PMA Writing Workshop notes

Vernon Blackmore

© WMG, University of Warwick, 2014

Writing a PMA 2

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Writing a PMA, especially your first, can be worrying. You may never have written an

assignment as long as 5,000 words. You may be struggling with an unfamiliar language, with

untested skills and with uncertain requirements. These notes are aimed to help you. In them

I offer practical advice on writing PMAs.

I have organised these notes as an overview of the writing process, interspersed with some

practical guides. During the workshop you can add your own notes to the slides and in a

separate document there are extracts from three PMAs: one good, one merely OK and one

very poor. This means you will have to skip between resources, but it allows you to ignore

the topics you already know.

The style of these notes is very prescriptive: there are lots of ‘do this’ instructions. I

apologise. Writing is a personal thing. Everyone has their own approach, so rules and

demands can be out of place. But time is short, and you probably do not want a long

resource, sensitively written to embrace your personal preferences. Your first PMA is just

around the corner, you need guidance, you need tips. And you need these now!

So tips are what I am giving you. But please use this year at WMG to explore what works

best for you in writing. In setting PMAs, WMG is not using cruel punishments for reluctant

students. We believe that learning to write clearly, to present an argument that is based on

well-researched evidence, is a skill in high demand. In the future, you will be writing

business strategies, project proposals and sales bids. These don’t have the format of a PMA,

but do require the techniques. If you want a good job, don’t leave WMG without this skill!

You may think of writing as a single task that you do right at the end of hours of reading and

thinking. It isn’t. It is a process that starts when you first receive details of your assignment:

Before you write 1. Planning Checking the question, starting your thinking, planning your time.

2. Mapping Collecting your ideas and recording them, but in an unsorted order.

3. Reflecting Adding value to your ideas by including your own evaluation.

When you write

4. Organising Sorting your ideas into a pattern that answers the assignment.

5. Drafting Writing out your first draft, which will be full of faults.

6. Polishing Editing and proof reading your draft to produce a final version.

After you write

7. Checking Scanning over your final copy for omissions and errors.

This 7-stage process is not linear. You will have more than one draft.

I suggest you see the process as a spiral: yes, it progresses in one direction towards a final

goal, but it sometimes twists and turns and repeats certain steps. These are your resources:

1. The Notes work through the stages of PMA writing, from planning to checking.

2. The Extracts offer three example PMAs (good, OK and poor) with commentaries.

3. The Moodle area on Academic Writing gives further resources and links.

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Planning

The famous scientist Louis Pasteur said that “chance only favours the prepared mind”. Once

a module is finished, the temptation is to abandon the subject for a while and leave the

PMA for less busy times. You may indeed have to delay the writing, as you have other

modules or PMAs demanding your time. But always take the first short step of planning as

soon as you know your assignment. Check out the question (or questions) you have to

answer; put them in your mind. You will be surprised how you will then see ‘answers’ to the

question as you study and read completely different material. An item in a newspaper, on

the TV, from another module, or in talking with your friends, will suddenly be relevant. The

previous week you may have ignored that item; now it yells ‘read me!’

Look at your diary and start to plan when and where you will do your reading and writing.

We are all optimists, believing that we can achieve something more quickly than is actually

likely. You may be able to estimate how much you will write in a week, but you will not be

able to foresee the interruptions that will throw this plan off course: the last minute

invitation to go out with your friends, your need for an extra hour (or six!) of sleep, your

delay in finding the right book in the library. You will also have demands from your

dissertation, and leaving that until your modules are completed is a certain path to disaster.

Your first step, therefore, is to draw up a checklist based on the question set in the

assignment. To do this, look at the tool “Analysing the PMA question”. This defines PMA as

Parts, Matters and Action. That is, what parts are there in the assignment? What really

matters in the question? And what actions or activities do you have to do – for example,

what is the difference between a request to analyse as opposed to one to describe?

Assignments can be very different, so working out what is required is vital. Store a ‘PMA’

plan away in your mind and schedule writing times in your diary.

The words used to describe the task you have to do (analyse, evaluate, justify...) can be very

exact. If English is not your first language – and even if it is – the differences between these

words can be difficult to discern. Yet tutors do make distinctions. If you are in doubt, check

with your tutor as some tutors will review work in advance of its submission.

At MSc level there is a big emphasis on critical or analytical writing compared with

descriptive writing. In descriptive writing you are asked to list (maybe in depth) the aspects

of a problem or process. You will be given marks for your knowledge, for your organisation

of your material and the clarity with which you express it. In analytical or critical writing, you

need to take a further step. You need to evaluate the relevance of this knowledge to the

question asked, making your own judgements on what is appropriate based on the evidence

you have researched. You need to evaluate and not simply describe. So the task of planning

is to determine the exact question, or questions, and the actions you must take to answer it.

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Analysing the PMA question

As soon as you can, PMA your PMA! Using P for parts, M for matters and A for action, think

very carefully about the question set. This sounds obvious, and it is. But a few minutes spent

creating a written checklist will help you to focus on what your tutor wants rather than what

you find interesting to include!

This can be a purely mental exercise, but writing it out makes you think more deeply and

gives you something at the final editing stage that ensures you have answered the question.

Parts How many parts are there in the PMA? How many words are required for

each, and what does that imply for your schedule? If you allow no more than 10% for the

Introduction and 10% for the Conclusion, how many words do you need? Where does the

balance of the marks lie and what do you have to include or exclude?

Matters What matters most in the question? Underline the keywords to form a

checklist that you can use throughout your writing. Those who set assignment questions

write them very carefully; each word matters.

Action What actions are required? Does the question want you to analyse the

situation or only describe it? Do you have to justify your choices or evaluate them?

The University of Leicester has a very helpful list that explains the meaning of action words:

Analyse, Assess, Clarify, Comment upon, Compare, Consider, Contrast, Critically evaluate,

Define, Demonstrate, Describe, Discuss, Elaborate, Evaluate, Examine, Explain, Explore, Give

an account of, Identify, Illustrate, Interpret, Justify, Outline, Review, Show how, State.

http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/essay-terms.

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Mapping

Do not head for the library straight away! Start by writing down all that you already know

about the subject. How would you now, before doing any further reading, answer the

assignment? This process will help you in two ways:

1. It will sort out what you do and do not know! It will raise questions for which you

need answers. Put question marks on your notes; take your list to the library.

2. For an MSc, writing is not simply repeating all you can discover about a subject. Yes,

content is important in showing you understand the subject, but your tutors are

looking for your own conclusions as well. If you jump straight into books from the

library, these will easily overwhelm your own thinking. As books are written by

experts, their thinking – so you argue – will be better than yours. However, every

book or journal article comes with its own background and this may not fit 100% the

questions of your assignment. Record your own ideas now, before they are lost.

Once you have your own mind map, create another based on the books and articles you

read. See the tool on “Mind mapping”. The trick is to make notes as you discover topics. Do

not try very hard, at this stage, to get the subject organised in your mind. I prefer using mind

mapping software such as MindJet or XMind because it allows me to collect my ideas

completely at random and only at the end sort them into an order than makes sense for

writing. The structure you see in these notes only appeared after I had noted down all my

thoughts. As I write now, I am following a mind map that was once a complete jumble, but

which I gradually sorted into a logical order. The map below is for the PMA in the extracts.

As you note things down in your map, make sure you carefully record where you found the

information. Do not waste time just before you have to submit your PMA hunting down a

lost reference in the library. I like to use free reference management software such as

Mendeley. Remember to look for good quality sources of evidence, for journal articles and

recent books rather than Wikipedia and blogs. And if you find a quotation that beautifully

summarises an important point, make sure you record it in your notes with quotation marks

around it (and record the page number from the source). This will prevent you mistaking,

much later, a quotation for your own work, and so inserting the exact words of the author

into your PMA without acknowledgement. If you do, this is plagiarism, however unintended.

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Mind maps

A mind map is a graphical approach to making notes. You start with a central idea (such as

the title of an assignment or chapter in a dissertation) and add ideas as they occur to you.

The important point is to allow ideas to arise freely, record them immediately, and only

later re-order them into groups or the linear structure necessary for writing.

Mind maps can be drawn on paper, on whiteboards or with computers. Software has the

advantage that you can easily move topics around to group them under similar themes. A

free, easy-to-use software is XMind from xmind.net. The University provides the excellent

MindJet software which has better export to Word features than Xmind.

The above shows a mind map (using XMind) for an assignment called IT Security in SMEs.

The map shows four sections within the assignment, and one of these sections has been

expanded to show its individual topics. These sub-points become, eventually, paragraphs.

The other sections (UK Legislation, Security standards, Cost of security failures) are shown as

closed nodes, allowing work on just one theme at a time. These themes are shown linked to

the central idea, but when creating a map you can also add ‘free floating’ themes that are

initially unlinked. The place and hierarchy of ideas and topics can be readily changed.

Once you have grouped your topics, you can change the structure to represent the logical

order of the assignment you want to write. In XMind you can set the structure to be a tree

based on the central idea.

Here, the map has been re-structured as

a tree. Notes have also been added to

the points under “Reasons for security

breaches”, as shown by the small icons.

The note editor for each topic can be

used to create topic sentences (the first

sentence in any paragraph). The map

can be exported with these topic

sentences displayed. This, then, forms

the structure: you have moved from

your creative ideas to an order for your

text.

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What is a reliable source?

Information can come from a variety of sources. But you are expected to focus mainly on reliable ones. If the star rating (see below) falls below 4 , you may still use the material but justify your use of it, e.g. by quoting survey but recognising its commercial bias.

Articles in journals that have been peer reviewed – i.e. the article was checked by other experts before being accepted for publication. Lose a or even if the article is rather dated for the subject matter, e.g. over 5 years for internet-related subjects or other fast-moving industries.

Books from academic publishers. These are usually written by experts, who are authorities in their field. But check the date as publishing takes time so even recent books may give dated material.

Government sites or reports from leading authoritative internet sites (e.g. the sans.org site on internet security). Some governments, however, may not give a complete or unbiased viewpoint.

Reputable encyclopaedias and dictionaries, such as Encyclopaedia Britannica. These are really just reference books on-line and you should give the name of the expert writing the article you quote. Not all reference sites are created equal: be careful.

Conference papers. The research may be right up- to-date, and so scores well for this reason, but since it has not been peer reviewed you have no additional, independent check on its accuracy or soundness.

Specialist, high-quality magazines (off-line or on-line) such as The Economist or New Scientist. These are not reliable, academic sources but are usually trustworthy because they work in an environment where good research is essential. But do try to track down the references cited in the article and read the sources behind the magazine article. Otherwise, refer to their content using “The popular magazine ______ claims....”

White papers or web sites produced by commercial or trade organisations. These may contain good research material, but you may not know the commercial bias underlying their findings. For example, a manufacturer of virus checking software can benefit from scary stories of poor IT security. So use the material, but point out its commercial nature. Similarly, papers or web sites from pressure groups or campaign sites may contain good research material, but you don’t know their bias. For example, Green Peace have a view of nuclear energy that others do not share and may present their viewpoint with insufficient balance.

On-line news or magazine articles from named authors. These could be reliable, but unless the author is a respected name in that subject (usually as they have written many books in the area) they can’t be known to be reliable. So the rating depends on the author, their history and their commercial involvement.

On-line sites of quality newspapers, e.g. The Times or The Guardian. These may be reporting reliable research such as opinion polls, but often the articles are anonymous and may be biased in order to make them exciting. These sources can be reporting more reliable sources, e.g. The Times may report a comment in Hansard, which are official government proceedings; in which case quote the true source and say “cited in….”.

Informal talks with members of staff, including your supervisor. He/she may be an expert in their field (or they may be talking outside of their expertise), but you may have heard incorrectly or taken an off-the-cuff comment. Information from supervisors should be critically assessed, rather than simply accepted! Of course, you may be able to trace your tutor’s comments back to the article or book they wrote on the very subject! But that then becomes your source rather than the informal conversation. The content may be the same, but a published source can be checked by your reader and has its own, established authority.

Wikipedia or other sites that can be edited by anyone, anonymously. The article may have been edited by the world authority on the subject, but you don’t know this! Wikipedia can be an excellent starting point to gain understanding and initial references, but don’t quote it in your dissertation!

Blogs, e-mails, on-line rants, other students…. Learn all you can from others, but confirm what you learn from other sources that are more reliable.

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Reflecting

You will only scrape a pass if your PMA simply repeats what you have read or heard in class.

If you want better marks, you should reflect on what you are reading. “Reflect, not just

repeat” should be your motto. This approach is what is known as ‘being critical’.

Critical thinking does not mean that you are dismissive of what you read, in the way you

may be critical of your friend’s views on politics! It means that you consider the relevance of

what you have read to the question or practical situation posed in your PMA. You may have

found a brilliant journal article, but realise it was addressing the situation in another country

(say the US rather than the UK), or it may be out of date, or not be from an academic

source. By being critical you are not rejecting the source’s message, but explaining its

relevance to the particular issues or context that you have been asked to consider.

You may also find that different sources have differing views of the same subject. They may

not disagree (and if they do, your PMA should balance the strengths and weaknesses of

both views), but they may offer different perspectives. The important task of synthesis is to

compare and contrast these views. Again, you are not setting one author against another, as

though there is a ‘battle for the truth’. But you may be highlighting the omissions of one

author compared with another, or discussing how a newer article updates an old, or listing

in a summary table how authors have different words or phrases for the very same issues.

Should you record your own opinions? Yes. However, your opinions must be based on what

you have read and not on wild guesses. Think of it as a pyramid, where your own

conclusions are at the apex, but they rest on layers of researched evidence by others. So, for

example, you may think that IT security by owners of home computers is terrible. Say so,

but you can only write this after you have quoted the most recent figures from security

surveys, and (if possible) from a survey carried out in the country you are discussing and by

a reliable source rather than the biased views of a company selling anti-virus software.

These views – your own opinions – should be stated cautiously and you should use the third

person rather than “I think that....” For example, on the issue of home computer security

you might conclude, after quoting a couple of surveys, “This research indicates that

attention to IT security is poor. Furthermore, this problem appears to be worsening in the

UK rather than getting better as the use of the internet and downloaded software becomes

more common.” Using gentle words such as indicates and appears is known as ‘hedging’;

academic writing is never arrogantly certain. Yet you should have a conclusion from what

you have read, and you should give it. Do not leave the research to speak for itself: say how

it is relevant to the questions you are facing in your assignment. In summary, do not just

write down what you have discovered, but always add an element of so what? that relates it

to your question and the situation the question addresses.

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Mind maps are excellent for grouping ideas. But two things more are required:

1. Reasons and evidence What you say in PMAs must be based upon evidence. You

will not have time to conduct your own practical research (but you will when you do

your dissertation) so you need to rely on good literature. I suggest that for every

node on your mind map you add a note that includes the reason(s) and evidence for

what you are saying. Almost every mind map node needs a ‘because...’ to back it up.

2. Central message and flow As you move around your mind map clockwise, the main

branches of the map will become your written sections. But what links one topic to

its neighbour, and what links one branch of topics to the next? You are attempting to

answer a question, and so your material should be ordered to answer that question,

step by step. Each main branch in your mind map is a step towards the answer.

Try the following on a blank piece of paper:

1. Summarise your PMA question at the top of the page.

2. At the bottom, write your answer in only one or two sentences. Brevity is important

as you are trying to express your key belief, claim or message.

3. Divide the space in between into two with a vertical line.

4. In the left-hand column write the points you intend to make.

5. Between each point put one of the following words:

a. And/ Or – the next point is another point that needs to be made, either

adding to the description or presenting an alternative viewpoint.

b. But – the next point expresses a weakness or limitation in what has so far

been said; perhaps the evidence is weak or unconvincing in some way.

c. So –the next point explores the importance or value of this information as a

step in answering the PMA question. If the step only provides a partial

answer, the So explains why the next section is required in your search for a

complete answer. This point becomes your section conclusion.

6. In the right-hand column note down your reasons and evidence for each statement

you have written on the left. This is your Because column.

If most of your statements are joined with Ands and Ors, then your work may be too

descriptive. If there are no Buts, you may not be tackling the limitations of your evidence. If

there are no Sos, then you are not drawing conclusions or evaluating how each piece of

information you collect is leading to your answer to the PMA question.

The message that you create at step 2 is very important. This will be your guide all the way

through your writing. This is your ‘thesis’. When eventually you come to write your

introduction, you may include this text to tell your reader clearly what you intend to show

or claim in your PMA. Alternatively, if your PMA is more exploratory, it becomes your

conclusion at the end. So, you either state your thesis/message and then justify your belief

that it is true, or set yourself an initial question and conclude with your thesis as the answer.

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Critical thinking

You will get marks for thinking and writing critically. Critical thinking is the step beyond

simply understanding what you have read (secondary data) and found in your own research

(primary data). It is a considered and justified evaluation of another’s work and of your own.

It is essential.

Being ‘critical’ never means being negative about the authors you read ("This author is

stupid!"), nor does it necessarily mean that you disagree with what the author says. Your

focus is not on the author but on their ideas and arguments. ‘Criticism’ is learning from a

source, yes, but also finding its strengths and weaknesses and evaluating its relevance for

your own argument. This is far more than repeating what it says: you are making a CASE.

C: comprehension – explaining what a journal paper or source says

A: analysis – highlighting strengths and weaknesses of the paper’s points

S: synthesis – comparing/contrasting the paper with others to form a perspective

E: evaluation – explaining the importance of the paper for your own argument

The above is a shortened version of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning, but in a memorable

form. The mnemonic "CASE" is a good one as you use sources to form an argument, to make

your own case. If, for instance, you decide to delay work on your PMA to take the weekend

off, you make a reasoned case to justify your action: relaxation, you argue, will refresh your

mind, you need to be with your friends, and the ailing British economy needs your

shopping.... Similarly, your assignment is an argument that answers a question. The sources

you read are elements in the case you make. A useful mnemonic for some of the critical

questions you can ask of a source is:

Ageing Analysis: How old is the source? Is it still relevant today?

Academics Analysis: Is it from an academic source, one that is trustworthy?

Abroad Analysis: What is the country/culture/group? How does this differ to mine?

Always Analysis: Do the paper’s results or conclusions apply in all situations?

Assume Analysis: Are the assumptions good, giving valid and reliable results?

Alternative Synthesis: Are there other views of the same topic to compare or contrast?

Arguments Evaluation: How strong, then, is this argument? Is it convincing? Advance Evaluation: If so, does it advance or contradict my research?

Answers Evaluation: Does this answer my research question and my objectives?

In your writing, you should clearly state your views, produce evidence, and explain how this

evidence supports your argument. A key work is Toulmin’s 1958 Uses of Argument, and

Internet searches will lead you to further explanations and examples. Your critical thinking is

expressed in how you select and arrange your sources (the structure of your writing; your

pattern for organising your material), and in how you analyse and synthesise their contents.

Examples of the 9 As of critical thinking

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Ageing Analysis: How old is the source? Is it still relevant today?

“Even before the Internet era, human error in handling IT was common

(Floppie and Virus, 1993). Technology may change, but human error remains.”

Academics Analysis: Is it from an academic source, one that is trustworthy?

“The company McAfee claims that 17% of home computers have no protection

from virus attacks (McAfee, 2012). However, as suppliers of anti-virus

products, these claims require confirmation before they can be considered.”

Abroad Analysis: What is the country/culture/group? How does this differ to mine?

“The existence of security policies appears to correlate, negatively, with

security breaches (Graphit, 2006). This research, however, was conducted in

large companies and may not be directly relevant to small UK businesses.”

Always Analysis: Do the paper’s results or conclusions apply in all situations?

“The study by Neverlie (2005) was conducted with only a small group (N = 25)

of students. The results, then, may not be representative SME employees.”

Assume Analysis: Are the assumptions good, giving valid and reliable results?

“However, this survey recognised that the self-reporting nature of its sample

gave a bias towards responses from companies with access to professional IT

security services.”

Alternative Synthesis: Are there other views of the same topic to compare or contrast?

“Similar research in the US indicates that the problem is due to a lack of

security training (Teacher, 2008). This contradicts the UK study cited above. A

possible reason for this discrepancy may be that ...”

Arguments Evaluation: How strong, then, is this argument? Is it convincing? “In conclusion, the literature reviewed in this report has demonstrated that

security has a human as well as a technological dimension.”

Advance Evaluation: If so, does it advance or contradict the point I want to make?

“Human error is a common cause of IT breaches (Password, 2008 and Hackit,

2006). This supports the view that more attention should be focused on the

human dimension of IT security.”

Answers Evaluation: Does this answer my question and my argument?

“This study is particular relevant as it discusses small businesses in the UK, where it

shows the significance of human error in IT security.”

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Organising

Your mind map, whether it be in software or hand-drawn on a sheet of paper, is not in a

suitable form as a structure for writing. Ideas are scattered all over your map. They need to

be organised, so you need to do two things:

1. Group your ideas together into a pattern. This pattern is your own creation. There is

no right and wrong answer, only a grouping of ideas that you think best responds to

the assignment question. To take a personal example, you can sort your MP3 or

iTunes music collection alphabetically by the title of the songs or by names of the

artists, by the different genres of music, by history (so you can play all those great

70s numbers together), by popularity, by.... You decide what you want. What you

should not do in your PMA is expect your tutor to accept all your ideas in shuffle

mode, where each topic has no bearing to the one before or to the one after.

2. Re-order the pattern you have created so that it works in a linear order – that is,

your ideas are not only in categories, but the order of these categories makes sense

as well. Unsurprisingly, these notes start with advice on planning through to the final

checking. Returning to the music example, if you grouped your music by history,

then it is logical that 60s music would precede your 70s collection. The order is your

own creation, imposed on the material you have collected.

Some natural orders may emerge from the subject itself; for example, a discussion on the

Internet would consider Web 1.0 before Web 2.0, and an assignment on business processes

might consider problems arising along the length of the supply chain. Within any one

category, you may also want to create sub-categories. The result is a tree structure, much

like the file structure on a computer. You create top-level subjects (which will become your

assignment parts) and within these sub-groupings (which become your sections). Inside

each section will be topics, and each of these will eventually turn into a written paragraph.

Your decision on the structure is an important part of ‘critical writing’. The way you group

things together, and the order you present them, reflects the main points you are trying to

make. Imagine a friend from home is visiting you in the University. What places do you show

him or her first? And what would this tell your friend about your interests? A visit to all the

bars and cafes says something different to a tour of IMC and the library!

Although the pattern or structure you use is yours, there are some classic ways of organising

your material. See the tool on “Writing frameworks”. However, PMAs come in many

different flavours: some require one part of 5,000 words, others ask many (shorter)

questions. It is impossible, then, for me to give you a structure that fits all. If you can explain

(to yourself) why one section follows another, and why your PMA would not make sense if

you left that section out, then you probably have a structure that works.

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Author by author

One rule, however, is important. In scientific writing you should focus on the ideas rather

than the authors of those ideas. Ideas are your building blocks, supported by references to

authors who discuss those ideas. This may be different to, say, a history course where

important beliefs are linked to particular authors and where beginning a sentence with the

author’s name is sensible. In scientific writing you usually need to avoid paragraphs that

start, “According to X....” Make your PMA and exploration of ideas, not a group photo of

professors.

This switch from authors to ideas is important. You may collect your material author-by-

author; you write your assignment by grouping those authors under themes and then

discussing the themes as supported by your sources. The diagrams below show this change.

On the left is a structure that gives the views of one author, followed by another, and then

another. On the right is a re-working of the same material into three themes, with each

theme supported by different authors.

Starting a sentence with the author’s name can sometimes be appropriate. He or she may

be the authority behind a whole way of thinking, so referring to the author captures this. For

example, DeLone and McLean have done extensive work on IT success, and people refer to

the “D&M model”. Secondly, you may want to draw attention to the weakness of the

authority, as in “McAfee, a commercial anti-virus software producer, claims that...”, which

highlights their potential commercial bias. You may also start with an author’s name in

order to vary your style once you have already established the theme you want to discuss.

So I am not inventing an unchangeable rule here, just giving warning that paragraphs after

paragraphs that begin “According to...” are sure signs of writing not focused on the topic.

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Writing frameworks and how they add value

The selection of your material, the order in which you present it, the viewpoint you take, all

these form the framework that is unique to you. This is the outlook you impose on your

sources in order to create order out of the academic papers you have read. Patrick

Dunleavy, in his helpful Authoring a PhD (Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003), believes there are

three structures for ordering source material: descriptive, analytical and argumentative.

A descriptive approach merely records what you have discovered in the order in

which you encountered it. For example, as I walk into a room I could note down all

that I see as my eyes scan the contents from left to right.

An argumentative approach might explore differing opinions on the use of the room.

For example, as a teacher I might discuss the room’s usefulness for group work while

my students take a different perspective and want to upgrade the technology.

An analytical approach groups source material into categories. For example, instead

of simple listing the room’s contents, I could first discuss the design of the room

(“large windows; wooden floor...”), then its contents (“tables and chairs; video

projector; computer...”), and then its decor. The categories I choose are mine, for my

purposes.

A descriptive approach is seldom sufficient for an MSc as the framework comes from the

source itself rather than springing from my own creativity. For example, I might describe a

business by following its organisational tree or the adoption of a technology by its history,

year by year. The weakness is that this structure shows little of my own thinking.

There may be different viewpoints for me to highlight, weigh and then pronounce

judgement upon. If there are, they form a natural ‘argumentative’ structure. I can – and

must – compare and contrast the different views. The temptation, which should be resisted,

is to work though the subject author by author: A says X, B says Y. Unless the authors

represent large schools of thought, it is always better to work though topic by topic,

illustrating each by citing authors. Re-order paragraphs that begin, “According to...” so that

you start with the topic.

The analytical approach is a common solution. Here I look for a way of categorising my

material, grouping it into themes that are of relevance to my research question. But mere

categorising is not enough: the categories should be related to the viewpoint I am trying to

establish. So, if I describe the furniture in a room according to certain categories, it is

because this will give an insight into the question I am addressing. If my question is, “Is the

room suitable for teaching?”, then discussing the layout of the tables and chairs, looking at

the available technology in order to assess its educational use, and so forth, is sensible.

What, then, are some of the frameworks I might impose on my material? The following

images and frameworks do not comprise a comprehensive list, but are examples.

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There are three possible focal points: components (what elements or parts are there in your

topic?), comparisons (how does my topic or approach compare with others?), causes (what

makes things happen in the subject I’m discussing?). If you mix these focal points you get

some frameworks, and the diagram below illustrates these. The remainder of this tool

describes these frameworks, starting bottom right and moving clockwise.

Components. You can describe the elements or parts of any topic, and they may all be

equally important. If it is an industrial process (and so cause/effect comes into the

description) then you can talk through the steps in the process. Alternatively, moving

towards comparisons, you can not only describe the components of your topic but gradually

focus on the most important, perhaps moving from the general to the specific. For example,

on IT security I might start with an overall picture of IT security, but quickly focus on human

failures as this is (for me) the most important problem. One approach is to narrow down;

another is to highlight as you go the most important aspects. You can also use well-known

structures to group your material, such as SWOT or PESTLE.

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If my literature is extensive, I may be trying to detect patterns among many journal articles.

For example, in the many papers on e-commerce success, what are the common factors

that make people buy? The structure here is one of synthesis, and these sections usefully

include a table or mind map that groups common views (with citations) together. Don’t be

afraid of drawing the pattern!

If I have a number of points to make, I can order them according to positive and negative or

advantages and disadvantages. These sections can be handled in two ways: do you list all

the advantages of one approach and then discuss the disadvantages in a later section? Or do

you work though each sub-topic, giving the advantages and disadvantages of each? There’s

no rule here, but the second approach of topic-by-topic interleaved with comparisons is

usually the easier to read.

I may compare two or more ideas or two or more authors, without making any judgement

on which is better. Comparisons find the similarities; contrasts look for the differences. I

may highlight their overlap; I may prefer one approach and conclude that one may be

preferable to another.

Then if I am mixing comparisons and causes (moving around the triangle), I may be trying to

discern have a number of factors – or so-called critical success factors – and my aim is to

evaluate (compare) which factors have the most impact. It may be good to express my

writing as a problem (or opportunity), propose a solution and then see if there are solutions

that fit.

A cause-effect section could trace the effects of a cause or analyse the effects to deduce the

underlying cause. Cause and effect looks at agency whereas comparison looks at

components.

However, you may not be able to speak of cause and effect, but only of the relationship

between two effects. Causes can be identified as necessary and sufficient, as remote and

proximate, or as influences acting on other causes. Remember that correlation is not the

same as cause.

These frameworks are useful as ways of organising your material. They relate to what you

are doing with your ideas, not the content of the idea itself. But you should make your

reader aware of what you are trying to do. The following are some example sentences:

“This section compares business models for two companies....”

E-commerce relies on the a number of critical success factors and this section explores...”

“From the above discussion, the similarities between X and Y are clear...”

“The advantages and disadvantages of this approach are shown in table 4...”

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Drafting

Once you have your pattern sorted, you can start to write. But you are only writing a first

draft, so expect it to have many faults. If you try to construct perfectly formed sentences

right from the start, you may suffer ‘writer’s block’. Instead, write quickly, and allow

ungrammatical, over-lengthy and confusing sentences. No one else is going to read this!

You may notice a strange thing. As you write, you become clearer in what you want to say.

The pattern of your ideas becomes more pronounced; you may suddenly see that in all your

topics you really only have three (or whatever) ideas that are important. This is normal and

this is why I find writing a first draft so very, very helpful. I often go back and adjust my

structure in the light of what I discovered as I wrote. Writing is circular or, rather, spiral. You

are making progress, but you may well visit earlier steps in the process.

The structure of your mind map becomes the structure of your writing. As already

mentioned, in grouping your ideas you are deciding on the main sections in your

assignment. If your assignment has two questions, you will have two clear parts, each

divided into sections. Give your parts and sections straightforward but expressive headings,

and relate the parts to the PMA question(s). Headings are useful guides to the reader: so

Part 1 and Part 2 are not very helpful, whereas Part 1: Security through technology and Part

2: Security and issues of management guide the reader on their contents.

Learning to use an academic style is also important. This document is not in an academic

style. I address you as you; the text is peppered with I’s; there are few citations of sources in

the text; I use contractions (i.e. words such as “don’t” rather than “do not”). Learning to use

an academic style is a subject in itself, and I refer you to a book such as Stephen Bailey’s

Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, Abingdon: Routledge. Again,

though, you do not have to get this right for your first draft. Put your ideas down, and then

go back over what you have written to remove all personal statements that use “I” or “my”.

The building blocks of writing are your paragraphs. Your overall assignment needs a

structure, and so does each paragraph. Your approach can vary from paragraph to

paragraph, but the usual format is to:

1. State in simple terms the topic the paragraph discusses (the ‘topic sentence’);

2. Explain the topic with reference to research as evidence and by using examples;

3. Wrap up with a target sentence that concludes the point you are making.

Look at the tool on “Paragraphs”, which uses a mnemonic to help you remember the parts.

STREET stands for Signpost, Topic, Research, Explanation, Example, Target.

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Paragraphs

Paragraphs are the building blocks of any writing. With them you can construct an impressive and beautiful dissertation. However, like building blocks, they need to be ‘cemented’ together if your argument is to hold. Another image is that a document is like a city and the paragraphs are its streets. Just as streets lead in a particular direction, so paragraphs should lead the reader, too. Streets are grouped together in areas, which often take on particular characteristics (e.g. a shopping district or housing suburb), and paragraphs should be grouped into sections, each with their own theme.

A useful mnemonic for the structure of a paragraph is STREET.

Sign – A paragraph should contain early signs for the direction of the argument. Does this paragraph contrast with or conclude the one before? Does it extend the same point, or illustrate it or move on to something new? Short words and phrases guide the reader: see the separate tool on “Signposts”. Streets in a city join to each other, so at the end of a paragraph and the beginning of the next there should be transition words or phrasing to link the two. This may be the repetition of a word (or near equivalent) or the use of however, similarly, and so on. One idea, expressed in one paragraph, should be tied to the next.

Topic – The first sentence of a paragraph should state what the paragraph is about. You should be able to read only the first sentence of every paragraph in an assignment or dissertation and still have a good idea of its content. Topic sentences in scientific writing are usually about the ideas rather than references to the authors expressing those ideas.

Research – The points in academic arguments need to be backed up by research. Rather than begin a paragraph with “According to author X,....”, it will be clearer to use a topic sentence and then go on to detail the research that backs up your topic.

Explanation – The topic will need further explanation. This may be a summary of the key points of the research, a paraphrase of its argument, or an exploration of its relevance to one of the dissertation’s objectives.

Example – Topic sentences may be too abstract, and an example will often help the reader.

Target – The paragraph should end with a sentence that ‘wraps up’ the topic.

STREET is only a mnemonic for the elements of a paragraph and not a rule or a strict order. So an example may well appear before the reference to the research. There may not even be an example, or there could be many. But a paragraph will need a topic sentence, ideas will need evidence through research sources, and the importance or relevance of this research will need explanation. And, finally, you need to wrap up before moving on to your next point. Listen to the main evening news on BBC TV. This, too, has a standard, repetitive structure. Each item begins with a topic sentence, one or more explanatory statements and then, “As our correspondent reports....” Each item is clearly focused, one issue at a time.

Each new paragraph, however, should start a fresh idea. Never sum up a paragraph in the topic sentence of the next. Glance briefly backwards, maybe, but walk down a new street.

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2.4 Reasons for security breaches

Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) increasingly

rely on their IT infrastructure, but they may have

limited understanding of all the security threats they

face. For some, IT security only means having a

firewall and updating their antivirus software.

Although the annual CSI Computer Crime and

Security Survey confirms that external threats such as

viruses, theft, fraud and hacking are still prevalent,

they also make clear that measures against such

threats must be coupled with security awareness

through staff training (CSI, 2010). Park et al (2008)

similarly believe that maintaining a company’s

security requires a holistic approach that operates at

four levels: organizational level, workflow level,

information level, and technical level. It is not

sufficient to focus solely on technology and ignore

the people using it.

In fact, the importance of the human dimension to

security is confirmed through empirical research. An

analysis of IT security breaches found that they

occurred through deliberate attacks, through failures

of systems and software, and through human errors

(Whitman, 2004). This research particularly

highlighted the large numbers of security issues that

arose from employee mistakes. Although based on US

companies of varying sizes, it is reasonable to

conclude that this finding also applies to the UK:

employee errors present a threat equally important

alongside technical failures and deliberate hacking.

This recognition of human frailty may be particularly

significant for smaller companies. A recent survey

(InfoSecurity, 2010) by the organisers of a UK-based

security exhibition discovered that staff-related

incidents were in fact the most common security

breach. Employee misuse of web access and e-mail

were frequently mentioned. However, this survey

recognised that the self-reporting nature of its

sample gave a bias towards responses from

companies with access to professional IT security

services. This implies that for small companies the

security situation may be worse because they may

not be able to draw on such advice. Research among

non-IT managers in SMEs may reveal an even poorer

level of security awareness.

Example paragraphs with commentary

The overall subject is security within UK SMEs, so these key

words run through the section. Sections should have short,

clear titles that are numbered. The sub-heading is in a larger

font, but as a sub-heading it is close to the text below.

A helpful Example follows the opening Topic sentence.

Every paragraph on this page begins with a topic sentence

that pushes the argument along:

- SMEs rely on IT but have limited understanding.

- The human dimension to security is confirmed by research.

- Human error is particularly significant in SMEs.

Research evidence for points made is always cited. Here,

multiple views are linked (synthesis) using similarly.

The final sentence moves from technology to people as this

is the way the argument is moving. This final sentence sums

up (Targets) the paragraph’s point.

The next opening Topic sentence picks up on people in the

previous paragraph (via human) and implies continuity from

before with is confirmed. The In fact links indicates the flow.

Again, Research is cited to explore the topic.

The analysis of the research picks out the relevant point

required for the argument. However, its US base is noted as

the results may not be transferrable to UK SMEs.

The next Topic sentence is linked to the previous paragraph

with this and errors + frailty. The overall Subject of small

companies is mentioned in order to maintain the focus but

there is a narrowing of focus with particularly.

The Research contains many fascinating results, but the text

only refers to those relevant for the argument. Since the

report is not an academic journal, it is described as it could

have commercial bias.

There is an Example/Explanation of ‘staff-related incidents’

and analysis of the limitations of the survey.

The text Explains the implications (evaluation) for the

dissertation’s research question. The necessity for further

research within SMEs is suggested.

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Polishing

I have encouraged you to draft quickly and repetitively. With word processing software you

can easily revise and polish. Think of yourself as an artist sculpting a statue: you cut out the

rough shape, and then gradually chip, chisel and polish until you have your masterpiece.

In polishing, you not only improve your English expression, but you focus on guiding your

reader through your text. By this point, you know what the subject is all about and how your

text is structured. However, your tutor, coming fresh to your script, does not. You need,

therefore, to add in signposts to guide him or her along the way. Adding these signposts,

which are both visual and written, may seem laborious. But you know already what your

text says; your tutor does not. So once you have written your text, go back over it, asking

yourself how you can add signs that guide your reader. The reader needs to know if the next

point confirms or contradicts the one before, and so on. This signposting is an additional

step; most writers seldom bother to add signposts in their first draft.

Signposts are of two types.

1. The first type of signpost relates to your paragraphs. Revisit the tool on “Paragraphs” and note how the S stands for signs. Signs are words or phrases at the start of your paragraphs that link paragraphs together, indicating whether you are going to say more on the same subject or you are starting a different point. For example, the paragraph you are now reading begins, “The first type...”. So you know you are in a list, and that you have only reached the first point. The next paragraph begins, “The second...” Simple. But if the second point below were to begin with “However...” you would know that this point is somehow different to the one before, offering a contradiction or qualification to what you had just read. Signs show your argument.

2. The second signposts are structural ones. Make sure you have an Introduction and Conclusion – see the tools on writing these. Your Introduction gives the reader a reason to read your assignment (it answers the all-important question of ‘why bother?’) and outlines how you will structure your answer. Your Conclusion highlights the key points you have made and stresses their importance or relevance to the question being asked. Rough guidelines give 10% of the word count to the Introduction and the Conclusion. But these are guidelines only. In sections you should describe your framework: “This section compares...”, “This section explores the problem of... and suggest a possible solution.” This may be at the start of the section or it may be better as a summary at the end: “From this discussion it appears that three key factors emerge....” You may also use very short introductions in PMAs that ask multiple questions, rather than a PMA that requires a single report of 5,000 words. For example, “For the leadership of company X, two styles of leadership have been selected, namely transformational and strategic. This section / question discusses these two styles in order to explore their practical application.” So if your answer has parts, try to introduce your structure.

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3. Along with the Introduction and Conclusion for the assignment, and mini-introductions and mini–conclusions for sections, work hard on your visual layout. Is it clear which question you are addressing, or where each part begins and ends? Use helpful headings. Open a text book you enjoy, not because of its content but because it is so beautifully laid out. How does it encourage you to read it? It is probably because the text is clearly printed, with obvious headings and sections. You can see where you are. The text has space, with places where the eye can rest. Look at the tool on “Page layout” and observe how books you like lay out their texts. You will also probably note in a clear layout that the font size of headings and sub-headings differ to indicate the importance of the heading. If the point size of your text is 12pt, then a sub-sub-heading (if you have such a thing!) should be 2pts larger (so 14pt) and a sub-head, or section heading, should be a further 2pts (so 16pt).

In summary, make sure you include: a. An Introduction that shows the part of the PMA you are answering, explains the

question you are addressing and maps out how you answer it. b. A Conclusion that summarises your key points and gives an answer. c. If your sections discuss different theories or themes, add very short section

introductions and conclusions to map out the direction you are taking. d. Link your sections – to each other and perhaps to your Introduction’s map. e. Use titles and section headings that sum up the content of that section.

The tool in Moodle on “Signposts” gives more details on both these types of signs. I also

suggest you look at well-written texts, such as the editorials in quality newspapers, and note

how one paragraph is linked to the next. There is a danger that you see writing as writing

content. No, writing is about both writing the content and guiding your reader to discover

and enjoy that content. A taxi driver not only knows a city’s streets, but can drive you there.

I admit, though, that I do not find it easy to erect these paragraph signs as I am drafting my

text. For a start, I may well re-order my material a number of times! So signposting is a task I

do when polishing my work. As an extra, additional task to writing, I check that my headings

are helpful and I look at the links and transitions between each paragraph.

Finally, you need to check your spelling and grammar. (See, there’s a paragraph transition

right there. The finally at the start of the paragraph tells you, dear tired reader, that you are

nearly through with this section.) Microsoft Word will add wavy green lines for phrases it

would love to change and red ones for spelling errors. Take note of these warnings, but do

not be bound by them. Word may want to suggest US spelling (change your in-built

dictionary setting if so) and the grammar checker may prefer you to use the active rather

than the passive voice, and this may not always be the right choice.

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Page layout

A good assignment layout not only makes the text more pleasurable to read, it also makes it

easier. If the headings clearly display a structure, and if the text is broken up into

manageable areas, your reader will be encouraged to read on.

Visual structure and headings

Use the heading styles in your word processing software. Use the “Heading 1” style (or H1)

for the assignment title, and this should be bigger than your “Heading 2” for section

headings. Headings should use short, but descriptive phrases such as IT Security in SMEs

rather than Section 2. Imagine your readers only seeing your section headings: would they

still have a good idea of your subject? Be clear which part of the PMA you are answering!

If you have sub-sections that flow over a page, consider repeating the topic of their

controlling section within these headings. So if a section talks about Key IT security

problems, then have Security problem 1: viruses, Security problem 2: fraud, and so on. This

will remind your readers that they are within a section on security problems.

The introduction for an assignment does not need a heading – the text between the title

and the first section is assumed to be introductory. However, your conclusion will need a

Conclusion or Summary heading to distinguish it from the end of your last section.

Spacing

Follow with care the University’s recommendations for line spacing, margins, headers and

footers. Do not just insert additional lines to separate sections, but set your H2 style so

there is a bigger gap above the section heading than below it: make it look as though the

section heading belongs to the section it controls. Do not be afraid of additional space

provided the space does not imply you have finished a section when you have not. There

are guidelines on word counts, but not on the number of pages.

Pacing

Try not to go more than three pages without a new section as it is very easy for readers to

forget where they are within a structure. Never, ever, have a page of solid text without a

paragraph break or some other device to create a visual rest. If the text looks dense, split it

up with a paragraph break, a bulleted list, a table or a figure – anything to break the

monotony. Zoom out with your word processing software so you can see whole pages at a

time. Then ask yourself, are there places on every page where the visual pace changes?

Graphics

Sometimes your argument can best be summed up with a graphical device. When explaining

the perspectives of a range of authors, why not show this in a table or even a mind map?

Why not outline your key points with a diagram using the handy on-line app at LucidChart or

import a SmartArt graphic . A graphical portrayal of your argument can be very helpful.

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Introductions in PMAs

Introductions are essential in your writing. While to you as the author they may seem

repetitive (since you are familiar with your text), for a reader approaching your text for the

first time they will be vital signposts for the direction you are taking.

The simplest of introductions, which is better than nothing, is no more than, “This report

discusses....” But this is merely a contents list, a map of topics, and may duplicate your table

of contents. An introduction should also say why your work addresses these topics. This why

adds an important therefore to create, “This report therefore discusses....”

A common format is to:

1. Show at the top of your page the question or part you are addressing.

2. Give the background to the problem and say why this is an important issue. It may

also be necessary to define key terms.

3. Give as text or bullet points the steps of your response or argument, e.g. “The three

key issues to be considered are therefore....”

The heart of all these options is to focus on why as well as what: why does this assignment

discuss the things that it does? It is motive and map. To use a tourism analogy, “London’s

attraction is its history. Our tour therefore starts at the ancient Tower of London and....” The

move from motive to map is important: if you can’t put a ‘therefore’ into your introduction

(even if you choose not to use that word), then you may fail to get your reader’s attention.

You generate interest by stating the problem to be solved and by briefly exploring its

background; you give clarity of direction by outlining the topics you will discuss to explore it.

Along with motive and map, you should also have a clear one-sentence message. This is

your summary of your answer to the question. You may want to state it in your introduction

(where it is known as your ‘thesis’ statement) or leave it until the final sentence of your

assignment’s conclusion. Placing it in your introduction is helpful if your assignment is an

argument for a particular viewpoint and you want your reader to be clear on the position

you want to defend from the very outset. Leaving it to the conclusion is preferred if it is your

considered outcome following a discussion of various options to solve a problem.

Introductions can also be given a lift by starting with a surprising statistic or thought-

provoking quotation. You can quote this at the outset, or include it (centred and italicised)

above your introduction. Introductions do not need a heading “Introduction” as everything

below the assignment title until the first section is regarded as introductory text. This layout

not only makes it clear that the initial text is introductory, but allows your first content

section to be numbered with .1. So if the assignment X has three sections, you neatly have

X.1, X.2 and X.3. Introductions should be around 10% of the word count.

Introductions should not be long. Check with your module tutor for their preferences!

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Conclusions in PMAs

Just as an assignment’s introduction should be more than a map of its contents, so its

conclusion should offer more than a simple re-run of what has already been said. It can be

short and to the point, it can briefly recap the key points of the argument made. But it

should give the answers to the points raised, even though these answers may only be

tentative. As with Introductions, it should take up to 10% of the word count.

In general terms an introduction starts from a broad perspective and narrows down to the

details. So, in your assignment’s introduction, you explain the overall question before you

show how you intend to answer it. However, a conclusion goes the other way, from narrow

to broad. You start with the answers found and broaden out to look at their wider

implications. A conclusion can simply answer the issues... and stop. But they are more

satisfying if they begin to open up again by looking at how the answers are important for

the original issue or problem set.

An assignment’s conclusion needs to have a sub-heading “Conclusion” to separate it from

the last section of content. A conclusion should briefly, in two or three sentences, recap the

main points made in the assignment. You may then want to show how these answer, maybe

only partially, the question of the assignment. If introductions handle motive and map, then

conclusions address memories and meaning.

Along with memories and meaning, you should also have a clear one-sentence message.

This is your summary of your answer to the question. A satisfactory ending to a conclusion is

to use this message as a final sentence that

sums up the thrust of your case,

uses some of the words from the original assignment title to show its relevance to

the question set.

For example, if the assignment question was to ‘Explain how you would use leadership

theories to provide the quality of leadership to make company X successful again’, then your

final message sentence might be, “By adopting transformation and strategic leadership

styles, the directors of company X will become more effective and so be able to direct the

company towards success in the future.” Your final sentence should not be an exact replica

of the question, but should echo some of the words it uses. Your assignment’s question +

title and your conclusion’s final sentence then become the covers that encapsulate your

argument.

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Checking

You now have a polished text. But I hope you have also allowed a couple of hours for a final

check through. You need to perform a number of important tasks:

1. Check your planning list – the list you made right at the outset that shows you the

key ideas from the question that you must address. Tick them off as they arise in

your assignment. Have you answered all that matters in the question, have you

included the right documents with your PMA, and have you divided your answer

according to the parts required? It is surprising to those who mark PMAs how many

students, when asked to answer a question in two parts, only provide one!

2. Check the marking system. You will see you that you do not receive high marks for

merely descriptive writing. So, which marking band are you hitting? Can you, even at

this late stage, add some reflective comments to show that you have evaluated what

you have read and assessed its relevance to the questions asked?

3. Check the WMG guidelines that tell you how PMAs should be laid out and what they

should contain. Have you made a separate list of references? Do you have a table of

contents? Have you labelled all your tables, figures and charts?

4. Check for plagiarism. Have you inadvertently left out a citation, thereby implying

that the idea is yours? Have you quoted an author, but forgotten the quote marks?

These are all vital tasks. Ensure you have sufficient time to check your work thoroughly.

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Transform a mess into a message

With a polished and well-checked text, this brings us to the end of our 7-step journey. There

were three steps before we even start writing: planning, mapping and reflecting. Then,

when we write, we focus on organising our ideas, drafting rather than trying to write the

finished piece, and then polishing our initial ideas into a masterpiece. But we’ll make

mistakes, and so the final step is to check over what we have done.

We’ve concentrated on the journey, but along the way there have been important principles

that have emerged. What are the most critical principles that can help you write a better

PMA? What is the Conclusion to this piece of writing?

I think there are three key principles in writing a PMA:

1. Answer the question asked rather than writing about what you know.

2. Guide the reader through your text as well as giving the reader content

3. Evaluate rather than simply describe.

By taking the first letter of each of these, you get A G and E. Now if you think your PMA is a

MESS, then adding AGE will turn it into a MESSAGE. And this is what good writing at MSc

level is all about: crafting a message of value rather than simply describing a topic.

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An example of writing: from description to evaluation

Imagine the assignment: “Critically discuss the factors required for successful on-line shopping.”

In researching different factors, ‘trust’ emerges as very important. And perhaps here you may

have found a source which gives good descriptive information on trust in e-commerce. McKnight

et al. (1998) say there are 3 different aspects of trust. So, in my own words, my notes have:

Ability. This is the belief that the seller is able to provide the goods or services as purchased.

Integrity. This is the belief that the vendor is honest and the goods are of the stated quality.

Benevolence. This is the belief that the vendor has the purchaser’s interests in mind.

Let’s summarise this article (with guiding text shown below in italics) and add explanations:

Trust is multi-dimensional. McKnight et al. (1998), for example, identify three elements.

Firstly, there needs to be a belief in the ability of the seller to provide the goods or services

as purchased. The buyer must believe that the seller actually has the goods displayed on the

web site and can supply them. Secondly, the buyer has to believe in the integrity of the

vendor, that the seller is honest, the payment will be honoured and the goods are of the stated

quality. Finally, there is benevolence. This is the belief that the vendor has the purchaser’s

interests in mind and not just his own. This relates to the perceived motives of the seller and

whether or not they show concern.

Let’s now compare McKnight’s findings with other authors. This creates synthesis:

Gefen (2003) confirms these three dimensions, but also adds a fourth which he

calls predictability. This may be obtained through previous purchases derived

from trusting other buyers, through reviews on the site or in comments on social

media. On the other hand, Kim and Zhang (2014) have recently sought to simplify

the dimensions to only two: competence (from ability and reliability) and

goodwill (from integrity and benevolence). Competence relates to expectations of

service; goodwill to the motives of the vendor.

Perhaps there’s is more to say on the subject, to bring in other authors, so we may need another paragraph. But in changing our focus we start our new paragraph with However....

However, the intention to purchase is also determined by other factors and not solely by trust.

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has a long history in describing the factors

driving the use of technologies such as e-commerce. The two key factors that are said in

TAM to predict a person’s intention to use a technology are the perceived usefulness of the

technology itself and its perceived ease of use (Davis, 1989). Later authors such as Venkatesh

(2008 & 2013) add a factor of ‘social norms’. The attitudes of our friends and the widespread

use of e-commerce will create an awareness that on-line shopping is safe. Clearly linked to

this is the availability of product reviews and social media comment (Chaffey, 2012, p.112).

For example, if others have rated a restaurant highly, we may well book. The TAM

perspective, therefore, must be viewed alongside trust models as equally important.

Writing a PMA 28

© WMG 2014

OK, but what is our conclusion? How can we tie it all back to the assignment question? And

where to go next?

These two models, trust in the vendor and the quality of the technology, both play a part.

They are also interlinked: ‘perceived ease of use’ can itself influence perceptions of trust as

the easier a site is to use the more trust it generates (Gefen, 2003). For success, a company

obviously has to have a product that people want and which it can deliver in a consistent

manner. It must commit itself to deal honestly with its customers and to regard them as

important. But the web site itself must be very easy to use and contain indications that the

company can be fully trusted. This may be with on-site facilities such as secure payment

pages and customer reviews, it may be via off-site policies such as a no-quibble returns

policy. The implementation of these two key factors – encouraging trust and showing web

site competence – are discussed in the next section.

But before we go on, how should we start our section? We need to relate the discussion firmly to the assignment question, so we start with a short, clear topic sentence, maybe a definition of what we are talking about and then outline how the section is structured. Here we follow the general format of motive (importance) and map (outline). We also need a section heading.

2. Trust, technology and success in e-commerce Trust in e-commerce is an essential element of any on-line transaction. The nature of on-line

shopping differs from that conducted physically between buyers and sellers. The goods

cannot be handled before purchase, they are only delivered after purchase and the usual social

cues between people that engender trust are not available on-line. Trust has been defined as

“a willingness to rely on an exchange partner in whom one has confidence” (Moorman et al.,

1993, p.56). Trust, however, is not a single concept: it is composed of more than one

dimension. This section considers the different components within ‘trust’ and links these with

other models of web site success.

Let’s now tie it all together to create a short section (with commentary in the margin).

2. Trust, technology and success in e-commerce Trust in e-commerce is an essential element of any on-line transaction. The nature

of on-line shopping differs from that conducted physically between buyers and

sellers. The goods cannot be handled before purchase, they are only delivered

after purchase and the usual social cues between people that engender trust are not

available on-line. Trust has been defined as “a willingness to rely on an exchange

partner in whom one has confidence” (Moorman et al., 1993, p.56). Trust,

however, is not a single concept: it is composed of more than one dimension. This

section considers the different components within ‘trust’ and links these with

other models of web site success.

Relevant

heading in

larger font.

Section intro

that gives

the focus

and

assignment

relevance. It

also maps

the contents.

Writing a PMA 29

© WMG 2014

Trust is multi-dimensional. McKnight et al. (1998), for example, identify three

elements. Firstly, there needs to be a belief in the ability of the seller to provide

the goods or services as purchased. The buyer must believe that the seller actually

has the goods displayed on the web site and can supply them. Secondly, the buyer

has to believe in the integrity of the vendor, that the seller is honest, the payment

will be honoured and the goods are of the stated quality. Finally, there is

benevolence. This is the belief that the vendor has the purchaser’s interests in

mind and not just his own. This relates to the perceived motives of the seller and

whether or not they show concern. Gefen (2003) confirms these three dimensions,

but also adds a fourth which he calls predictability. This may be obtained through

previous purchases derived from trusting other buyers, through reviews on the site

or in comments on social media. On the other hand, Kim and Zhang (2014) have

recently sought to simplify the dimensions to only two: competence (from ability

and reliability) and goodwill (from integrity and benevolence). Competence

relates to expectations of service; goodwill to the motives of the vendor.

However, the intention to purchase is also determined by other factors and not

solely by trust. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has a long history in

describing the factors driving the use of technologies such as e-commerce. The

two key factors that are said in TAM to predict a person’s intention to use a

technology are the perceived usefulness of the technology itself and its perceived

ease of use (Davis, 1989). Later authors such as Venkatesh (2008 & 2013) add a

factor of ‘social norms’. The attitudes of our friends and the widespread use of e-

commerce will create an awareness that on-line shopping is safe. Clearly linked to

this is the availability of product reviews and social media comment (Chaffey,

2012, p.112). For example, if others have rated a restaurant highly, we may well

book. The TAM perspective, therefore, must be viewed alongside trust models as

equally important.

These two models, trust in the vendor and the quality of the technology, both play

a part. They are also interlinked: ‘perceived ease of use’ can itself influence

perceptions of trust as the easier a site is to use the more trust it generates (Gefen,

2003). For success, a company obviously has to have a product that people want

and which it can deliver in a consistent manner. It must commit itself to deal

honestly with its customers and to regard them as important. But the web site

itself must be very easy to use and contain indications that the company can be

fully trusted. This may be with on-site facilities such as secure payment pages and

customer reviews, it may be via off-site policies such as a no-quibble returns

policy. The implementation of these two key factors – encouraging trust and

showing web site competence – are discussed in the next section.

Content based

on evidence,

explanation and

examples.

Further

material, with

the two

paragraphs

linked with

‘however’. The

paragraph

ends with a

conclusion.

Synthesis that

brings the

different

aspects

together and

concludes.

Conclusion (2

key factors) +

a link to the

next section to

create flow.

Comparison of

authors to give

synthesis.