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"The paragraph [is] a mini-essay, it is also a maxi-sentence." -Donald Hall

Writing

PARAGRAPHS In the real world of literature, the paragraph is not considered a form

of writing. You wouldn't, for example, head to the local bookstore to buy a book of paragraphs. Nor would you pursue a writing career because you want to write award-winning paragraphs.

But paragraphs are very important as building blocks for other kinds of writing. When you write an essay, for instance, you develop paragraphs to organize your thoughts into manageable units. The paragraphs work together to build a clear, interesting essay. Learning how to write effective paragraphs will give you control of all of your academic writing-from essays to reports to research papers.

Preview 0 The Parts of a Paragraph

0 Types of Paragraphs

0 A Closer Look at Paragraphing

0 Arranging Your Details

0 Connecting Your Details

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• • Writing Paragraphs

(,~Cons i: r ucting a paragraph requires a sirnple, dear, logical manner of thinking." -Jonathan Snyder

The Parts of a Paragraph Most paragraphs begin with a topic sentence, identifying the subject of

the writing. The entences in the body of the paragraph support or explain the subject, while the closing sent nce brings the paragraph to a logical stopping point. (See the expository paragraph on page 97.

The Topic Sentence @ The topic sentence t ells your readers what your paragraph is about. Here is a formula for writing good topic sentences:

Formula An interesting subject

+ a specific feeling or feature about the subject

= an effective topic sentence.

Topic Sentence The average cost of a Hollywood film (interesting subject) runs between $30 and $50 million (specific feature).

Is a topic sentence always the first sentence In a paragraph? No, you can position a topic sentence anywhere in a paragraph,

just as long as it works there. For example, you can present details that build up to an important summary statement (topic sentence). This strategy is especially effective in persuasive writing. (See page 115.)

The Body @ The body is the main part of the paragraph. This is where you place all of the information readers need to understand the subject. The sentences in the body should contain details that clearly SUPPOl't the topic sentence. Arrange these details in the best possible order.

Body Sentence The salary of a top star such as Bruce Willis or Harrison Ford can add $20 million to the cost of a major film.

[ HOT LINK] Turn to "Arranging Your Details ," pages 100-103, when you have questions about how to organize the details in a paragraph.

The Closing @ The closing (clinch er) sentence comes after all the details have been included in t he body of the paragraph. This sentence may (1) remind readers of the subject, (2) keep them thinking about it, or 3) link the paragrapb to the next one ifthis is part of a longer composition.

Closing Sentence Anyone who has bought a movie ticket recently knows that the consumer pays for these extravagant productions.

Writing Paragraphs

Types of Paragraphs There are four types of paragraphs: expository, descriptive, narrative,

and persuasive. (Notice how the details support each topic sentence.)

EXPOSITORY An expository paragraph presents facts, gives directions, defines terms,

and so on. It should clearly inform readers about a specific subject. The average cost of a Hollywood film runs between $30 and $50 million.

There are many reasons for this outlandish expense. The currently popular action-adventure productions are filled with special effects that cost huge amounts of money. In addition, most producers think in terms of blockbuster films. Instead of making a number of smaller, less-expensive films, they focus on big, elaborate films that could be smash hits. Of course, blockbuster films require big stars, which adds significantly to the production costs. The salary of a top star such as Bruce Willis or Harrison Ford can add $20 million to the cost of a major film. Then, the nonstop, full-throttle promotion of a film adds another enormous expense. All of these factors have contributed to the inflated costs of making and watching movies. Anyone who has bought a movie ticket recently knows that the consumer pays for these extravagant productions.

DESCRIPTIVE A descriptive paragraph presents a single clear picture of a person, a

place, a thing, or an idea. It should contain plenty of sensory details­specific sights, sounds, and smells.

My Uncle John is normally a likable and friendly man, but when there is a group of people and one of those instant cameras around, he becomes a real pest. No matter what the occasion, even something as uneventful as a few of our relatives getting together for a visit after work, Uncle John appoints himself official photographer. He spends the whole time with one eye looking through the lens and the other scoping out the potential subjects for his pictures. In most situations, taking pictures is a great way to spend some time and have a little fun, but when Uncle John Is pushing the button, It's quite another story. He doesn't believe in candids. Instead, Uncle John insists upon interrupting all activity to persuade his prey to pose for his pictures. In return, he gets photographs of people arranged in neat rows smiling through clenched teeth. Although we have tried again and again to convince Uncle John that his old, traditional methods of photography aren't necessarily the best, he continues to insist that we "Come over here, so I can take your picture." About the only solution is to convince Uncle John that he should be In some of these pictures and that you'd be happy to snap a few. Then, once you get the camera in your hands, don't stop shooting until all the film is gone.

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Writing Paragraphs

NARRATIVE A narrative paragraph tells a story. It should include details that answer

the 5 W's (Who? What? When? Where? and Why?) about the experience or event.

111 first gradej I learned some of the harsh realities of life. I foul1d out that circuses aren't all they're supposed to be. We were going to the circus for our class trip, and I was really excited about It because I had neve; been to one before. Our class worked for weeks 011 a circus train made of shoe boxes, and Carrie Kaske told me her mom had fainted once when she saW the lion trainer. The day of the trip finally came, and my wonderful circus turned out to be nothing but one disappointment after another. First, I couldn't see much of anything. I could Just barely make out some tiny figures scurrying around In the three rings that seemed to be a hundred miles away from my seat. After the first half hour, all I wanted to do was buy a soda and a monkey-on·a-stlck and get out of there. Of course, nothing in life Is that easy. We weren't allowed to buy anything, so I couldn't have my souvenir; and instead of a cold soda to quench my thirst, I had warm, curdled milk that the room mothers had so thoughtfully brought along. I returned to school tired and a Httle wiser. I remember looking at our little circus train on the window ledge and thinking that I'd rather sit al1d watch It do nothil1g than go to another circus.

PERSUASIVE A persuasive paragraph expresses an opinion and tries to convince the

reader that the opinion is valid. It should contain supporting points that help solidify your argument.

Capital punishment should be aboliShed for three major reasons. First, common sense tells me that two wrongs don't make a right. To kill someone convicted of murder contradicts the reasoning behind the law that taking another's life is wrong. The state Is committing the same Violent, dehumanizing act it Is condemning. Second, the death penalty is not an effective deterrent. Numerous studies shoW that murder Is usually the result of a complex psychological ahd sociological problem and that most murderers do not contemplate the consequences of their actsj or, If they do, any penalty Is seen as a far-off possibility. The offense, on the other hand, brings Immediate gratification. The third and most serious objection is that death is final and cannot be altered. Errors In deciding guilt or Innocence will always be present In our system of trial by jury. There Is too great a risk that Innocent people will be put to death. Official reoords show that it has happened In the past. For these reasohs, I feel capital punishment shOUld be replaced With a system that puts all doubt on the side of life­not death.

• Writing Paragraphs

A Closer Look at Paragraphing Paragraph Unity

Every sentence in a paragraph should support the topic sentence and fit in well with the other sentences. This relationship creates a sense of unity in a paragraph. Notice how the boldfaced sentences disrupt the flow in the following paragraph. With these sentences removed, the paragraph is unified.

Before the car accident paralyzed his left side, Randy thought about life in terms of jump shots, fast breaks, and high-flying layups. But when the passenger door banged open, and no seat belt held him down, he bounced out of the car into a paralytic's world that had completely different challenges. Things might have been different if Randy had been wearing a seat belt. How do you wash both hands when only one hand can hold the soap? How do you cut your right-hand fingernails when your left-hand fingers can 't squeeze the clipper? How do you look cool while walking with friends and the clop-clop noise of your left-footed limp sounds louder than a bleacher full of fans? The limp was really bad. Eventua"y, Randy found joy in his new world, but first he had to learn to accept new challenges and to find fulfi"ment in different victories.

Paragraph Details Your paragraphs need interesting, specific details to make them worth

reading. Broadly speaking, you can gather details in the following four ways. (See pages 46-49 for more information.)

• Reflect. By brainstorming, mapping, and freewriting, you can unlock memories, explanations, and descriptions.

• Observe. By looking and listening attentively, you can discover important details and facts.

• Talk. By talking with knowledgeable people, you can gather material from their firsthand experiences and research.

.. Read. By reading newspapers, journals, books, or periodicals (in print or on the Internet), you can find facts and quotations.

HELP FILE There are many types of details you can gather, including .. .

facts statistics examples

anecdotes quotations definitions

reasons explanations summaries

paraphrases comparisons analyses

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Writing Paragraphs

"I want to get the structural problems out of t he way first, so 1 can get to what matters more." - John McPhee

Arranging Your Details On the next four pages, you will find sample paragraphs following

seven basic methods of organization. Review these samples when you have questions about arranging the details in your own writing.

Classification Classification is an effective method of organization for explaining a

complex term or concept. To classify, you break a subject down into categories and subcategories to help readers better understand it. The following paragraph classifies the main groups of people that make up the population of Canada.

Canada's 29-30 million people can be divided into three main groups: founding people, descendants of Europeans, and more recent immigrants. Founding people, about 2 percent of the population, are those who came across the Bering Strait from Asia thousands of years ago. This group includes Inuit (northern aboriginal people) and Metis (people of mixed heritage). The second group, those with European heritage make up about 85 percent of the population. Most of this group are descended from British and French colonists, although almost all the other European countries are represented. The third group, recent immigrants, makes up the rest of the population and adds more diversity to the mix. These immigrants come from all over the world, including Vietnam, China, Haiti, and Jamaica. All three groups help give Canada a rich and Interesting culture.

Order of Location Order of location is a useful method for describing a person, a place, or

a thing. It provides unity by arranging details in a logical way-left to right, right to left, top to bottom, and so on. In the sample paragraph that follows the writer describes the condition of his bike after a serious crash. The description moves from the handlebars to th seat to the frame.

As the dust and debris settled, I slowly got to my feet and examined my raw flesh and bleeding scrapes. Nothing broken. But my heart sank when I went to retrieve my bike. Lying on its side, the bike was breathing its last. The once proud handlebars were twisted into an agonizing position. The leather seat showed seams ripped open, and the frame that once had been so shiny and pure now lay bent and twisted Into the rear wheel. It had been such an exquisite performer, but now it was destined for the junk heap.

"First, work hard to master the tools. Simplify, prune, and strive for order."

-William Zinsser

Chronological Order SHARING A STORY

Writing Paragraphs

Chronological (time) order is effective for sharing a story or explaining a process. Information is organized according to what happens first, second, third, and so on. The paragraph below uses chronological order to tell about a morning in the life of Michael Dayne.

When Michael heard the alarm at 5:30 a.m., his legs automatically swung to the floor. Groggy but awake, he pulled on his work clothes, stumbled downstairs, laced up his boots, and hurried across the farmyard. His first stop was the chicken house where he scooped the metal feeders full of ground oats and cleaned the water trays. Then it was off to the barn to pump water for the horses and fill their feed boxes with hay. From there, he hurried to the hog house, poked down ground corn into the self-feeders, and checked the automatic floats in the water troughs. His chores finished, Michael jogged back to the house, washed up, changed clothes, and ate his own breakfast. He then grabbed his book bag, trotted out to the road, and hopped on the school bus. Settling into the back seat, Michael checked his watch. "It's 6:45," he thought, "and the 'townies' are just waking up."

EXPLAINING A PROCESS The paragraph below explains a process-how hair grows. The writer

first introduces the topic, and then he describes the process chronologically.

Did you ever wonder what makes your hair grow? To understand the process, you first have to look at your scalp-just common skin. About 100,000 tiny holes, called follicles, poke through the top layer of skin (epidermis) and into the bottom layer (dermis). At the bottom of each follicle lies a seed-like pocket called a papilla. A small blood vessel carries food into the papilla, which works like a little factory, using the food to build hair cells. The cells form a strand that grows up through the dermis and past an oil gland that provides a coating to keep the hair soft and moist. The strand continues to grow through the epidermis and into the air above. Now and then, each papilla pauses, rests awhile, and then goes back to work again. However, if all your papillae stop working for good, you've reached that stage in your life called baldness.

Writing Paragraphs

Illustration illustration (general to specific) is a method of organization in which a

general idea (the topic entence) is $tated and followed with specific details, facts, and examples. Th paragraph below opens with a main point about humpback whales and follows with an explanation of the current research on the subject.

It's hard to say how humpback whales find their way. They may rely on their excellent sense of hearing to pick up low-frequency sound waves that bounce off common ocean features such as rock and coral. Scientists also believe that they may look for familiar landforms. Two researchers recently detected a small amount of magnetic material In humpbacks, which may allow them to migrate by sensing the earth's magnetic field. This may explain why whales get stranded. Some researchers think It's because they are drawn to coasts with low magnetic forces, thinking they are clear waterways. This would also explain how they could follow such precise migration paths.

Climax Climax (specific to general) is a method of organization in which the

specific details lead up to an important summary statement. (If a topic sentence is used, it is placed at the end.) The following paragraph shows the excitement building as the writer waits for a concert to begin.

As the lights dimmed In the amphitheater, multicolored spotlights began to Circle overhead, bouncing off the ceiling and swirling over the heads of the crOWd. The sound began to build. At first, It sounded like thunder rumbling in the distance, but 800n It grew to a deafening roar. People all around were stamping their feet, clapping their hands, and whistling through their fingers to show that they Were ready for the show to begin. The crowd noise was soon drowned out by a blast of bass guitar and drums that seemed to come out of nowhere. Behind a blinding flash of light and a shower of glittering sparks, the band appeared on stage and began to play. At last, the concert had begun.

HELP FILE When you organize a paragraph from general to specific, you are

working deductively. Most scientific and informative writing requires deductive reasoning because it helps make complicated material easy to understand. When you organize from specific to general, you are working inductively. Inductive reasoning is often used in personal essays and short stories.

Writing Paragraphs

Cause and Effect Cause-and-effect organization helps show the relationship between

events and their results. A piece organized this way can begin with a general statement about the effect and follow with specific causes, or it can begin with a general statement about the cause and follow with specific effects. In the paragraph below, Laura Black defines hypothermia, briefly explains its cause, and then discusses its effects on the human body.

Hypothermia means that a person's body temperature has dropped below the normal 98.6° F. This condition usually results from prolonged exposure to cold. As hypothermia sets in, it causes all bodily functions to slow down. At first, the dropping temperature affects blood flow and breathing. Heart rate and blood pressure decrease, and breathing becomes slower and shallower. As body temperature drops further, these effects become even more dramatic until somewhere between 86° and 82° F, the person lapses into unconsciousness. When body temperature reaches between 65° and 59° F, heart action, blood flow, and electrical brain activity stop. You would think that at this point the body would give out, but that does not necessarily happen. As the body cools down, the need for oxygen also slows. A person can be in a deep hypothermic state for an hour or longer and still be revived without serious long-term effects or complications.

Comparison Organizing by comparison helps show the similarities or differences

between two subjects. Often, you will end up showing both the similarities and differences. (See pages 202-203 for more information.) In the paragraph that follows, the writer compares the dedicated, humanitarian work of two contemporary First Ladies.

Former First Ladies Eleanor Roosevelt and Barbara Bush shared a concern for social change. Even though they supported different causes, both women worked to improve the lives of the young. Eleanor, wife of Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt, lectured about youth unemployment and supported the National Youth Administration, a program that found jobs for young people. Barbara, wife of Republican President George Bush, helped young people by starting reading programs for children throughout the United States and establishing the Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy. However, both First Ladies also championed their own special concerns. Eleanor promoted racial equality, argued for desegrega­tion, and chaired the commission that drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. For her part, Barbara promoted better health care, raised money for cancer research, and assisted social agencies such as soup kitchens and shelters for the homeless. In the end, both women used their positions to improve our society.

Writing Paragraphs

Connecting Your Details Once you've arranged all the details in your writing, you need to tie

them together so they read smoothly. The words below can help.

Words used to SHOW LOCATION :

above away from beyond into over

across behind by near throughout against below down off to the right

along beneath in back of on top of under

among beside in front of onto around between inside outside

Words used to SHOW TIME:

about before later second today after during meanwhile soon tomorrow afterward finally next then until as soon as first next week third when at immediately now till yesterday

Words used to COMPARE THINGS (show similarities):

also as

likewise similarly

in the same way like

Words used to CONTRAST TH I NGS (show differences):

although but

even though however

still yet

Words used to EMPHASIZE A POINT:

this reason especially

truly to repeat

to emphasize in fact

on the other hand otherwise

Words used to CONCLUDE or SUMMARIZE:

all in all as a result

finally last

therefore to sum up

Words used to ADD INFORMATION:

additionally for example again for Instance along with in addition

Words used to CLARI FY:

also and another

for instance in other words that is

in summary in conclusion

as well besides finally

likewise moreover next

put another way