World War I in the Middle East

Prelude: Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire (and Iran)

Some questions to consider:

• Were these constitutional movements revolutionary? If so, how so? How would one define revolution? What kinds of revolution are there?

• Why do seemingly progressive movements so often produce counter-revolutions or conservative backlashes? (often from the very groups on whose behalf they profess to work?)

More observations and questions

• Mass movements and mobilization

• Identity: nation, language, ethnicity. How did these factors play a role?

• Economics

• What role did nationalism play in the WWI period: before, during and immediately after?

Young Turks: Who were they and what did they want?

• Young Ottomans• Army officers• Secret societies• Mustafa Kemal• Committee of Union

and Progress• Triple Entente (1907):

France, Britain, Russia

Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk)

Course of Events

• Troop mutiny – Macedonia (1908)

• Third Army – restoration of constitution (1908)

• Counter-revolution• Deposition of sultan

Abdul Hamid• CUP Regime, 1909-

13 and 1913-1918

Some comments about Arab nationalism

• The “Arab awakening” (the nahdah)

• Literary clubs, missionaries

• Butrus al-Bustani (1819-83)

• Decentralization Party• Arab Congress in

Paris, 1913• Relationship to CUP

George Antonius, author of The Arab Awakening

Some comments about Turkish Nationalism

• Ottomanism, pan-Islamism, pan-Turkism

• Gokalp: “We belong to the Turkish nation, the Muslim religion, and the European civilization.”

Mustafa Kemal, Attaturk

World War I: its meaning

• Termination of 400-year rule of Ottoman Empire (OE)

• Transformation of OE

• Expectations of Arabs

• Lingering effects of imperialist decisions from the war

Ottoman Empire during the war

• Alliances (Central powers)

• Northeast frontier• Straits• Arab provinces and

the Arab Revolt• Gulf Area

The war

• Tactics• Arab provinces• Egypt• Arab Revolt• Iran• Armistice of

Mudros, Oct. 31, 1918

• CUP flees Sharif Husayn of Mecca

San Remo: the Peace Settlement

• April 1920: Treaty of Sèvres (Aug):– Turkey formally partitioned: Straits

international; south divided between France and Italy; Greece Thrace and Izmir; east Kurdish and Armenian

– Mandates: Iraq and Palestine ►British– Syria/Lebanon ►French

The mandates and post-war map

Faysal and the (Brief) Kingdom of Syria

• March 1920 General Syrian Congress

• Proclamation of independent state

• San Remo and reaction

• July: French military attack and takeover

• Faysal exiled

Faysal ibn Husayn,leader of the Arab Revolt, 1916-1918

The secret agreements

• Husayn-McMahon• Issues: territory,

independence of Arabs, British interests, British allies (the French)

• Different understandings of some of these

Sykes-Picot

• How does it contradict Husayn-McMahon agreement?

• Key issue of British-French relations

• French and British to establish “direct or indirect administration or control as they may desire…” areas “after agreement with Arab State

Balfour Declaration

• How does this document compare to the Sykes-Picot agreement made the year before?

• How is one to interpret the phrase “National Home”?

Questions about the legacy of World War I:

• Do you think international diplomacy and politics have changed since World War I? That is, do you think superpowers (as Britain and France were then) would behave in the same way today (regarding international agreements)?

• How have some of the World War I agreements continued to affect the region and the world today?