Writing Good Sentences Appendix

8/14/2019 Writing Good Sentences Appendix

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WRITINGGOOD SENTENCES


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APPENDIX


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AI-A3

SECTION I

PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICS

A. THE COMMA1. Commas are used to separate the units of certain types of compounds.

Compounds consisting of single-word units, compounds consisting of predicates, compounds consistingof phrases, and compounds consisting of dependent clauses follow identical punctuation patterns.

Punctuation patterns:________________________________________nd _------------- -- ------------ -- ---------- -, --- ----- ----- ------- -- -------- ---- --- -- --- --________________________________________ , and _________________________________________nd and _-------------------------_._-------------, -------------------------- ------- ---------- -, -----------_. ------ --------.----- -------------

See pp . 52-53.2. Commas are used to separate the independent units of certain compound and compound-complexsentences.a. If there is no internal comma punctuation near a break between independent units, a sentence containingindependent units connected by a single coordinating conjunction normally follows one of two punctuationpatterns.

Punctuation patterns:r and ' I

J but l----------------------------------------,'r r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .I for Ilnor J

{andl--------------------------------------------, ---------------------------------_._---------, ~-- --- -- -- ---------". _ . - ...or JSee p . 150.b. If there is no internal comma punctuation near the break between independent units, a sentence contain-ing independent units connected by a pair of conjunctions normally has a comma separating the units.

Punctuation patterns:Not only , but (also) .Either , or .

See p . 151.3. Commas are used to set off non-restrictive modifiers.a. Adjectival modifiers(1) Non-restrictive adjectives are set off by commas.

See pp . 33-34.(2) Non-restrictive participles and participial phrases are set off by commas.

See pp . 49, 90.(3) Non-restrictive adjective clauses are set off by commas.

See p. 127.277


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A3-A8 PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICSb. Adverbial modifiers( I) Non-restrictive adverbs are set off by commas.

Example:He climbed the stairs, slowly and painfully.

(2) Non-restrictive adverbial phrases are set off by commas.Example:

The motion was carried, despite his opposition.(3) Non-restrictive adverb clauses are set off by commas.

See pp . 135, 137, 138.4. Commas are used to set off certain non-restrictive appositives.

See pp . 64-65, 67.5. A comma usually follows an introductory expression used with an appositive.

See p . 67.6. Commas are used to set off certain independent sentence elements.a. Mild exclamatory expressions are often set off by commas.

See p . 68.b. Vocatives are set off by commas.See p . 69.7. Commas are used to set off most sentence modifiers.a. Commas are used to set off most single-word sentence modifiers.

Example:Honestly, Ido not know what he said.

See pp . 39-40.b. Commas are used to set off phrases functioning as sentence modifiers.

Example:To tell the truth, he has already written the letter.

See pp. 83-84.e. Commas are used to set off clauses functioning as sentence modifiers.Example:

Mary, you know, was the person who invited him.d. Commas are used to set off certain conjunctive adverbs.

See p . 152.e. Commas are used to set off nominative absolute constructions.

Example:The bell having rung, the teacher ended his lecture.

See Note on p . 92.8. Commas are used to set off certain elements when they occur in specified positions in the sentence.a. A long prepositional phrase preceding the subject is set off by comma punctuation.

See p . 83.b. An infinitive or an infinitive phrase functioning as an adverb is set off by comma punctuation when it pre~cedes the element it modifies.

See pp . 46,101.c. An adverb clause preceding or falling within the independent clause to which it belongs is set off by commapunctuation.

See p. 135.278


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PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICS A9-El9. Commas are used to set oft'a short direct quotation functioning as the object of a verb of saying, com-manding, exclaiming, asking, etc.

See pp . 106-07.10. Commas are used to set oft' parts of dates and addresses.

Examples:On Wednesday, February 23, 1949, the preliminary agreement was signed.She lives at 4515 East 25th Avenue, Denver, Colorado.

11. Commas are used to prevent misreading.Example:

Confusing: Below the football players were practicing.Clarified: Below, the football prayers were practicing.

B . PARENTHESES1. Parentheses may be used to enclose certain types of appositives.

See pp . 64-65, 67.2. Parentheses may be used to enclose interpolated elements.

See p . 69.C. THE DASH1. A dash is used to mark sudden shifting or interruption of thought in a sentence.

Examples:He said-I won't tell you what he said.I wonder what they-

2. Dashes may be used to enclose certain types of appositives.See pp . 64-65, 67.

3. Dashes may be used to enclose interpolated elements.See p . 69.

D . B RACK ETSBrackets are used to enclose explanatory notes or additions inserted in quoted material.

Example:Byron said: "He [Colonel Stanhope] leaves nothing untouched from the general government

to the schools for children."

E. THE SEMICOLON1. Semicolons are used to separate the independent units of certain compound and compound-complexsentences.a. If there is no conjunction connecting the independent units, a semicolon is used to separate the units.

Punctuation patterns:- - - -- - - --- --- - -- - -- - -- - -- - - ---- --- - - -- -- ,-------- -- --- ---- --------- -- --- - -- ------ , ..- --- - ------ ------ -------------------- ,

See pp . 151-53.b. If there is internal comma punctuation near a break between independent units, a semicolon is used toseparate the units even though they are connected by a conjunction.

See pp . 150-51.2 7 9


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E2-Jl PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICS2. Semicolons are used instead of commas to separate the units of compounds containing internal commapunctuation.

Example:We invited Jones, the banker; Smith, the merchant; and Johnson, the editor.

F. THE COLON1. A colon is used before a direct quotation which is formally introduced. Usually such a quotation will berelatively long.

Example:George Washington said: "A slender acquaintance with the world must convince every man

that actions, not words, are the true criterion of the attachment of friends and that themost liberal professionsof good-will are very far from being the surestmarks of it."

2. A colon may be used before certain types of appositives.See p . 65.

G. THE PER IOD1. A period is used to close a declarative sentence.

See p . 71.2. A period is used to close an imperative sentence, unless the sentence is also exclamatory.

See p . 71.3. A period is used after an abbreviation.

Examples:Mr., Mrs., Dr., a.m., N.Y.

H. THE QUESTION MARK1. A question mark is used to close an interrogative sentence.

See p . 72.2. A question mark is used after an interrogative element which stands alone as a non-sentence.Examples:

When? Day after tomorrow?

I. THE EXCLAMATION POINT1. An exclamation point is used to close an exclamatory sentence.

See p . 76.2. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory element.

See p . 68.J. QUOTATION MARKS1. Quotation marks are used to enclose titles of relatively short literary compositions, such as essays, arti-cles, short stories, and lyrics.

Titles of subordinate parts of long works are also enclosed in quotation marks.Examples:

We read Shelley's "Ozymandias."The first chapter is "The Tennyson Legend."

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PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICS J22. Quotation marks are used to enclose direct quotations.

Note the use of quotation marks and other marks of punctuation in the following examples:a. Direct quotations of sentences containing no punctuation

Examples:Original sentence

Your method of working is entirely wrong.Direct quotations

He said, "Your method of working isentirely wrong.""Your method of working is entirely wrong," he said."Your method of working," he said, "is entirely wrong."

Punctuation patterns:He said, " ."" ," he said."-- ," he said, " ."

See pp . 106-fJ7.b. Direct quotations of sentences containing comma punctuation

Examples:Original sentenceI waited at the office,but the doctor did not come.

Direct quotationsHe said, "I waited at the office,but the doctor did not come.""I waited at the office,but the doctor did not come," he said."I waited at the office," he said, "but the doctor did not come."

Punctuation patterns:He said, " , but ."" , but ," he said." ," he said, "but ."

c. Direct quotations of sentences containing semicolon punctuationExamples:

Original sentenceOur opponents have weight; we have skill and speed.

Direct quotationsHe said, "Our opponents have weight; we have skill and speed.""Our opponents have weight; we have skill and speed," he said."Our opponents have weight," he said; "we have skill and speed."

Punctuation patterns:He said, " ; ."" ; ," he said." ," he said; " . .._."

d. Direct quotations of more than one sentenceExamples:

Original sentencesShe must be here. Her car is in the driveway.

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J2-K3 PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICSDirect quotations

He said, "She must be here. Her car is in the driveway.""She must be here. Her car is in the driveway," he said."She must be here," he said. "Her car is in the driveway."

Punctuation patterns:He said, " . ."" . ," he said." ," he said, " ."

3. The position of various marks of punctuation in relation to the final set of a pair of quotation marksmay be determined by the following rules:a. Commas and periods are placed inside the quotation marks.

Examples:"I misplaced my notes," she explained.The man replied, "I have not completed the work."

b. Colons and semicolons are placed outside the quotation marks.Example:

I selected Poe's "The Raven"; she preferred Coleridge's "Kubla Khan."c. Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside the quotation marks when they refer to the quo-tation itself.

Examples:She asked, "When did you arrive?""What a surprise!" the girl exclaimed.

d. Question marks and exclamation points are placed outside the quotation marks when they refer to theentire sentence in which the quotation occurs.

Example:Who said, "A little learning is a dangerous thing"?

4. Single quotation marks are used to enclose a quotation within a quotation.Example:

Mary replied, "I'm sure the teacher said, 'We may have an exam.' "

K . THE APOSTR OPHE1. The apostrophe is used in forming certain possessives.

See pp . 31-33.2. The apostrophe is used to indicate omitted letters in contractions.

Examples:don't, doesn't, I'm, you're

3. The apostrophe is used in forming the plural of letters, figures, and words used as words.Examples:

There are two m's in committee.There are too many and's in this paragraph.

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PUNCTUATION AND MECHANICS LI-N3L . THE HYPHEN1. The hyphen is used to divide compound words.

Consult a good dictionary to determine whether a word is hyphenated.See Note 1 on p . 35.

2. The hyphen is used to divide a word which is carried over from one line to another.A word may be divided only between syllables.Consult a good dictionary to determine the proper syl-

labication of a word.M . ITAL IC S

Underlining is used in handwritten and typewritten material to indicate italics.1. Italics are used for titles of works of art, newspapers, magazines, and relatively long literary composi-tions,such as books, plays, and long poems.

Examples:He always reads the Saturday Review of Literature.Did you see Green Pastures?

2. Italics are used for names of ships, trains, and airplanes.Example:

She arrived on the Queen Mary.3. Italics are used for letters used as letters and words used as words.

Example:The word across is spelled with one c.

4. Italics are used for foreign words occurring in English sentences.Example:

They believed in the doctrine of laissez faire.5. Italics are used for emphasized words.

Example:I am certain that he did go.

N. CAPITAL LETTERS1. A capital letter is used at the beginning of a sentence.

Example:The car struck the wall.

2. A capital letter is used at the beginning of a quoted sentence.Example:The boy replied, "You should turn at the next corner."

3. A capital letter is normally used at the beginning of every line of poetry.Example:

That time of year thou mayst in me beholdWhen yellowleaves,or none, or few, do hangUpon those boughs which shake against the cold,Bare ruin'd choirs where late the sweet birds sang.

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N4-N7 T R O U B L E S O M E V E R B S4. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters. Ifa proper noun con-sists of several words, the important words are capitalized.

See pp. 4, 29.5. The important words in titles are capitalized.

Example:Cooper wrote The Last of the Mohicans.

6. The pronoun Iis always capitalized.7. Words which refer to Deity are always capitalized.

Examples:God, Jehovah, the Almighty, Christ, the Saviour.

SECTION II

A L IST OF PR INCIPAL PARTS OF TROUBLESOME VERBS

Present Past Past Present Past PastInfinitive Tense Participle Infinitive Tense Participleaccompany accompanied accompanied bore bored boredache ached ached break broke brokenagree agreed agreed breathe breathed breathedapply applied applied bring brought broughtargue argued argued build built builtanse arose ansen burn burned or burned orask asked asked burnt burntattack attacked attacked burst burst burstawake awoke or awoke or bury buried buried

awaked awaked buy bought boughtawaken awakened awakened carry carried carriedbathe bathed bathed cast cast castbe was (were) been catch caught caughtbear bore borne or born choose chose chosen(passive) climb climbed climbedbeat beat beat or cling clung clungbeaten close closed closedbecome became become clothe clothed or clothed orbegin began begun clad cladbehold beheld beheld comb combed combedbend bent bent come came comebenefit benefited benefited compel compelled compelledbet bet or bet or consider considered consideredbetted betted continue continued continuedbid (offer to bid bid copy copied copiedpurchase) cost cost costbid (command) bade bidden or creep crept creptbid cry cried criedbind bound bound curse cursed or cursed orbite bit bitten or curst curstbit cut cut cutbleed bled bled deal dealt dealtblow blew blown defy defied defied

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T R O U B L E S O M E V E R B S 285Present Past Past P resent Past PastInfin itive Tense Participle Infinitive Tense Participle

deny denied denied know knew knowndeposit deposited deposited lay laid laiddevelop developed developed lead led leddie died died leap leaped or leaped ordig dug or dug or leapt leaptdigged digged leave left leftdine dined dined lend lent lentdive dived dived let let letdo did done lie (recline) lay laindrag dragged dragged lie (tell a lied lieddraw drew drawn falsehood)dream dreamed or dreamed or light lighted lighteddreamt dreamt or lit or litdrink drank drunk lose lost lostdrip dripped dripped make made madedrive drove driven marry married marrieddrop dropped dropped mean meant meantdrown drowned drowned meet met metdry dried dried owe owed oweddwell dwelt or dwelt or pass passed passed

dwelled dwelled pay paid paideat ate eaten plan planned plannedfall fell fallen prove proved provedfeed fed fed raise raised raisedfeel felt felt read read readfell felled felled ride rode riddenfight fought fought ring rang rungfind found found rise rose risenfit fitted fitted run ran runflee fled fled saw sawed sawedfling flung flung say said saidflow flowed flowed seat seated seatedfly flew flown see saw seenforbid forbade or forbidden or seek sought soughtforbad forbid seem seemed seemedforget forgot forgotten or sell sold soldforgot send sent sentforgive forgave forgiven set set setfreeze froze frozen shake shook shakenget got got or gotten shine (give shone shonegIVe gave given forth light)go went gone shine (polish) shined shinedgrind ground ground shoot shot shotgrow grew grown show showed shown orhang (suspend) hung hung showedhang (kill by hanged hanged shrink shrank or shrunksuspending) shrunkhave had had shut shut shuthear heard heard smg sang or sunghelp helped helped sunghide hid hidden or sink sank or sunkhid sunkhit hit hit sit sat sathold held held sleep slept slepthurry hurried hurried slide slid slidhurt hurt hurt sow sowed sown or sowedkeep kept kept speak spoke spokenkill killed killed spend spent spent


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286 A SPELL ING L ISTPresent Past Past Present Past PastInfinitive Tense Participle Infinitive Tense Participlespm spun spun take took takenspread spread spread teach taught taughtsprmg sprang or sprung tear tore tornsprung tell told toldstand stood stood think thought thoughtsteal stole stolen throw threw thrown

stick stuck stuck tie tied tiedsting stung stung try tried triedstink stank or stunk understand understood understoodstunk wake waked or wakedstop stopped stopped wokestrike struck struck wear wore wornstring strung strung weave wove wovenstrive strove striven w~ep wept weptstudy studied studied win won wonswear swore sworn wind wound woundsweep swept swept wring wrung wrungSWIm swam swum write wrote writtenswmg swung swung

SECTION III

A SPELLING L ISTabsence agreement apostrophe autumn breath carrymgabsorb agriculture apparatus auxiliary breathe casualtiesabsurd aisle apparently average bridal cavalryaccept all right appearance bachelor bridle ceilingacceptable alley appetite balanced brilliance cemeteryaccident ally appositive balloon Britain centuryaccidentally almost appreciate bargain British certainlyaccommodate already approach bath Briton changeableaccompaniment altar architect bathe budget characteristicsaccompany alter arctic beautiful build chauffeuraccomplish although aren't becoming bulletin chiefaccount altogether argument beggar bureau childrenaccumulate always arrangement beginning bury chimneyaccustomed amateur arrival belief business choiceachievement amendment article believe busy chooseacquainted among ascend beneath calendar choseacre amount ashamed benefiting campaign chosenacross analysis asked berth canal circumstancesactually analyze assassin bicycle candidate citeaddress ancient astonish birth cannot citizenadjective angel athlete biscuit can't climateadvantageous angle athletics bishop capital climbedadverb announce atmosphere blossom capitol clothesadvice answer attached born captain clothingadvise antecedent attacked borne carburetor clothsaffect anticipate attendance boundaries career coarseafraid anti~,ipatory attorney brake carefully coffeeaggravate anxIOUS audience break carriage colonelaggressive apartment author breakfast carried column

" ' -. . . _---_/


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A SPELLING LIST 287comedy delegate equipment gradually knowledge occurrencecomfortable demonstrative equipped grammar laboratories o'clockcommg depth equivalent grief laid officercommission descended especially guarantee lazy officialcommittee describe establish guard lead oftencomparative description etc. guess led omittedcomparatively desert Europe guidan~e leisure oneselfcomparison desperation evening gymnasIum length opmlOncompel dessert exaggeration handkerchief liable opponentcompetition destroy exceed haphazard library opportunitycomplement develop excelled happiness license oppositecompletely development excellent height lightning optimisticcomplex diamond except hindrance literary originallycompliment diary exclamatory hoping literature pageantcompulsory difference exercise hopping lonely paidconcede dilapidated exhausted huge loose pamphletconceivable dine exhibition hundred lose pararaphcondemn dining existence hungry losing para lelconferred disappeared expensive hurriedly luxury parenthesesconfident disappointed experience hygiene lying parliamentconjunction discipline experiment hypocrisy machinery participleconq~enng discussion explanation icicle magazine particularlyconscience disease expletive illicit maintain partnerconscious dissatisfied extraordinary imagination maneuver pastimeconsequence dissipation extremely immediately marriage peaceconsider divide faculty imperative material peculiarconsistent divine fallacy impromptu mathematics perceiveconspicuous division familiar incidentally measure performancecontempt doctor fascinating indefinite medal perhapscontinue doesn't favorite independent medicine permanentlycontrol don't February indispensable melancholy personalconvenient dormitory field individual merely personnelcoordinating doubt fiery inevitably miniature perspirationcorps dozen fifth infinitive minute persuadedcorpse drowned finally infinity miscellaneous philosophycouldn't dumb financial influential mischievous phrasecouncil during finish initiative misspell physicalcounsel dyeing forehead innocent model physiciancountry dying foreigner inquire momentous physiologycourageous ecstasy forest intelligence mortgage picnickingcourse editor forgotten intensive mosquito piececourteous effect formally intercede murmuring plaincousm efficiency formerly interesting muscle planecried eight forth interpolated mysterious pleasurecriticism eighteen forty interrogative mystery poemcriticize eighth four interrupt necessary politiciancrowd either fourth intransitive neighbor possessioncuriosity eligibility freshman introduction neither possessivecurriculum eliminated freshmen invite nevertheless possibledairy embarrassment friend irresistible nickel potatoesdaughter emphasis fruit island niece potentialdebt emphatic fundamentally isle nineteen practicaldeceive employ furniture isn't ninety' practicedecency employee garage its nominative prairiedecision empty generally it's noticeable precededeclarative encourage genius itself nowadays precedencedeferred enemies gerund jewelry obedient precedingdefinite entirely giant journey occasion predicatedefinition environment government judgment occur preferdefinitive equal governor kindergarten occurred preference


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288 R E T A /N E D E L E M E N T Spreferred ready sacrilegious stopped there valuableprejudiced realize safety straight therefore varietypreparation really salary strategy they're vegetablepreposition receipt sandwich strength thorough vengeanceprerequisite receive scene studying though VIewpresence recipe scenery subjunctive through vigilantpretty reciprocal schedule subordinating to villainprimitive recognize scholar substantive together vocativeprincipal recommended seized subtle too weatherpr~nciple refer separately successful tournament Wednesdayprisoner reference sequence sufficient toward weightprivileges referred sergeant superlative tragedy weirdprobably reign shepherd supersede tragic welfareproceed rein shine supplementary transferred whereprofession relieve shining sure treachery whereverprofessor religious siege surprIse tried whetherprominent remedy sight susp~~t truly whichpronounce remember significance suspicion twelfth whollypronunciation repeat similar sword twelve witchpropaganda repetition sincerely syllables tyranny womenpropeller restaurant site sympathy unammous won'tpsychology review society system undoubtedly writepunctuation rhetoric sophomore temperamental unnecessary writingpursuit rhythm speak temperature until writtenquality ridicule speeches than unusual yachtquantity ridiculous stationary their usual yourquiet sacrifice stationery then usually you'requite sacrilege stop

SECTION IV

R E T A /N E D E L E M E N T S

When certain active-voice sentence structures are changed to the passive voice, "retained" elementsare produced in the passive-voice sentences. We shall examine six of these retained elements: the re-tained direct object, the retained indirect object, the retained first object, the retained second object,the retained substantival objective complement, and the retained adjectival objective complement.

When an active-voice sentence containing an indirect object and a direct object is changed to apassive-voice sentence, either the indirect object or the direct object can be used as the subject of thepassive-voice verb, and the other element will be "retained" as a retained object or as a retained indi-rect object.

Examples:His mother gave him

(Indirectobject)

a book.(Directobject)

He was given a book(Passive (Retainedvoice) direct object)

by his mother.

A book was given him by his mother.(Passive (Retainedvoice) indirect object)

In similar fashion, when an active-voice sentence containing a double object is changed to a passive-


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R E T A /N E D E L E M E N T S 289OIce sentence, either object can be used as the subject of the passive-voice verb, and the other objectwill be "retained" as a retained first object or a retained second object.

Examples:The student asked the teacher

(Firstobject)

A question was asked the teacher

a question.(Secondobject)

by the student.(Passivevoice)

(Retainedfirst object)

The teacher was asked a question by the student.(Passive (Retainedvoice) second object)

In addition, when an active-voice sentence containmg an objective complement is changed to apassive-voice sentence, the objective complement will be "retained" in the passive-voice sentence. Theobjective complement can be either a substantive or an adjective, and the resulting retained elementwill therefore be either a retained substantival objective complement or a retained adjectival objectivecomplement.

Examples:The club elected him president.

(Substantivalobjective complement)

He was elected president by the club.(Passive (Retained substantivalvoice) objective complement)

We considered her brilliant.(Adjectivalobjective complement)

She was considered brilliant by us.(Passive (Retained adjectivalvoice) objective complement)

All of the six retained elements may appear in connection with passive infinitives, passive participles,and passive gerunds. In such structures the retained element is part of a verbal phrase.

Examples:Infinitive Phrases Containing Retained Elements

He expected I to be given a book.' (Retained direct object)His mother selected the boo~J to be given him.' (Retained indirect object)

That was the first qUesti~J to be asked the teacher. I (Retained first object)I To be asked a question' was flattering. (Retained second object)He wanted I to be elected president. I (Retained substantival objective complement)

I To be considered brilliant I pleases her. (Retained adjectival objective complement)


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290 THE PRESENT G ERUND AND THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLESParticipial Phrases Containing Retained Elements

I Having been given a book, I~ild was happy. (Retained direct object)The boo,tl given him I was full of pictures. (Retained indirect object)The questio~1 being asked the teacher I reveal lack of study. (Retained first object)The teacher, having been asked several questions, explained the material again. (Re-

' - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~tained second object)

I Having been elected president, I)e appointed several committees. (Retained substantivalobjective complement)

I Being considered brilliant, Uhe was given difficult assignments. (Retained adjectival ob-jective complement)

Gerund Phrases Containing Retained Elements

He appreciated I being given a book. I (Retained direct object)She denied the boo~1 having been given him. I (Retained indirect object)Iwas upset by the questioel having been asked the teacher. I (Retained first object)

I Being asked personal questions I is embarrassing. (Retained second object)I Being elected president I surprised him. (Retained substantival objective complement)She enjoyed I being considered brilliant. I (Retained adjectival objective complement)

SECTION V

THE PRESENT GERUND AND THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLESThe gerund usually functions as a substantive, and the participle as an adjective. However, the present

gerund may also function as an adjective, and the present and past participles may serve as substantives.The following constructions involve the use of a present gerund to modify a noun:

diving boardsleeping porch

playing fielddrinking glass


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THE PRESENT GERUND AND THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES 291ote that in these examples the noun names something which is involved in the action indicated by the gerundut is not actually performing the action. Usually the thing named by the noun is used [or the performancef the action: a board for diving; a porch for sleeping; a field for playing; a glass for drinking. Such rephras-g, however, does not always work. For instance, a typing mistake is obviously not "a mistake for typing" butmistake in typing." Still, it is clear that the mistake is not perjorming the action of typing.The same modifying words which are classified as gerunds in the examples above must be classified as

articiples if they indicate an action which is actually performed by the thing indicated by the noun:diving boysleeping babyplaying children

(The boy is diving.)(The baby is sleeping.)(The children are playing.)

Sometimes, of course, the expression is ambiguous unless clarified by context or (in speech) by tone of:

rocking chair (a chair for rocking or a chair which is rocking)singing teacher (a teacher of singing or a teacher who is singing)spinning wheel (a wheel for spinning or a wheel which is spinning)

It is important to remember that an -ing word modifying a noun is not necessarily either a gerund or aarticiple:

handwriting expertplumbing displaybuilding inspector

he difference between these constructions and those previously discussed is that the -ing word indicates anbject rather than an action: the expert judges an object, not an action; the display presents objects, not

ons; and the inspector inspects an object, not an action. In such constructions, the -ing word is simply andjectival use of a word which normally appears as a noun.

To classify an -ing word modifying a noun, then, you should first determine whether the word namesaction. If it does not name an action, it is an adjective based upon a noun. If it does name an action, it is

n adjectival use of a participle or a gerund-a participle if it indicates an action performed by the noun its, a gerund if it does not.

Just as a present gerund may function as an adjective, a present participle or a past participle may func-as a noun:

We must first of all rescue the living. (Present participle)The injured will be flown to the hospital. (Past participle)

ote that a participle functioning in this way may be modified by the sort of adverb which modifies a verbverbal:

He treats the mentally disturbed.The doctors examined the badly injured.

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Writing Good Sentences Appendix