World History Unit 1 Review

Prehistory to 800 C.E.

HominidsLocated in southern and eastern Africa, these primates lived over 3m years ago. Mary and Louis Leakey discovered the first fossil of these primates in 1974. Different from earlier primates, they walked upright and could formulate speech.

Paleolithic Era (750,000 to 250,000 years ago)

During the Paleolithic period, the economy was based on hunting and gathering, before the establishment of agrarian practices. Paleolithic society was a collection of clans based on extended families. They followed a polytheistic faith, practiced art and music through cave paintings. The hunting and gathering was done by both men andwomen.

Cave paintings from the period

Homo sapiens sapiensHomo sapiens sapiens refers to the first modern humans who first appeared in Africa between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago.

Hunting and gatheringTypical prior to the formation of settlements, hunting and gathering was seen in early civilizations prior to the development of established agriculture and the domestication of animals. Targeted animals could be anything that hunters were game enough (no pun intended) to tackle. The other major component of their diet was plant and vegetation.

Sumer (6000-2000 BCE)

Sumer made up the southern Mesopotamia region and is one of the earliest known civilizations. First settled by a non-Semitic group called the Ubaidians, the Sumerians arrived around 3300 BCE. , creating the world’s first known cities. The legacy of the Sumerians include innovations such as the first wheeled vehicle, the potter’s wheel, a system of writing known as cuneiform and a written code of law. As city-states, they came in and out of independence, periodically falling under the control of other civilizations such as Elam, Akkad and ultimately the Babylonians.

Minoan Civilization (3000-1100 BCE)

A civilization that arose on the island of Crete, their economic and political power was based on their usage of the sea. The center of their culture was the city of Knosses and the civilization was named after King Minos. It was the first known civilization in the Aegean area. The civilization was greatly known for its influences upon the Mycenaean culture on the Greek islands and mainland, its cities and palaces, extensive trading network and the use of writing (known by archeologists as Linear A and Linear B).

Yellow River Civilization

This term refers to a series of civilizations (dynasties) that

emerged along the Huang He (Yellow River). The hued river gets its name from the loess soil that blows in from the north and Mongolia. Its

regular flooding has earned the river the nickname of

“China's Sorrow” due to the amount of people who have perished over the centuries.

Phoenicians

A city-state society based on shipping and trade, the Phoenicians were found along the

Mediterranean coast of modern-day Lebanon and Israel. Their greatest

achievement however, might have been in the area of writing, in particular, cuneiform.

Because of their prolific trading, their alphabet was diffused throughout the region and ultimately, it would serve as the basis of

the Latin alphabet.

Mesopotamia

This is the name of the region between the Tigris and the

Euphrates Rivers in modern day Iraq. The region was the origin

of world’s first cities (Ur and Babylon), writing (cuneiform and

pictographs) and large public works like canals and bridges.

Nile River Civilization (2700s-1700s BCE)

The Nile River civilization was based on agricultural settlements around 5500 BCE. It would eventually grow into the Egyptian society and the uniting of upper (southern) and lower (northern) regions by King Menes. The society, religiously, was a polytheistic one based on many gods related to the world around them (sun, etc.). The advancements of the society was based on medical achievements (mummies), writing (hieroglyphics) and architecture (pyramids).

Xia Dynasty (c.2070-c.1600 BCE)

Because no archeological evidence has been found

related to this dynasty, it is considered a quasi-mythical

one. Based on the Huang He, the Xia, led by its founder Yu,

attempted to organize the region and the lives of its

people, creating a dynastic rule in China. Yu is famous

for public works projects like irrigation and flood control

efforts.

Indus River Civilization (2,000s BCE)Originating along the banks of the...duh...Indus River, the two city states of

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro made up the essence of the civilization. The cities, as well as other smaller villages, were highly organized and uniform in structure

and material used. This fact suggest a standardization of weights and measures. Remnants of the society are found as far away as Egypt which

would suggest a pretty extensive trading network. Little is known, in particular reasons for its decline because the language used has not yet been deciphered.

Harappa and Mohenjo Daro

Harappa was a key settlement of the Indus River valley civilization and found along the Ravi River in modern-day west Pakistan. It was inhabited between 3200-1500 BCE and was characterized by high brick walls along the perimeter. The city was organized and well laid out and some archeologists believe there are connections with the Indian and Sumerian cultures. It lied considerably north of the other great city of the civilization – Mohenjo-Daro. Along the Indus River, it (see picture) was the largest city of the civilization and thought to serve as a capital. It too was highly organized and contained ornate baths, a granary and two halls of assembly.

BabylonLocated south of the modern city of Baghdad, it is one of the most famous cities of ancient times. It was the capital of Babylonia and was the main commercial center along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It was the largest city in the world at the time. Around since the 3rd millennium BCE, its golden age was under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 605 to c. 561 BCE. It was destroyed twice – by Sennacherib in 689 BCE and against by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. What we know about the city comes from the Greek historian Herodotus, who used his understanding of cuneiform texts to piece its history together. It is known for its ziggurats and the Hanging Gardens, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

Hammurabi’s Code

Hammurabi was a leader of the city-state of Babylon around 1750 BCE. The

code is a collection of legal decisions and the law is known as an

improvement on and development beyond tribal customs and traditions. It set the standard for the collection of written rather than arbitrary rules to

government society.

A relief showing Hammurabi delivering his codified law

“The strong shall not injure the weak, and the orphan and the widow shall receive justice.“

Hammurabi’s Code

AryansStreaming out of Asia Minor, the Aryans entered into modern-day northern

India around 1500 BCE. They were a society that was based on the raising of animals and did not have extensive experience with agriculture. Their society

was based on oral tradition and their history was passed down in the same way. As a result of coming into contact with "inferiors", the Aryans set up a

strict caste system to limit interaction between them and the aboriginal peoples of the region, namely the Dravidians.

Vedic Age

This period refers to the portion of Indian history ranging from 1500 to 500 BCE and represent the period when the Vedas were written. The Vedas were a collection of prayers

and songs honoring Aryan gods. This period is characterized by the nascent

stages of an economic switch between herding to sedentary

agricultural communities.

Vishnu dispensing advice to a solider in the Bhagavad Gita

Hinduism One of the world's oldest organized

religions, it stemmed out of the Indus River valley and is most associated with

India. One of its treasured texts, the Bhagavad Gita outlined the requirements of Hindus as people and their pathway to

salvation. Hindus, in their daily lives, stress the notion of obeying the law,

honest economic ventures, embracing pleasure and the ultimate release from an

existence of reincarnation – moksha or the liberation from life. Hindu society is

broken down into castes and one's movement through reincarnation through

the castes marks the progress a Hindu is making towards paradise.

The many forms of God in Hinduism

ZoroastrianismTo many religious

scholars, it was the world's first monotheistic religions and was based

on a prophet named Zarathustra who

proclaimed the one god whom he called Ahura

Mazda. Zarathustra preached that the world and its benefits were for Ahura Mazda's followers

to enjoy but people should only enjoy life in

moderation. The notions of good and evil spelled

out by the prophet directly influenced

Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

Shang Dynasty (c.1700-1046 BCE)

The earliest of the Chinese dynasties, popping up around 1750 BCE, the Shang made good use of bronze as a source of income and employment. Its military

was the source of its power and its surplus of crops ensured its survival.

Mycenaeans (1600-900 BCE)

Based on an ancient Greek city-state, Mycenae was located amidst rocks and cliffs which allowed for

impressive stone forts and palaces. Each palace is thought to have

housed a king of the local region. It is believed that Agamemnon was its ruler. Their fight with Troy was the stuff of legends – really, the

legend is detailed in Homer's Iliad.

A death mask of a Mycenaean king

Akhenaton

Best known for his implementation of a one-god belief system and his wife, Nefertiti, he came to power when Egypt was in one of its powerful periods, controlling Palestine, Phoenicia and Nubia. Moving his capital from Thebes to modern-day Tell el-Amarna to escape the power of his religious adversaries, he was a patron of art that gave details of ordinary life. His administrative abilities suffered due to his concentration on religious changes. He was succeeded by his sons-in-law, first Smenkhkare but more famously Tutankhamen. However, upon Tut’s death, the army took over and the religion was abandoned.

Olmecs (1300-400 BCE)

With a name stemming from the rubber trees of Central America, the Olmecs were

centered in cities like La Venta and Tres Zapotes which means three-something in

Spanish, I think. Their most impressive achievement were the intricate irrigation

systems that allowed for a successful harvest. Ruled with a strong hand, the

Olmecs built various public buildings like temples, altars and pyramids.

A drawing of one of the massive stone heads left by

the Olmecs

Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE)Usurping their power from the

Shang, the Zhou saw their rule as connected the goings on in heaven. The concept that their rulers had a mandate from heaven suggested

divine approval of their rule. However, according to the same

concept, what the gods grant can also be taken away if the ruler

conducts himself in an unworthy way. It is known for its cultural

achievements that stretched from literature to religion, to history to

philosophy and morals.

Athens (1000s-300s BCE)

The city-state of Athens and its reputation as the beginnings of democracy was the product a ruler named Solon who softened previously harsh laws, gave power to all members of society who owned property and created a limited democracy.

The Parthenon – Athens, Greece

SophoclesHis fame was garnered from his talents as a dramatist, a contemporary of Aeschylus and Euripides. Not only a writer, he was also a priest and an elected general. His advancements included the introduction of the third actor (previously, two was standard), the expansion of the chorus and writing self-contained tragedies. He is most known for Oedipus Tyrannus, Antigone and Trachiniae.

SpartaPart of classical Greece, the city-state was known for its

militaristic attitude towards neighbors (not surprisingly, most of Sparta's neighbors did not like

them much). Theirs was a society built around military

service, with near slaves called helots doing much of the

agrarian work. The Spartans were known for their simple

lifestyle (hence the word, Spartan, to describe an ascetic

lifestyle). Boys were brought up away from the family, within the

military. Women were responsible for breeding strong children to serve in the Spartan

military. Artist rendition of Spartan combat

formations

Olympics

It was the most famous of the Greek festivals. Among the Greek city-states, athletic representatives met to compare speed, strength and skill in various events.

These events included running, boxing, wrestling (no WWE stuff around here), javelin and discus throwing. This festival was held every four years, hence the

spacing of events today. After about a century, the festival disappeared altogether and the Games were not re-instituted until the end of the 1800s.

A stone relief showing Greek wrestlers during the early Games.

Macedonian Empire (800s-146 BCE)A contemporary civilization with the ancient Greeks, it supplied them with

natural resources in exchange for some of the agricultural delights of Greece such as wine and olives. Alexander the Great, ruler of Macedonia, would create an empire that included nearly the entire Mediterranean area including Syria and

Egypt. The death of Alexander would precipitate the fragmenting of the empire into three parts, each part going to one of his generals.

Etruscans (c.700-c.400 BCE)

Etruscan territory (in red)

Etruria was a civilization that reached its height before the Romans, in the 700s BCE. Historians are not sure where they came from but by the 800s BCE, they had control over Tuscany and pushed north to the Po valley and south to control Rome. It were the Etruscans who built the first public works in Rome. The civilization was agrarian but also had a commercial sector of their economy. Their wall frescos and realistic tomb portraits were, along with other cultural traits, adopted by the Romans. However, by the end of the 700s BCE, outside pressure from the Greeks, Romans and the Gauls weakened Etruria. By 509 BCE, the Romans expelled the Etruscans from the region.

Chavín

The term refers to a cult that rose to prominence during the last millennium

before the common era. Originating in Peru, it peaked around 800 BCE and seemed to surround and place great importance on

maize. The cult was known for its architecture, fishing nets, the usage of

certain minerals like gold and copper and the intricate art.

A stirrup spout bottle made by the Chavín

DaoismYet another idea of how to fix the mess that China was in during the Warring States period, Daoism (also seen in texts as Taoism) contrasted Confucianism by suggesting that seeking harmony with the natural forces of the world was the way to achieve peace and order. Dao refers to the way of nature - the opposing forces that coarse through the planet. It is these opposing forces, not representative as good and evil as commonly believed, that must be kept in balance. If people stopped trying for personal success and achieve balance by living simply, happiness could be achieved. It is from Daoism that we get the concept of "less is more."The symbol of balance – the ying

and yang – within Daoism

ConfuciusHe was a Chinese philosopher moved to

figure out a way to create order in the midst of the Warring States period. His ideas were

based on the notion of relationships that, if in order and correct, would fix society:

parent and child; husband and wife; older and younger sibling; older and younger

friend; ruler and his subjects. His sayings, captured by his disciples in the Analects,

stands as a way to live one's life - also referred to as Confucianism. He stressed

courteousness, loyalty, respectfulness and stick-to-itness. Above all, he sought to have

people exercise moral integrity and good judgment.

“The expectations of life depend upon diligence; the mechanic that would perfect his work must first

sharpen his tools.”

Roman Republic (510-27 BCE) Roman Empire (27 BCE-14 CE)

By the defeat of the Etruscans, the Romans set up a republic around 509 BCE. While the patrician class controlled the government, the plebs had power to elect as well. Over time, the plebs pushed for and were granted more rights but the Senate grew in power as well, leading to expansion. It first consolidated control over Italy and then began taking over the rest of the Mediterranean world, taking out Carthage during the Punic Wars. However, as money entered Rome, only a few received it and class tensions rose, culminating with the uprising led by Spartacus. The retirement of Sulla brought to power Pompey and with his general, Julius, they worked together for a decade before Julius set his army against Pompey. By 48 BCE, Julius Caesar was the master of Rome. The assassination of Caesar created anarchy. It would be Octavian (Augustus) who, upon defeat of Antony, would be the first emperor of the Roman Empire. While the Pax Romana followed, it would not last past Augustus. A series of cruel rulers and the

introduction of Christianity began changing Rome. While a change of fortune happened under Trajan (98-117), too many forces were at work to take down Rome. Incompetent ruler, internal strife and outside pressures finally brought down Rome. Rome split into east (later Byzantine) and Rome. The empire finally death knell occurred with a defeat at the hands of the Goths in 476. The last emperor was, oddly enough, named Romulus Augustulus.

Roman Senate

The Roman Senate was the main governing and advisory council, as part of the Roman constitution. Senators were appointed by consuls, serving for life which granted them great power. After 81 BCE, it became the chief governing body as well as controlled the republic’s finances. Augustus gave the body judicial and legislative responsibilities. Most of the members of the Senate were large and powerful landowners. Into the common era, the Senate began losing power and by 500s, it ceased to exist as any influential governing body.

PersiaClassical Persia refers to the region that

included modern-day Iran to the east and Turkey to the west. Its government was unique with educated and qualified officials making up the bureaucracy. The government used slaves to construct a great deal of public works like palaces, exterior walls, roads and irrigation

systems. The slave population was made up of either prisoners of war or those who failed to

adhere to the laws of the empire. Its most known and competent rulers included Cyrus, Darius (right) and Xerxes. Its economy was based on agriculture as it controlled fertile

regions like Mesopotamia, Anatolia (Turkey) and the northern alluvial plains of India. The

empire's trade was helped along by trade routes that connected the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. Large urban centers like Babylon were also financial and commerce

centers.

Cyrus the Great

The founder of the Achaemenian Empire and grandson of Cyrus I, his empire was based out of Persia and stretched to the Mediterranean. He was also as inclined to conquer by diplomacy as by warfare. According to the Bible, he liberated the Jews who were being held captive in Babylon. He met his end against the nomads of central Asia. The culture and civilization he created would last another two centuries and was a strong influence on the Greeks as well as Alexander the Great. Persians and later Iranians consider him a hero with almost religious connotation.

Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BCE)

The Achaemenid Empire began by, according to legend, a ruler named Achaemenes, in ancient Persia. Lasting between around 550 to 330 BCE, the

empire reached its height under Cyrus the Great, Darius and Xerxes I. The Achaemenid culture was based on cuneiform writing and the spread of

Zoroastrianism. Persian art and architecture are some of the lasting qualities of the empire. The dynasty met its end at the hands of some guy called Alexander

the Great.

Persian WarsThe Persian wars refer to a series of wars between the Greeks and Achaemenids around 500 BCE, it would eventually destroy the Persian empire. The Persians twice invaded the Greeks and counted upon their reputation of being one of the greatest military powers at the time to intimidate the Greeks into obedience. Athens formed the Delian League, a collection of Greek city-states, to defeat the Persians, who were led by Darius the Great and later, Xerxes I. What we know of the wars was chronicled by a historian named Herodotus. Folks today are most familiar with the battle of Thermopylae, in which a small force of Spartans and others, led by Leonidas I, held off a vastly superior in numbers Persian army for three days before being killed to the last man.

Warring States Era(475-221 BCE)

This refers to the time where China downgraded into chaos and disunity. The Qin, using legalism to unit the country. The period was so jarring and

disruptive to the Chinese, it triggered a retrospective period that led to the development of several ideologies meant to organize society and the

empire. Along with legalism, Confucianism and Daoism emerged as methods to improve the family and the Chinese relationship with its government.

Socrates

He espoused a method of questioning that was meant to reveal

character through increasingly difficult questions and scenarios. His student, Plato, recorded his thoughts

on paper. Socrates stressed honor, honesty and personal integrity.

Oddly enough, he met his doom with charges of immorality, found guilty

and forced to drink poison.

A bust of the philosopher"The unexamined life is not worth living.”

Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BCE)Fought between the Athens and Sparta and their allies, the main reason for the conflict was a general fear of the spread of Athenian rule and influence. The Athenians relied on its strong navy while the Spartans utilized their strong army. The first stage of the war pitted the Athenian Pericles against the Spartan Archidamus but the Athenians were devastated by plague, ending a series of military defeats. In 421, a six year truce began but by 415, the Athenians staged

an assault upon Sicily but were destroyed. In 405, the Athenian navy was sent to the bottom of the sea in the battle of Aegospotami. Athens surrendered in 404, its empire was broken up and the Spartans put into

place the Thirty Tyrants.

AristotleAristotle was the student of Plato

and the founder of his own school, the Lyceum. Aristotle, a member

of a triad that included his teacher and Plato's teacher, Socrates,

would influence western thought and philosophy for a good two

thousand years. His greatest and long-lasting achievements

included a look at logic and its approach towards the sciences as

well as his observations of the natural world which impacted the study of zoology - conclusions that

would remain relevant to the study of animals until the 1800s. A bust of the philosopher

“The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living from the dead.”

Philip II of Macedon

The father of Alexander the Great, he first promoted peace but only did so to build up his military. He provoked the Greeks to unite against him but he would later defeat them and a former ally, Thebes and the Thessalian League at the battle of Chaeronea. In doing so, he became leader of Greece. He joined the Greeks to attack the Persians but his family turned against him, namely his wife Olympias. He was later assassinated by a noble, considered to have been helped by Olympias and his son, Alexander.

Alexander the GreatThe son of Philip II of Macedonia and the student of Aristotle, he is one of the greatest military figures in history, ancient or modern. Taking over after his father’s assassination, he quickly took over Thessaly and Thrace, Thebes and the other Greek city-states. He continued by taking Persia, Syria and Phoenicia. Egypt followed in his collection of conquests but he continued to push eastward towards modern day Tajikistan and going as far as modern-day India. However, by this point (326), his men were tired of the march and mutinied. He was heavily criticized for his melding of races. He died, however, of alcohol poisoning at the age of 33.

Mauryan Dynasty (324-184 BCE)An Indian dynasty from the classical period, it was born out of the failed attempts by

Darius and the Persian Empire to invade and hold the area of northern India. Hitting its apex in the 320s BCE, it was Chandragupta Maurya that created a centralized

government that ruled the territory between the Ganges and Indus River valleys. Later, Ashoka (during the mid-200s BCE) extended control of the empire to include the entire Indian subcontinent. Ashoka ordered irrigation networks, infrastructure and ruled with more benevolence than previous or subsequent leaders. His death would lead to the

decline of the Mauryan dynasty.

Chandragupta Maurya

He founded the Maurya dynasty and was its first emperor, unifying most of modern India under one rule. He rose out of a migrant family and slavery, purchased by a Brahman politician, who educated Chandragupta. He overthrew the Nanda dynasty (c.320s BCE) and upon the death of Alexander, took over the Punjab region of northwest India (c.322 BCE). His empire expanded west to Persia, south to the tip of India and north into the Himalaya Mountains. During a time a famine, Chandragupta fasted in sympathy and died as a result.

Ashoka MauryaAshoka came to power as a result of the assassination of the sons of Chandragupta’s successor – Bindusara. He was appointed emperor in 274 BCE and proved, initially, an oppressive ruler, executing anyone of the slightest offense. He lashed out at neighboring kingdoms, bringing them to heel. The military experience however changed him. The sight of so many dead on his orders compelled him to give up military pursuits. All of attention turned to the welfare of his people and preaching the sanctity of all life – including animals. He adopted Buddhism and is mostly responsible for the initial spread of the faith. He built universities as well as irrigations systems for trade and agricultural purposes. He insisted that all people within his kingdom were equal under his law.

Hellenistic Dynasty (323-30 BCE)

This period of world history is generally summarized as the period of Alexander the Great and the break up of his empire into three larger states

ruled by his generals such as Ptolemy in Egypt and Seleucus in Persia. Alexander is responsible for the spread of Greek culture (Greece was referred to as Hellas - hence the name). The capital of Alexander's empire was called Alexandria, oddly enough, and it was here that the most famous

and largest library of the time was housed.

BuddhismFounded in northern Indian around

400 BCE, it was based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a Hindu prince whose transformation into the Buddha was the product of meditation on the horrible side of Hinduism. Buddhism is about the

escape of suffering and reincarnation in order to attain nirvana. The

earliest, most successful advocate for the faith was the Indian emperor

Ashoka but it began to wane after he died. Several variations emerged

over the centuries based on where it spread, including Tibetan Buddhism and Zen Buddhism. Both branches

of Buddhism, Mahayana and Theravada, uphold the notion of the Four Noble Truths to live by and the

Eightfold Path, which further explains how Buddhists should live.

A statue of the Buddha in India

Punic Wars (264-146 BCE)The Punic Wars were a series of three conflicts between the Romans and Carthaginians. The result of the wars was the destruction of Carthage, the enslavement of the Carthaginians themselves and the annexation of the territory into the Roman Empire. The first conflict (264-241 BCE) saw a Roman victory but at a high cost in ships and men. The second conflict (218-201 BCE) saw initial victories by Hannibal before being driven out of Italy. The third conflict (149-146 BCE) was the Roman siege of Carthage. It represented the end of one of Rome’s more powerful adversaries.

Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE)The dynasty came out of the Warring States period and brought order to China. In the beginning, it gave land rights to peasants in areas along the frontier of the empire. Using legalism, it was seen as a stronger form of centralized government, it was able to mandate such things as standardized weights and measures as well as script but because it was so ruthless towards those who stepped out of line, it did not last long.

Qin ShihuangdiHe is considered the first emperor of China and

is best known for ordering the creation of the Great Wall. His government, based out of his

new capital, Xianyang, was a highly centralized one with provinces and districts, headed up by an official appointed by the emperor. In order

for his government to work, he monopolized military power in the country, improved

infrastructure to allow for easier movement and communication and led to the creation of

the Chinese writing. For all of his achievements, however, he was not a terribly

nice guy. He killed anyone who disagreed with him; one extreme example was the burning

alive of Confucian scholars for their criticism of his government. His burial place is noteworthy

for thousands of life-sized statues of an army complete with weapons, horses and chariots.

Great Wall of China

The original purpose of the wall was as a defensive structure along the northern boundaries of China. Most of the fortifications took place from the 7th–4th centuries BCE. However, it was Shi Huangdi in the 3rd-century BCE who connected much of the defensive walls into a single structure complete with watchtowers. The main concern of Chinese emperors of the day were the raiding qualities of the northern nomadic tribes of modern day Mongolia. Parts of the wall were restructured during the 15th and 16th centuries.

Legalism (200s BCE)

Like Confucianism and stemming from the Warring States period of Chinese history,

it emphasized the expansion of state power to enforce strict laws and deal out

severe punishment all crimes, which did a great deal to reduce the crime rate. A

legalist government focused on the military and its economy, namely the

agricultural sector. It encouraged people, as a member of a community, to police

and observe themselves. One of the leaders most associated with Legalism is

Shi Huangdi and the Qin dynasty.

Han Dynasty(206 BCE-220 CE)

Liu Bang kicked off this dynasty, claiming he had a "mandate from heaven" to rule. His dynasty

would be the longest lasting in Chinese history. The dynasty was built on trade and a strong

centralized government, created by Wudi. The silk road was the creation of a huge demand for the product from all over the then known world

and set the dynasty on a path towards prosperity. The Han would go through a hiatus of sorts, losing power for a short time before coming back not quite as good as ever. They

moved their capital from Chang'an to Luoyang. What made the second incarnation of the

dynasty not as effective was that it was not as responsive to inequities in land distribution which led to a rise in rebellions and general

lawlessness. One of the most powerful rebellions was the Yellow Turban rebellion, named so by the headwear the followers

sported. When the empire collapsed, it did so in pieces. In general, the fall of the Han was due to land distribution and the subsequent rebellions over that policy and an economic

downturn.

Emperor WudiHe was the Han emperor most responsible for the uniformed education

system that all government employees had to successfully complete - one based on Confucianism. He created the imperial university in which

to education these new officials. He is also known for his invasions of Viet Nam and Korea.

“The sound of her silk skirt has stopped.On the marble pavement dust grows.Her empty room is cold and still.Fallen leaves are piled against her doors.How can I bring my aching heart to rest?”

Poem written by the emperor upon the death of one of his favorite concubines, Li Fu-ren.

Julius Caesar (101-44 BCE)He is considered one of the greatest generals in world

history. His success and fame stemmed from his time as

consul and his defeat of Rome's enemies throughout, in

particularly in Gaul (now France). By 45 BCE, he was

able to secure political power in Rome and declared himself dictator of Rome. Sadly and

typical of situations like this, he did not last long as he was

assassinated the following year by some of his own followers.

A bust of Julius on display in Rome

“It is easier to find men who will volunteer to die, than to find those who are willing to

endure pain with patience.”

CarthageLocated in modern-day Tunisia, Carthage was founded in the 9th-century BCE and grew to prominence due to trade. Their government was an oligarchy type with a major weakness being the rivalry between landowning and maritime families. Carthage expanded to include Sicily and Hannibal made Carthaginian control over the island more permanent. By Hannibal’s death, Carthage controlled much of the western Mediterranean region. The growth and economic power of Carthage was bound to make an impression on Rome and the subsequent Punic Wars destroyed

the civilization and ended its influence. It later served as the capital of the Vandals during the Byzantine Empire for a brief period.

Hannibal

We will either find a way or make one.

One of the most famous and accomplished generals of world history but having the sad misfortune of threatening Rome and its everlasting resources, Hannibal’s greatest achievements occurred during the Punic Wars when he invaded Rome through the Alps on the backs of elephants. Prior to the wars, however, he was successful in northwestern Iberia (Spain). Hannibal has been called the “father of strategy” for his tendency of outsmarting or outmaneuvering his opponents – particularly the Romans. While ultimately unsuccessful, the Romans adopted many of his tactics in the subsequent years. In the latter years of his life, he could not regain his earlier glories and committed suicide by swallowing poison.

Silk Road (c.100 BCE-1200s)It was a series of trade routes and roads that connected China with the European

world and along its route, encouraged trade in all parts in between. The two most commonly traded items were silk and spices, used as both medicine and

food flavoring and preservative. Not only did it stand as a route for the exchange and trade of items, it also allowed the traveling of ideas and disease. Initially connecting the Han Chinese and the Romans, later incarnations of the trading

route was overseen by the Tang/Song Chinese and the Mongols.

Christianity and JesusBased on the teachings of Jesus and the efforts of his disciples, Christianity was an offshoot of Judaism at the beginning of the common era. Under heavy persecution by the Romans, the religion began and initially grew in secret. Paul of Tarsus is widely considered the one most responsible for the spread of the faith, after the death of Jesus who Roman authorities sentenced to death by crucifixion. Upon the faith's acceptance by the Roman Empire, it grew and spread. Its major appeal was with the lower classes who were drawn by the promise of paradise for everyone and the egalitarian nature of the faith. “So don’t worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow

will bring its own worries. Today’s trouble is enough for today.”

Paul of TarsusConsidered by some the most important figure in Christianity, Paul is responsible for the earliest arguments and early books of the Christian faith, including several letters and expositions on the philosophy and intent of the nascent religion. He first persecuted the new religious group until confronted by a vision of Jesus while on the road to Damascus. Traveling from Antioch, he spent his life preaching to the Gentiles, pushing the idea that Christianity was not another Jewish sect but a separate religion. He, more than any other is responsible for the spread of Christianity. His ability to travel throughout Rome was due to being a Roman citizen. And he died like one – an outlaw Roman citizen. He was beheaded.

Teotihuacán (100-700s)

Built prior to the Toltecs, it was at the height of its influence when it was sacked by the aforementioned Toltecs. The city, which is extremely organized and structured, includes two famous temples - the Temple of the Sun (background) and the Temple of the Moon (foreground). In all likelihood, it was a theocratic government with priests serving an important and powerful role. The ancient city with the Temple of the Moon in the

foreground and the Temple of the Sun in the distance.

Mayans (300 to 900)

They ruled the northern part of Central America from around 300 to 900 CE. There major achievements included a solar year calendar, an intricate writing system, the idea of "zero" independently of what mathematicians did in India and agrarian techniques like terrace farming which was also devised independently from what those in Southeast Asia and Japan were doing. There most famous settlements included Palenque, Tikal and Chichén Itzá. For some reason, and historians are not terribly sure, the Mayans up and quit their cities and wandered off.

Byzantine Empire (330-1453)It was Constantine, the Roman emperor who first accepted Christianity, who

moved his capital to what became Constantinople. This region, especially upon the fall of Rome, became known as the Byzantine Empire. Its structure and

infrastructure was not unlike Rome – indeed, much of it originated in Rome. The Byzantine economy was much like the rest of the world, with an agricultural area

(the northern area around the Danube), a highly competent craftsman class, restrictions on the power of the wealthy (well, this was kind of unique compared

to other civilizations) and specialized in silk. Given its location, trade was an essential part of its economy. The Empire would meet its end when the Turks

invaded and took Constantinople – later calling it Istanbul.

Gupta Dynasty (350-650)

Started by a guy named Chandra Gupta, the Gupta Empire was the product of

military conquests and alliances with powerful clans

and tribes. Those Gupta conquered were allowed to

govern themselves as long as they remained loyal. The

empire was able to create a great deal of peace and

prosperity during its height. It met its end at the hands of invading White Huns (from

central Asia).

Augustine

Considered one of the fathers of the Christian Church, Augustine gained fame as

a theologian, teaching rhetoric in Carthage. Converting to Christianity and living a

monastic lifestyle, he was assigned the role of bishop of Hippo (modern-day Algeria).

He held the role until he died during a raid of Vandals. His most famous works

included Confessions, a piece on God’s grace and The City of God, on the state of

humanity and the role of Christianity in history. John Calvin was particularly

influenced by Augustine’s ideas on predestination.

Benedict of Nursia

Little is known about the life of Benedict. It was born in Nursia (modern-day Italy) and studied in Rome before giving into a life of a hermit. He was most active during the early 500s. Followers encouraged him to create a monastery. He wrote about the monastic lifestyle. He preached about a moderate lifestyle within a strict social structure. His followers developed an almost cult like devotion to Benedict. He was well-known for his holiness. His first monastery in Monte Cassino in Italy on the site of a pagan holy site was the first of the Benedictine monastery. The Rule of St. Benedict was his famous work explaining and detailing the hermetic lifestyle.

Justinian’s Code (500s)

In the whole of the Byzantine Empire, no ruler was as important as Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565. One of his major advisors was his wife, Theodora. He had many great achievements in the areas of architecture and conquest but it was the codification of Roman law to apply to the Byzantine Empire that he is likely most known for. His Corpus iuris civilis (Body of the Civil Law) was the detail of law as it applied to his people.

A mosaic tile rendering of Justinian

“Safety of the state is the highest law.”

Frankish Empire (481-840)

The Franks were able to unify modern-day France, Germany and the Low Countries based on agriculture. The strongest, most able leader was Clovis I whose exploits included ending Roman control over Gaul (France), converting to and establishing Christianity, gaining instant credibility from the pope. The Christian union of the Franks was responsible for the repelling of the Muslims at Tours in 732. The battle halted Muslim influence into Western Europe.

ClovisThe founding ruler of the Frankish kingdom, Clovis kicked the last Roman ruler out of Gaul in 486. In doing so, he began the process of uniting the Franks. Married to a Roman Catholic, he later converted to Christianity after using the name of God to defeat the Alemanni in the late 490s. He was the first Germanic ruler to accept Christianity. During his rule, he extended his territory with victories over the Burgundians and the Visigoths. He is considered the founder of the French monarchy. Upon his death, his kingdom, in the tradition of the Franks, was split among his four sons.

Carolingian Empire(800-888)

Referring to the rule of Charlemagne, the Franks fell under one centralized rule of a man considered incredibly intelligent and militarily and diplomatically gifted. He was sanctioned by the Roman Catholic Church and in the creation of his own bureaucracy, he established imperial officials (missi dominici) to oversea the actions of local authorities. After his death in 814, subsequent leaders lost control over different parts of the empire from the bureaucracy and territory due to incompetence and external pressures in the form of the Muslims, Magyars and Vikings.

CharlemagneHe was the Frankish king that oversaw most of Europe and was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III. Known as Karl der Grosse in German, the grandson of Charles Martel was a brilliant military strategist, a competent administrator and known for his promotion of the arts and education while fighting everyone from Saxony to the Mediterranean Sea. He was at once pious and bloodthirsty – once beheading over 4,000 Saxons in one day. In an otherwise difficult period for European history, his rule represented relative peace and order. He codified the laws within his boundaries as well as increased the use of writing within his government and in society.