INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN MODERN WORLD ERA (1914-1955)

1. Pre-War International System2. Factors that led to World War I3. After War World Order4. Course of the Second World War5. War time Diplomacy6. Peace Settlement after World War II

PRE-WAR INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European States were successful in registering peace amongst them for almost 100 years which was ended with the outbreak of World War I in 1914. During the time of 1815-1914, the international system developed as Euro-centric system with England, France, Germany, Austria, Spain, Italy, and Turkey as dominant powers. Almost whole of Asia, Africa and parts of Latin America remained colonies of these European Powers.USA at that time was following the policy of Isolation.Japan remained at establishing its imperialism in Asia-Pacific region. Balance of Power in these years was distorted with the emergence of two groups in Europe1.France and Russia group2.Germany and Austria groupthe increasing power of Germany made England lean towards France & such a kind of aggressive group-ism and policies was one of the chief reasons for World War I. Nationalism in the pre war era was visibly evident majorly under the impact of French revolution. Many ethnic minorities expected to be separate nations.Result German under Bismarck went for strengthening unity of Germans and entered into disputes with France and Austria1866 : Germans defeated Austria1870 : Germans defeated FranceSuch events compelled Italy to adopt aggressive Nationalism , Thus Balkans became the area of conflict and wars. The Euro powers used Imperialism as an instrument for Economic exploitation of people of their respective colonies, using the natural resources of the colonies for making the imperialistic country more prosperous had a negative effect as it made the struggle for power more intense and aggressive. No attempt by any country/power block to organise an omnibus international organisation.Summary

Pre-War era of 1815-1914 characterised by:1.Dominant Position of Europe2.Formations of aggressive groups in Europe3.Nationalism led activities at peak4.Imperialistic feature of economic exploitation of colonies which led to more power hunger5.Absence of any international watchdog

FACTORS THAT LED TO WORLD WAR I The growing competitions in the European countries for power led to the creation of political alliances and its counter alliances. On one side were Germany-Austria/Hungary-Italy and on the other side were England-France-Russia. Initially they were described security alliances but later transformed into enemy blocks. Foreign policies of major powers were self centric and narrow which led to intense rivalries.e.g. France wanted Alsaac and LorraineGermany wanted colonies to strengthen its European positionAustria wanted Serbia and SlovakSerbia wanted Bosnia & HerzegovinaItaly wanted Trieste and TrensinoRomania wanted Transylvania Secret Diplomacies were a common feature of that era, and it gave rise to an environment of mutual distrust and jealousies among nations. It divided Europe into hostile camps of high suspicion which ultimately lead to Militarism (expansion of individual military power for fighting enemies) The countries were of the view that in order to achieve national interest, the only way is to engage in war and fulfil the desired interest. This belief germinated into a fully fledged global war in 1914.Result of the belief All European powers got engaged in stock piling of weapons, maintain more and more military power. All the nations accepted Militarism as real basis and source of national power. German, France, Russia, Italy, Japan advocated war as natural way of maintain their relations. Also the arrogant and violent thinking of the German statesman served as the spark to the war.RESULT 1914: Outbreak of the First World War which continued for five years. After this war League of Nations came to be an International Organisation for protecting international peace. However, it was a weak and loosely organised organisation.Summary:

Factors responsible for World War I1.Alliances and counter alliances2.Increasing rivalries3.Secret Diplomacies and Mistrust thus created4.War/Militarism and Arms Race5.Violent thinking of Statesmen

AFTER WAR WORLD ORDER The peace settlement affected by Treaty of Versailles was faulty as it made the defeated nations, especially Germany feel humiliated and forcibly suppressed, it dictated peace upon defeated nations and was hardly negotiated.Ostensibly it was based on Woodrow Wilsons 14 points but in reality it was to permanently cripple Germany, the major terms of the 440 articles of the treaty were aimed at destroying the power of Germany.France got back Alsaac and LorraineSaar valley was placed under the international commission and France was given rights of exploiting the coal mines of the valleyUnion of Austria and Germany was forbidden Germany was deprived of a million square miles of its area by made to renounce all its colonies and overseas possessions Germanys military strength was drastically reduced. Germany was asked to maintain an army of only 1Lakh Soldiers, and naval strength to 6 battle ships, 6 light cruisers, 12 destroyers and 12 torpedo boatsit was not to have any air-force & restrictions were made too on manufacturing arms and ammunitionsRhineland, Helgoland & Dune were de-militarised. Germany had to bear economic burden too as it was asked to pay Reparation payments to victorious countries which were beyond its capacity as it already lost nearly 12% of its industrial area. Politically too German was forced to accept Weimar Republic which was not in tune with its past political experiences and values in Germany(Consequently when Hitler later on called upon to throw the humiliation caused to Germany by the treaty , the proud German nation whole heartedly came forward to support Hitlers policy of war and expansionism)

The Humiliating terms of Versailles made the German love for nationalism stronger. The problems faced by German nationals after the economic burden put on them made people more conscious of the need for unity & strength. For this they willingly accepted the dictatorship of Hitler and this resulted in the rise of Nazism in Germany

Italy too didnt gain much from the treaty and were dissatisfied with the role of Britain and France. The economic depression of 1930s had already put Italy in a grim internal situation & it was this that gave Mussolini and his Fascist Party to come to power with its promise of making Italy a power again & revive the glory of Old Roman Empire.Public support made Mussolinis rise quicker as he advocated use of war as means of securing interest of people. Thus he prepared Italy for another war.

World War I increased the ambitions of Japan as it was successful in securing several advantages vis--vis China (later on snatched by the Washington Conference)Japan decided to expand military power and annex more territories in ChinaJapanese Imperial War Council started playing active role in Japanese politics1931 : Japan annexed Manchuria despite Leagues opposition to it1937 : Started undeclared war against China & started annexing many territories1941 : Being a part of Rome-Berlin Axis , Japan found it essential to enter the war and thus it attacked Pearl Harbour

League of Nations was already a weak organisation and due to unhelpful environment and structural defects like no provisions for enacting unanimous decision, it proved utter failure.It failed to act during Manchurian crisis and also during Italian aggression in Ethiopia The USA failed to become its memberBritain & France tried league to use it for their self interestsTo Germany it was a group of victorious nations fulfilling their interests To Russia it was a group of imperialist powers threatening their culture and order of livingArticle 8 of the covenant of the league required the nations to reduce the production and possessions of arms to the lowest point consistent with national security and safety. But the net effect was almost zero.Germany urged other nations to reduce the armaments along with Germany (as they were forced to halt production of arms), but France replied with Security first and disarmament afterwards.Such attitude justified Hitlers arming of Germany too.Thus the league was destined to be doomed.

Settlement of minorities (e.g.: Germans left in Poland, Czechoslovakia & Austria) was faulty too and as a result there was a fierce discontent among minorities in many states. (And the opportunist Uncle Hitler took full advantage of this). The attack on Poland was also justified in the name of helping the German minorities.

Even after the war, the states continued to depend on secret diplomatic and military alliances as means for strengthening their security.France entered into alliances with Czech, Poland, Belgium, Romania & YugoslaviaGerman, Italy, Japan were already into many pactsEngland didnt formally sided with any group but was prepared to help Germany in case of war between Russia and Germany, and help France in case it entered into war with GermanSuch alliances were more a threat to nations than a security pact deal.

Decade long economic depression of the 1930 characterised by Wall Street crash gave rise to centralised dictatorial regimes in many countries particularly Germany and ItalyFascists sought to solve their economic problems through military conquests and expansions.

The ideologies too were in the lap of rugged relationships, Germany-Italy-Japan (Axis powers) stood for dictatorship while Britain-France-USA stood for democracy. And thus Either we or they became the cause of war.England was more concerned with growing Red-menace (Communism) than Fascism or NazismAlso Brits wanted to make German a bulwark state against Soviet Communism. (As they felt that Hitler would try to expand towards Russia)Such a feeling of Brits led them to appease Hitler which in return encouraged him to re-arm Germany, militarised Rhineland capture Austria & CzechBrits do definitely had the resources to stop spreading of dictatorship in Germany but they deliberately let Hitler continue with his desires

Post World War I, the victorious nations of England & Germany started developing differences amongst them.France was more interested in its security while Brits wanted to increase its tradeGermany was again one of the chief reason of difference, while England wanted to re-arm Germany (to use them as bulwark against Russia & for increasing its trade ties with them), the French said that the recovery of Germany would be a threat to its securityFrance opposed the revision of peace treaty and demanded guarantees from Britain and USA(failure of achieving this lead to Frances smaller alliances with Belgium, Poland etc)French accepted appeasement of Germany as only available alternative and not because of their will.

RESULT All these causes were responsible for outbreak of WW-II in September 1939, a new bloodier global war which continued for six long years.

Summary:

1.Treaty of Versailles2.Emergance of Nazism in Germany, Fascism in Italy & Militarism in Japan3.Failure of League of Nations4.Problem of National Minorities5. System of secret alliances and diplomatic ties6.Economic depression of 1930s7.Ideological conflicts8.Appeasement of Germany by Britain9.Anglo-French Discord

COURSE OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1 September 1939: Germany launched invasion against Poland3 September 1939: Britain & France declared war on GermanyRESULT Outbreak of the Second World War.Immediate Consequences Many small nations joined the war, some on Axis side while other on allied side.

Axis powers: Germany, Italy, Japan, Romania and other small nations.Allied powers: England, France, USA, and later on USSR

It took just 15 days for the German army to capture Poland after they launched attack on them. And when the Germans were smashing the pockets of Polish resistance, Russia too joined and invaded Poland from the Eastern side.(Behti Ganga Mein Haath Dhona)So Poland was left crushed between two powerful neighbours who annexed it from both the sides. Before launching attack on Eastern Poland, Russia inflicted a defeat on Finland (30 Nov 1939)Russia later on annexed Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (June 1940) April 1940: Germany attacked Denmark, Norway, and BelgiumMay 1940: attacked Holland.All these countries were conquered and their leaders fled to London to formed Government from there in exile. After Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Holland, Germany moved towards France who failed to meet the invasion and taking advantage of this helpless situation of France, Fascist Italy declared war on France.10 June 1940: Fascist army crossed Alpine frontier14 June 1940: Nazi troops entered Paris unopposed and French resistance collapsed totally.22 June 1940 : France signed armistice with GermanyResult France got divided into two : occupied and unoccupied regionIn unoccupied zone Marshall Peterin became the Prime Minister (one who signed the armistice & agreed to co-operate with Hitler)Armistice wasnt acceptable to French nationalists and their leader General De Gaulle asserted French determination to fight against Hitler and formed Free French Government in exile in London By the middle of 1940 Western Europe from the Arctic Sea to the Pyrenees came under Germany control. And after the fall of France, Britain was to keep up the fight against Axis powersSeptember 1940: Historic Battle of Britain was fought between Britain and Germany which Germany lost and was forced to abandon its Operation Sea Lion.RESULT long war compelled Germany to look for new areas for getting raw materials and industrial bases. Within next two years German reduced Hungary and Romania to its protectorates.1941: Germans entered Bulgaria, invaded Yugoslavia & Greece and registered successlooking at German success all over Turkey came forward with a non-aggression treaty with Germany. 22 June 1941 Germans surprised everyone (as it had a non-aggression pact with USSR), Hitler launched an attack on USSR. 153 divisions of army were sent to USSR and Romania, Hungary, Finland, Italy also joined Germany in attacking USSR (Behti ganga mein haath dhona PART II)

USSRs Reaction In order to face Germany, USSR concluded a treaty with Britain to fight war against Germany and not conclude peace without consulting each otherExtended support to TurkeyRecognized Polish Government in exile in LondonSigned neutrality pact with JapanTerminated Russo-German Pact of 1939

RESULT In initial stages of war , Germans registered quick victories winning over Ukraine, Danby & Crimea captured 2 million Soviet prisoners of warseized Leningrad & came near Moscow.But December 1941, Soviet Reds hit back and at Battle of Stalingrad USSR registered big win.Feb 1943: German General Von Paulus surrendered before USSR.

On the other hand Fascist Italy desired to become stronger through military ventures. And so it set sight on Northern Africa and Middle East (as Germany at that time was leaving no chance to plunder Europe other than by themselves)April 1939 : Italy annexed Albania1940 : Invaded Ethiopia and British Somaliland, Libya and Egypt, however Brits successfully reverted back and gained Eastern Libya again.1941 : With the help of German forces , Italians regained whole of LibyaLater 1941 : Brits with the help of USA began fresh offensives in Africa and in October 1942 Field Marshall Montgomery inflicted big defeat over Axis Powers at Al-Alamein November 1942 : General Eisenhower launched Anglo-American war against axis powers and made them to surrender Africa in May 1943 ! After defeats in Africa, Italy saw a collapse at home too. July 1943: Allies attacked Italy and arrested Mussolini on 25 July 1943 September 1943: Italy signed armistice. But in the same year Uncle Hitler attacked Italy and freed likeminded Mussolini.But the PM who signed armistice Badoglio declared war against Germany in October (Why? So that Mussolini doesnt snatch his PM chair) And with the help of Allied Forces won in liberating Rome from Nazis (June 1944)28 April 1945 German forces surrendered in Italy and the role of Italy in WW-II ended.

In the initial years USA maintained isolation but sympathised with allies because of (their self interests) ideological similarities.After the breakout, the Congress (of America) lifted the ban on export of arms under the policy Cash & Carry. Later the money minded USA was allowed by congress to help states in war under the Lend-Lease Act. This way they were already helping the allies indirectly.But the attack by Hitlers forces on US naval and merchant vessels gave USA one more reason to get involved in war against Hitler7 December 1941: Japan attacked Pearl Harbour in Hawaii and now USA formally declared war on Japan and the axis states and made WW-II which was a European war till now a Global War!

Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbour?encouraged by victories against China and fuelled by Militarism and imperialistic policies, Japan started capturing Pacific (Pearl Harbour) and Indian OceanDecember 1941 : Japan attacked Hong KongJanuary 1942 : Conquered Philippines February : Singapore and Malaya March : IndonesiaMay : Burma and Andaman & Nicobar Islands

But by June Japan failed to meet USAs air-borne attacks and by 1944 USA liberated all of Japans overseas territories and as well started attacking Japanese mainland

Back there in German camp started negativity too. After the fall of Italy, Allied forces thought of attacking German through French areas and thus it entered Paris in August 1944 (and made the Nazi forces to retreat to German frontiers) Now the Allied attacked Germany from three sides viz1. Soviet Red Army from East2. Allies from Italy3. Allies from FranceRESULT By the summer of 1945: USSR liberated Romania, Finland, BulgariaYugoslavia was liberated from Titos partisansWarsaw (Poland) fell to USSR (January 1945)

Western front in 1945: Germans were forced to leave Southern FranceAllies reached till Rhineland. USA reached River Elbe, past Berlin where they met USSR forces marching from the east.

24 April 1945: US and Soviet forces met at Torgan. 29 April 1945: Uncle Hitler committed suicide.2 May: Berlin surrendered 7 May: Unconditional Surrender treaty signed by German representatives8 May: An Allied force won over Europe and now left was only JAPAN. (But Bakre ki Maa kab tak Khair mnaati , lets see)

Heavy bombardment in Japan was being done by USA in the spring of 19456 August 1945: A Bomb was dropped on Hiroshima and Japan was asked to surrender and when it refused, 9 August 1945: Another Bomb was dropped on Nagasakiand with such a huge loss to life and property, finally Japan surrendered on 14 August 1945!Summary :

1.Foramtion on Axis and allied powers2.German attack on Poland3.Initial Russian role and actions4.German success in Denmark, Norway, Belgium & Holland5.German invasion of France6.Battle of Britain & Operation Sea Lion7.German invasion of USSR8.Italian campaigns in North Africa and Near East & end of Italian role in WW-II9.US involvement in war and attack on Pearl Harbour 10.Japans adventure in Indian Ocean11.Defeat of Germany12.Defeat of Japan and bombings in Hiroshima & Nagasaki

WAR TIME DIPLOMACY During WW-II number of diplomacies were held by the Allies.Why? 1. To resolve mutual differences2.secure cooperation amongst them3.prepare future reconstruction of the world (in case they come out successfully defeating Uncle you know who!)

August 1914: Roosevelt (US) & Churchill (UK) met at the North Atlantic Conference and agreed on 8 principles (aka Atlantic Charter) viz: 1. Britain and USA would not occupy territories [LOL] 2. No territorial changes to be made without concerned peoples consent3. Right of all people to choose their Government to be respected [LOL x 2]4. Equal trading rights for all countries victors or vanquished [LOL x infinity] 5. Economic advancement for all nations [except ones colonised by them like India] 6. Universal Peace to be restored7. Equal rights over the seas for all nations!8. Principle of de-militarisation upon aggressive states [except they themselves]

1 January 1942: US, UK, Russia, and China issued United Nations Declaration and pledged to employ all their resources to destroy Axis powers in the worldApril 1945: Same declaration signed by 45 states.

1942 : To open a second front against Germany US and USSR entered into Lend Lease Agreement Under this US Congress allowed the USA to supply arms to USSR to fight against Axis powers

January 1953 : Roosevelt-Churchill-General De Gaulle (US-UK-France) decided to attack Sicily and Italy in order to secure surrender of Germany, and it came to be known as the Casablanca Conference

October 1943 : Foreign Ministers of USA, UK, and USSR met at Moscow for the Moscow conference where they pledged to secure wartime cooperation amongst themselves &agreed to liquidate Italian Fascism and instil democracy in ItalyMoscow Conference resulted in the formation of :1.European Advisory Commission for securing cooperation amongst allies2.Advisory Commission for considering affairs of Italy

November 1943: Roosevelt-Churchill-Chiang Kai Shek (China) met at Cairo for Cairo Conference and planned strategy for war against Japan.1. Chinese territories of Manchuria, Formosa and Pescadores pledged2. Independence of Korea promised

Military Treaty at Tehran signed by Roosevelt-Churchill-Stalin as the Tehran Conference1. Final plan to defeat Germany2. Maintain independence and sovereignty of Iran3. Urged Turkey to enter war and support Yugoslavia partisan in struggle for their independence

US, UK and Chinese representatives met at Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 to discuss for the first time the need of an international organisation to secure peace and thus first of such an organisation was discussed there.

September 1944: Roosevelt and Churchill met at Quebec and reached at an agreement to discuss administration of occupied territories of Germany. ~ Quebec Conference

February 1945: Historic YALTA CONFERENCE was held and attended by Roosevelt-Churchill-Stalin. Since the end of war was in sight the following decisions were chalked out in Yalta

Agreements regarding UNO: 1. Setup a new international organisation 2. Grant veto powers to the biggies3. UN conference at San Francisco to be convened on 25 April 1945 for drafting UN charter4. US government given responsibility to acquaint France and China of the Yalta Conference

Agreements regarding Germany: 1. Dividing Germany in to 4 zones to be administered by US, UK, France, USSR respectively2. Free Germany of Nazism and Militarism3. Allied control on German Economy4. Liberal reforms to be introduced in Germany5. German war criminals to be punished6. Disarm Germany7. German to pay reparation damages (Again!)

Agreements regarding Poland: 1. Provisional government at exile in London to be formed later on replaced by a permanent one in Poland through general elections2. Pre-war Eastern frontier of Poland temporarily extended to CURZON Line in the west3. Some parts of Germany to be given to Poland as compensation4. Final settlement of western boundary to be taken up at a peace conference5. Setup democratic Government in Poland

Agreements regarding USSR: 1. Russian authority over Chinese Manchuria and many small territories acknowledged2. In return Russia asked to join war against Japan after the fall of Germany

Other Agreements: 1. Fascist and Nazi territories to be granted rights of self determination (as agreed under Atlantic Charter) 2. New Government on the basis of TITO-SABASIC AGREEMENT to be established in Yugoslavia 3. Continue the Allied unity after War! [LOL]

Last in the series of the war time agreements was Potsdam ConferenceAugust 1945: Truman-Attlee-Stalin (US-UK-USSR) attended the conference

1. Foreign Ministers of UK, USA, USSR, France, China to meet for drafting peace treaties with Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Finland2. Instil Democracy in Germany3. Form Allied Control Council to administer 4 zones of Germany4. Whole of Germany to be treated as a single economic zone (under Allied control) 5. Military training centres and Nazi institutions to be dissolved permanently 6. Law courts and Judiciary of Germany to be re-institutionalised based on equality7. German war criminals to be tried by International Court and punished accordingly8. German Submarines to be destroyed and naval forces to be distributed equally amongst Britain, Russia and USA9. Austria granted exemption to pay reparation 10. Allied forces withdrawn from Iran (Tehran Conference)

What happened next!Violations of YALTA and POSTDAM led to emergence of COLD WAR between USA and USSR!

Summary :

1. Atlantic Conference2. UN Declaration3. Lend-Lease Agreement4. Casablanca Conference5. Moscow Conference6. Cairo Conference7. Tehran Conference8. Dumbarton Oaks Conference9. Quebec Conference10. Yalta Conference11. Potsdam ConferenceRoosevelt-ChurchillUS-UK-USSR-ChinaUSA-USSRRoosevelt-Churchill-General De GaulleUSA-UK-USSRRoosevelt-Churchill-Chiang Kai ShekRoosevelt-Churchill-StalinUSA-UK-ChinaRoosevelt-ChurchillRoosevelt-Churchill-StalinTruman-Attlee-Stalin

PEACE SETTLEMENT AFTER WORLD WAR IIAfter the first world war only one treaty aimed to instil peace i.e. The treaty of Versailles, but at the end of the second world war peace settlement was undertaken in a mature way with specific peace treaties affecting specific nations.It was in Potsdam Conference that decisions were taken for setting up a council of foreign ministers of the big five which was to undertake work for drafting peace settlement with defeated nations.

11 September 1945 (London Conference): Foreign ministers of USA, UK, USSR, France, China met for drafting treaties.Differences arose amongst USSR and West on the issues of dealing with Italy-Yugoslav BoundaryUSSR wanted USA to recognise regimes of Bulgaria & RomaniaOther differences were on issues of Manchuria, Greece and KoreaThus the conference ended over disagreements over the issues on 20 October 1945

November 1945 (Moscow Conference): USA proposed conference at Moscow of the foreign ministers but invited only the big three USA, UK, USSR so that it is possible to meet as early as December 1945.First draft to be prepared by victorious nationsThen draft was to be discussed with all the Allied states Final treaties thereafter to be prepared by:1. Big three + France = Treaty with Italy2. Big three = Treaty with Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria3. UK + USSR = Treaty with Finland

January 1946 (Paris conference of deputy ministers): After prolonged discussion of six months, the council was able to complete the text of five peace treaties with1.Italy2.Romania3.Bulgaria4.Finland5.Hungary

July 1946 (Paris Peace Conference): Discussion over the drafts of five states was held in Paris and attended by 21 allied Nations. However because of differences between Big powers and small states, it could hardly make any solid recommendations .

November 1946 (New York Conference): On the basis of deliberations at Paris, Council gave a through revision of texts and a final shape to the treaties was given which was to be ratified b 15 September 1947.

Peace treaty with Italy :1. $360,000,000 as reparations to Yugoslavia, Greece, Ethiopia, Albania, and USSR2. Renounce its sovereignty over African nations3. Trieste, Eritrea declared free territories under statute approved by Security Council4. Asked to demilitarised frontiers with France and Yugoslavia

Peace treaty with Romania :1. $300 million as reparation over 8 years to USSR2. Army limited to 120000 , Air force 8000 , Navy 5000 men3. Got Transylvania back from Hungary

Peace treaty with Bulgaria :1. No territories lost but asked to pay $70,000,000 to Greece and Yugoslavia in 8 years2. Prohibited from undertaking fortification of its borders with Greece

Peace treaty with Finland :1. Cede certain provinces to USSR 2. Soviet-Finnish Peace treaty of 1940 restored3. $300,000,000 as reparation to USSR

Peace treaty with Hungary :1. Cede certain provinces to Romania and Yugoslavia2. 200 million dollars to USSR , 50 million each to Czech and Yugoslavia

Peace treaty with Japan :1. USA decided to hold peace conference at San Francisco (September 1951)2. 51 states were invited but 48 attended India, Burma, Czech refused to participate.3. Soviet Union participated but strongly opposed the recommendations.4. Japan to renounce all rights in Pacific , Korea and in China5. Japans inability to pay reparation in dollars was recognised hence asked to pay in kind ~ labour, raw materials.6. Japan forced to apply for UNO membership7. Japan was left free to conclude peace treaty with Communist China

Peace treaty with Austria :1. April 1955 : Austrian delegation visited Moscow to reach at an agreement with Allied powers2. Austria pledged neutrality (not to join NATO) and non alignment and Russia reciprocated by withdrawing its troops3. As reparation, 1 million ton of oil annually to USSR for 10 years4. Supply of industrial and consumer goods as a part of discharge of its 15 million dollars debt.

Peace treaty with Germany :1. Germany divided into four zones : administered by 4 powers with Berlin placed under joint occupation of all 4 powers.2. 1946 : Britain and USA decide to merge their zones to make Bizonia1947 : France merged it with bizonia to make it Trizonia popularly called West Germany1949 : West Germany adopted Bonn Constitution and made themselves Federal republic of Germany (FRG)

3. Soviet administered zone came to be known as East Germany with East Berlin as capital and designated German Democratic Republic (GDR)

4. May 1956 : FRG agreed with 3 powers for independence September 1956 : Soviet granted GDR independence5. FDR and GDR co-existed together till 1991 when Germany was unified again into Present onre nation.

All the treaties thus ended the Second World War but failed to check the emergence of Cold war among USA and USSR which would be discussed in next article !

Summary:

September 1945 : London ConferenceNovember 1945 : Moscow ConferenceJanuary 1945 : Paris Conference of Deputy Foreign MinistersJuly 1946 : 21 nations Paris Peace ConferenceNovember 1946 : New York Conference of foreign ministers

Article Reference : International Politics, UR Ghai, New Academics Publishing Co.Entry Contribution : Namit