:Papers:

PY4007/PY4008 PY4007/PY4008 Physiotherapy Project 1 Physiotherapy Project 1

& 2& 2

Íde O’Sullivan and Lawrence Íde O’Sullivan and Lawrence ClearyCleary

Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre 2

Workshop outline• Reflection: Writing for publication• Motivation and time management• Key consideration:

– The writing process– The rhetorical situation

• Structuring your FYP/research paper

• Academic writing style• Strategies to develop writing: Peer

review


Reflection• Why write for publication?• Implications of publishing/not

publishing?• Misconceptions about writing and

publication• Common problems among new

writers• New writers’ worries/fears


New writers’ errors(Murray, 2005:4)

• “Writing too much about ‘the problem’.”

• “Overstating the problem and claiming too much for their solution.”

• “Overstating the critique of others’ work.”

• “Not saying what they mean, losing focus through indirect writing.”

• “Putting too many ideas in one paper.”


Difficulties associated with writing

• Anxiety and fear of writing• Lack of confidence and motivation• Cracking the codes of academic writing• Getting started• Lack of guidance, practice and feedback• Misconceptions of writing

– Good writing skills are innate X– Think first, then write X

• The writing process is recursive

Getting Started Getting Started Writing and Keeping Writing and Keeping

GoingGoing

Getting Started Getting Started Writing and Keeping Writing and Keeping

GoingGoing


It is not too late• Take stock of where you are now• Outline your research project • Make plans based on the time that is

left• Organise your time accordingly• Get writing• Keep writing• Get a writing buddy• Allow time for revision and to put it all

together• Let family and friends know• Be selfish with your time


Where am I?• What writing have you done for the

research project, and what writing do you need to do in order to complete your FYP on time?

• Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes.• Write in sentences.• Do not edit or censor your writing.• Private writing -- no one will read it.• Discuss what you have written in

pairs.


Outlining (Murray, 2006)

• Title and draft introduction• Level 1 outlining

– Main headings

• Level 2 outlining– Sub-headings

• Level 3 outlining– Decide on content


‘Writing in layers’ (Murray 2006: 125-27)

• Outline the structure: write your section heading for the research paper.

• Write a sentence or two on the contents of each section.

• List out sub-headings for each section.• Write an introductory paragraph for

each section.• At the top of each section, write the

word count requirement, draft number and date.


Writing goalsOutline Words/Timeframe

TitleChapter 1 (title)

Section 1 (title)Section 2 (title)Section 3 (title)

Chapter 2 (title)Section 1 (title)Section 2 (title)Section 3 (title)

Chapter 3 … … …


Keep writing• Where and when do you write?• Why are you not writing?

– “I don’t feel ready to write.”– Writers’ block

• Getting unstuck– Writing to prompts/freewriting (write

anything)– Set writing goals– Write regularly– Integrate writing into your thinking– Break it down into a manageable

process


Keep writing• Be patient• Be creative• Taking pleasure in writing • Be proud of your writing• Get stuck in

Key ConsiderationsKey ConsiderationsKey ConsiderationsKey Considerations


Key stages in the process

• Pre-writing

• Drafting

• Revision

• Editing and Proofreading


The rhetorical situation

• Occasion

• Topic

• Audience

• Purpose

• Writer


Organising principles

• Research question

• Thesis

• Hypothesis


Key tasks for academic writers

• Participating in academic conversations

• Developing and advancing balanced arguments

• Exploring your personal writing process

• Developing strategies that work for you


The process: Pre-writing

• Decide on the writing project• Choose a target journal• Get information about the journal

– Mission/vision of the journal– Identify categories of submission– Identify key subject areas

• Analyse the journal• Select a sample paper from the target

journal• Follow the guidelines for authors


Analysing the journal• Cracking the codes• Analysing the genre/text and modelling• Generate a list of the important criteria

which will make your writing more effective

• Ask yourself the following questions:– How is the paper structured?– How is the contribution articulated?– What level of context is provided?– What level of detail is used? – How long are the different sections?


Analysing the journal• What organisational features/patterns are

in evidence? • How are arguments and counterarguments

presented and structured?• What types of evidence are important?• What stylistic features are prominent?• Is the text cohesive? How does the author

achieve such cohesion?• What kind(s) of persuasive devises does

the author employ?• Voice?

Structuring your FYPStructuring your FYPStructuring your FYPStructuring your FYP


Organising principles

• Thesis

• Research question

• Hypothesis


FYP Presentation and Layout

Preliminaries

Main Text

End Matter

A major report

or thesis is

generally

divided into

three parts.


Preliminaries• Cover page• Title page• Author’s Declaration• Table of Contents• Acknowledgements• Abstract


Abstract• Abstract (250 words)

– Background– Objectives– Methods– Results – Conclusions

• Keywords


The manuscript• Introduction

– Background and context/Literature review

• Method• Results• Discussion• Conclusions


The introduction• In academic writing, an introduction, or

opening, has four purposes: To introduce the topic of the paper To indicate the context of the

conversation through background information

To give some indication of the overall plan of the paper

To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance.


What should I put into the introduction?

• Identify the domain and the topic• State the problem - claim, hypothesis, or

question - to be investigated • Gives the problem context and

significance within the research community

• Identify the gaps in the literature• Outline and justify the purpose of your

proposed study• State the objectives of the paper and

outline the plan• May delineate the scope of the research


Methodology and research design

• In the methodology section, two main issues are addressed: – The methods used to gather data– The methods used to analyse the

data• How were your results obtained and

how did you came to the conclusions put forth?



Justification• Why and how did you choose the

targeted population/sample?• Why did you choose the particular

method?• Is the methodology appropriate to

your field of study?• Is the methodology appropriate to

the objectives of the study?



Justification• Methods affect results• Methods affect validity and

reliability • Methods affect conclusions


Results and discussion• The results section must not only

present the results; it must make the results meaningful for the reader.

• The discussion should not simply provide more detail about the results; it should interpret and explain the results.

• Methods of organising the results and discussion.


Results• Organising the results• Readability• Accessibility (graphs, tables)• Use of appendices for raw data• Making the results meaningful

– Explanation– Simplification– Trends– Significant results– Relationships/correlations


Discussion• Organising the discussion• Summarise the main results in order to

remind the reader of your key findings.• Put the results of the research into

context.• Support the validity of the results by

referring to similar results.• Explain the differences between your

findings and that of previous researchers.

• Can you explain the unexpected results?


Conclusion• To what extend have the aims of the

study been achieved?• How has your primary and secondary

research helped answer the research question posed?

• Have your hypotheses been proved/disproved/partially proved?

• Did the study raise any further questions?

• Any recommendations for future research?


Elements of a good conclusion

• A summary of the investigation, the results, and the analysis

• A summary of the conclusions drawn from the analysis and discussion of the data / results

• An account of whether the research has answered the research question

• An assessment of whether the hypothesis or claim has been proved, disproved, or partially proved


Elements of a good conclusion

• A discussionion of the implications of the findings

• A demonstrable awareness of the limitations of the outcome

• Suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion

• A final, strong, positive statement


Flow• Logical method of development• Effective transition signals• Good signposting• Consistent point of view• Conciseness (careful word choice)• Clarity of expression• Paragraph structure

– Unity– Coherence


Paragraph structure• What is a paragraph?

– Series of sentences– Coherent (introduction, middle, end)– Common theme

• Paragraphs signal the logically organised progression of ideas.

• The flow of information should be organised around themes and comments. The main idea in one paragraph should flow logically into the next.

• Shifts in the argument or changes in direction should be accurately signalled using appropriate adverbials, conjunctions, and prepositions.


Paragraph structure

• Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence.

• A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed.

• A topic sentence contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph.


Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences

• The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by– Evidence in the form of facts, statistics,

theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions,

– Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and

– Argumentation based on the evidence presented.

– Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument.


Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences

• Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence.

• Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or

• They can paraphrase the topic sentence.


Paragraph structure: Unity

• Paragraphs should be unified.• ‘Unity means that only one main idea

is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue 1999, p.18).


Paragraph structure: Coherence

• Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because – your supporting sentences are in some

kind of logical order– your ideas are connected by the use of

appropriate transition signals– your pronoun references clearly point to

the intended antecedent and is consistent

– you have repeated or substituted key nouns. (Oshima and Hogue 2006, p.22)


Example: (Meei-Fang et al. 2007,

p.471) People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993).

Academic Writing Academic Writing StyleStyle

Academic Writing Academic Writing StyleStyle


Features of academic writing• Complexity• Formality• Precision• Objectivity• Explicitness• Accuracy• Hedging• Responsibility

(Gillet, 2008)


Academic writing style

• Hedge. Distinguish between absolutes and probabilities. Absolutes are 100% certain. Probabilities are less than 100% certain.

• Be responsible. Provide traceable evidence and justifications for any claims you make or any opinions you have formed as a result of your research.


Persuasion and truth in academic writing

• Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive.

• An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion.

• Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit.• facts are distinguished from opinions.• relative truths are distinguished from

absolute truths.• The integrity of the conclusions reached in

an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth.

Strategies to Strategies to Develop Writing: Develop Writing:

Peer Review Peer Review

Strategies to Strategies to Develop Writing: Develop Writing:

Peer Review Peer Review


Writing a ‘page 98 paper’

• My research question is … • Researchers who have looked at this

subject are … • They argue that … • Debate centres on the issue of … • There is work to be done on … • My research is closest to that of X in that

… • My contribution will be …

(Murray 2006:104)


Dialogue about writing• Peer-review• Generative writing• The “writing sandwich” (Murray,

2005:85): writing, talking, writing• Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore,

2006:102)• Writers’ groups• Engaging in critiques of one another’s

work allows you to become effective critics of your own work.

Revision, Editing and Revision, Editing and ProofreadingProofreading

Revision, Editing and Revision, Editing and ProofreadingProofreading


Revising (Global)• Global issues (organisation and structure):

– Does the text achieve your writing goals as established in your evaluation of the rhetorical situation (writing context) and by your thesis?

– Is there deviation, wander and digression?– Does each paragraph treat in a controlled

manner an identifiable idea, and does that idea follow logically the ideas expressed in previous paragraphs and do they allow readers to predict the ideas expressed in the paragraphs that follow?


Revising (Global)• “If the process of writing has changed your

views, consider rethinking the thesis and reworking the paper” (Ebest et al. 2004:14).

• How does the introduction fit in with the body of the paper? Did you address what you said you would address? Did you fulfil your promises?

• Does your conclusion take into account the discoveries made during your research and writing processes.

• Strategy: Outline your paper, now that you have finished it.


Revising (Local)• Local issues (editing and proofreading):

– Look at logical and grammatical relations as expressed within paragraph boundaries.

– Is the relationship between pronouns and noun substitutes and the things they represent clear?

– Verbs express relationships of time and indicate person, number and mood. Are those relationships consistent and appropriate?


Revising (Local)• Is information logically arranged, and

is the organisation of your text clear?• Does each paragraph have a topic

sentence and is the paragraph cogent, coherent and unified?

• Do your sentences express complete ideas, and do you vary your structures? Are they grammatical? What about the mechanics?


Checklists and Feedback

• Before flying, pilots go through a methodical check of their plane. Do you have a checklist for your assignments before you hand them in?

• How can you anticipate problems that you are unable to see? Get a peer to help.– Ask for the feedback that you need and

that is appropriate to the context.


Revising (Peer review)• For example, this is an argumentative

paper: “Were you convinced by my argument? Why? Or why not?”

• I know I write poor introductions: “Could you identify my thesis?” Or “...could you tell me how the introduction attempts to grab the reader’s interest?”

• I know that my sentences tend to be long and difficult to understand: “Could you read my paper aloud so that I can listen to it and mark where you are having difficulties in reading?”


Tips for editing• Set it aside for a few days and come back

with a fresh eye• Get someone else to proofread it as well

as you• Use the print preview button to check

layout before you print• Always proofread on hardcopy• Hold paper below the line you are

proofreading• Use the find button to make changes• Be consistent!!• Editing a reference list is separate


Editing a reference list• Check that in-text dates and page

numbers match reference list• Only enter names in reference list that

you have mentioned in your text – it’s not a bibliography

• Make sure that if a name is mentioned in the document that is in included in the reference list

• Do a separate edit of your reference list, checking everything matches, everything is included and it is consistent


Common errors• Consistency of layout• Spelling, punctuation and grammar• Syntax• Correct font and spacing• Word or letter substitution• Transposition of letters• Omission of a line or lines, which does not

outwardly affect the meaning• Check finished work with original• Dates, proper names and place names,

and figures• Complete labelling of diagrams, tables,

graphs, etc


WHO: Top 10 reasons for rejecting a

manuscript• Content of the paper not suitable for an international

journal of public health. • Design of the study not appropriate for the question asked. • Lack of novelty and or timeliness. • Lack of either or both ethical committee approval and

informed consent. • Lack of an appropriate search strategy. • Conclusions not justified by the results. • Lack of a feedback step in descriptions of audit. • Insufficient sample size. • Lack of a clear message to the public health community. • Secondary analyses of demographic surveys or simple

prevalence studies that are difficult to generalise. http://www.who.int/bulletin/contributors/rejection/en/index.html



Resources• Shannon Consortium Regional Writing

Centre, UL http://www.ul.ie/rwc/• Using English for Academic Purposes

http://www.uefap.com/index.htm• The Writer’s Garden

http://www. cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm

• The OWL at Purdue http://owl.english.purdue.edu/

• The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill http://www.unc.edu/depts /wcweb/handouts/index.html


Works cited• Elbow, P. (1998) Writing without Teachers (2nd edition).

New York: Oxford University Press.• Elbow, P. and Belanoff, P. (2003) Being a Writer: A

Community of Writers Revisited. New York: McGraw-Hill.• Moore, S. and Murphy, M. (2005) How to be a Student:

100 Great Ideas and Practical Hints for Students Everywhere. UK: Open University Press.

• Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press.

• Murray, R. (2006) How to Write a Thesis (2nd edition). UK: Open University Press.

• Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. UK: Open University Press.

• Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4th edition. New York: Pearson Education.

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Writing Research Papers: PY4007/PY4008 Physiotherapy Project 1 & 2