World History

With the modern era, feudal system began to decline and king assumed enormous power. King was also able to influence life of citizen in every respect. Governors were appointed and were salaried persons. The decisions were taken based on law rather than personal whims.

With accumulation of resources, the modem European state imposed uniformity on its citizens, thereby creating nation and nationalism. If all citizens were the product of the same culture, the capacity to act on them, to predict responses, to satisfy preferences, indeed to create a set of common choices, was greatly enhanced. On the other hand, a divided people suggested a fragmented state or a number of different centres of power. This was the case under feudalism which was overcome by royal absolutism imposing the will of a single centre. This was done by the people, now called citizens, being required to submit themselves to the same set of principles that governed their society. The most famous and typical of these doctrines is that of equality of all before the law.

Most powerful instrument of homogenization was education. The modem European state was singularly active in the field of education. This system it ensured a common set of values. A single culture thus spread over a territory ruled form a single centre of power; and this is what is known as the nation-state.

Renaissance: it marked the period from beginning of 1300 AD. Renewed interest in learning of ancient Greek and Roman. It is much more than revisiting achievement of ancient Greeks and Romans. This also involves renewed interest in developing literature, science etc.

Reformation: It led to development of separate churches separated from catholic churches from about late 16th century.

During the later medieval times, towns and cities began to develop as economic centres rather than administrative and political. These towns have their own government which was elected and away from the control of feudal lords. They had their own militia and courts. Unlike surfs there was no restriction on movement of people. Commodities were sold here and all payments were in cash. This helped in promoting a monetary economy. Cultivation of cash crops i.e., for market was encouraged. Previously, wealth was in the form of land and personal belonging. This wealth was locked as the higher class did not support investment of wealth and expansion of economic activities. In later time, with the rise of towns, capital is considered as wealth. This is invested to make more profit and hence more economic activities were encouraged.

Voyages of discovery: These are funded by rulers and merchants and helped in finding routes to distant lands and redrawing old maps.

Feudal Society: There are three class: 1) Prayers or clergy 2) Soldiers or Knight 3) Workers or Peasants. With the growth of towns, middle class emerged mainly of merchants. Non-agricultural products for households were manufactured within houses. With the advent of towns, this production shifts to towns. This led to formation of guilds. But this system was not conducive for large production and hence later declined. Later, putting out system was put in place. With this, craftsman lost ownership of their produce, they only own their tools. This system gave way to factory system of concentrated production. This was first introduced in mining and metal-working. This led to the rise of working class.

In feudal system, lords and also the church owned vast stretches of land. Church had tremendous influence over intellectual life of people and it suppresses any new ideas against the doctrine of

church. Rebellions began to rise against church. Rise of towns had resulted in reducing the authority of church and lords. Feuds also began to exercise authority with the help of townsmen.

Renaissance: It means revival of interest in the learning of the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome. Scholars from Constantinople migrated to Italy and from Italy to Constantinople in search of Greek and Rome classics. Hundreds of classical writings unknown to European were started to circulate. It was merely was not a mere revival of ancient learning and knowledge of the achievements of the ancient Greece and Rome. It was also marked by a series of new developments in the field of art, literature, religion, philosophy, science and politics. Renaissance began in Italy because 1) it controlled the trade route between east and Europe and brought greatest prosperity to Italian cities. Italian cities grew in the atmosphere of freedom which encouraged free thinking. Freedom encouraged adventures. 2) Rulers were patrons of learning and arts.

Church dominated cultural and intellectual life of the people. Renaissance undermined this domination by reviving pre Christian classical learning of ancient Greece and Rome. Chief Characteristic: Humanism instead of divine matters was the soul of this. Humanism: Renaissance believed that man is full of capability and ability to attain happiness on its own. It advocated freedom of man to bring out his full ability. It rejected the advocacy of divinity as preached by the church. It was said that man has to enjoy the world and work for betterment in this world and not seek to go to heaven. Human have capability to reason and think rationally.

It propagated the right of men to enjoy worldly pleasures opposed to religious asceticism. It means glorification of nature and men as opposed to divine and other-worldly. It sought to seek joy on earth rather than after life which church advocated. It believed that a man with the active mind and body was capable of control and understands happiness. Men were the soul rather than divinity.

Art: Artists took subjects from the Bible but portrayed the human form in all its earthly beauty and vigour. The difference between medieval and modern painting is that the medieval painting used subjects from Bible and gave them a religious interpretation expressing moral values and religious teachings. Artists in medieval times were mostly anonymous and did not get recognition from society for their work. Renaissance artist: They used art as an imitation of life. This requires close observation of nature, man, mountain, trees etc. They studied optics and geometry and used their knowledge to develop paintings. They studied human anatomy to find mechanism underlying gestures and expressions. Lionardo-Da-Vinci: He studied anatomy of body to understand the movements but also how parts of body take shape while in movement. Perfection was not only divine but now also human.

Early renaissance artists pictured Christian subjects and covered walls with heaven, hell and last judgement. Later artists, depicted non-religious themes and also Christian subjects in Greco-Roman form. The emphasis was humanistic.

Sculpture also developed with paintings. Previously only images were created but now free standing sculpture were also developed which means later sculpture were not carved on walls of the buildings. Growing knowledge of human anatomy also influenced sculptures. Previously, only images of saints and depiction of religious themes as part of architecture.

Literature: 1) use of local language in literature. 2) Previously, the language of most literature was Latin which only handful of people could understand. This also helped in raising national conciseness.

Invention of printing press encouraged reading and writing which was invented in first half of 15 th

century by Gutenber and caster. First book published was Gutenber Bible.

Modern Science: Any view in contradiction with the teaching of church was punished in earlier times. This hindered free thinking. Renaissance thinkers believe that in order to gain knowledge one has to go to the nature and explore himself. A rational attitude is necessary to advance science.

Reformation: Two developments: 1) Protestant reformation which resulted in a split in Christianity and the succession of a large number of countries from the Roman Catholic Church and establishment of a separate Churches in those countries generally on national lines. 2) Reforms within Roman Catholic Church. This was not only a religious movement but also social.

Catholic: Hierarchical organisation with pope at top in Rome. “Papal Monarchy”. Making oral confession was made mandatory in one year. Punishment imposed was made obligatory over everyone. Those who refuted were excommunicated i.e., temporarily consigned to hell and no burial can take place as per ritual. Other Christians were forbidden to be associated with him.

Theory of Sacrament: It is an instrument by which God’s grace can be communicated to someone. It is taken as necessary to secure god’s grace or there will be no salvation. This theory says that priest has power to co-operate with god and do miracles.

Theory of Priesthood: Priest who was ordained by a Bishop was inherited of a part of the authority conferred by Christ on peter. Priest has power to co-operate with God and release people of sins.

Appointments in church were ridden with corrupt means. These people led lives of luxury and immortality. Pope and higher priests led lives of princes. Higher appointments were done in corrupt ways. These appointees were ignorant of their duties and involved only to enjoy luxury. Due to selling of the higher officers led to higher charging of fee for rituals. Another abuse was of sale of letter of indulgences to remit punishment of the sinners who bought them. This was the most immediate cause for Protestant Reformation. The priests imposed a penance or punishment on a person on a person who had sinned and he was required to perform a special service or make a pilgrimage to a holy place. This was started to buy with money. Any opinion contrary to the church dogma was considered heretical and was punished.

Martin Luther: Catholic Church use Latin language. It was believed that people accept authority of scriptures and hence they have a right to know what is written in those scriptures. Hence translation of these scriptures followed. Protestant revolution had begun in 1517. 1) Abandoned supreme authority of the Catholic Church. 2) Supreme authority of scriptures 3) translation of scriptures into local languages so that people can understand them. 4) Emphasized faith rather than pilgrimage, eliminated sacrament and special status of priests. Luther is supported by Germany people and ruler who wanted to control the monastery wealth in Germany. It also gave an opportunity to people and ruler to be free of authority of pope and church.

Martin Luther: Introduced german in church. Abolished special status of priests as representative of god and eliminated most of the sacraments and emphasized faith rather than pilgrimage. Supreme authority to scriptures and state is supreme than church.

Lowering of status of church was accompanied by autocratic rulers. These rulers wanted to have divine power just like church and also authority over everything including church and priests. Church own property and also the fee of rituals go to rome which people disliked. There were privileges for

high class which people disliked. Kings wanted to take over the powers of church because they generate wealth for them. Protestant was trying to create churches based on nationality.

Catholic Reformation also took place during this period.

Voyage Discoveries: The motive was to expand trade and generate capital for further investment. After 1453 turks cut off the trade lines from Europe to the east this forced these countries to find alternate maritime routes. Previously, vetican hold the monopoly over European trade to asia. This was later transferred to Portugal.

Nation-states: These emerged with the rise of national monarchies and the earliest being England and France. In order to subjugate feudal lords, kings were helped by merchants and traders.

Revolution against autocratic rulers: It started from England. In 1215, king john accepted magna carta. This charter protected barons from royal authority and also from arbitrary taxation.

Industrial Revolution: the new class emerged in Europe was capitalist class. The instrument and means to produce goods and services were owned by individuals to make profit. The workers did not own anything but worked for wages. The profit could be increased with more production which needs more market. Discoveries of new lands provided market and raw materials. This required better modes of production to reduce cost and also to meet the demand. Industrial revolution in England began in 1750s. With the new geographical discoveries trade expanded, slave trade for plantation also helped in generating wealth in England. This called for modern ways of production. Abolition of serfdom provided ready and cheap labour. Enclosure movement in Britain led to consolidation of land by big landlords which forced marginal or landless and also small land owners to be evicted from the land and hence became free to provide required labour in factories. The government in Britain was stable and merchant class has high representation which free them from any govt interference. Ship industry was prospering and hence ready means for transportation were also available.

Textile: New machines for spinning and ginning and thread making were developed. Cartwright invented a power loom.

In 1769, James watt invented steam engine. This made possible to produce goods on a really big scale. More machines were needed for which new method of smelting were needed. Invention of blast furnace provided boost to steel production. Later, steam engines were used to run railways. Mc Adam devised method to build permanent roads.

Agriculture: Land enclosure, crop rotation, steel plough etc. provided high productivity.

England was well ahead then other European countries which led to use of protective tariffs on import.

Effects of urbanisation: Crowding of people led to inhumane conditions of living, growth of slums, lost social bonds of village community. Men became free to develop their capability. Conditions in one part began to influence conditions in other parts. Social inequality due to rise of capital class and worker class.

American revolution: Colonies were established by England, Spain, Holland and France. Bulk of population was consisted of independent farmers. Each british colony had assembly which was elected. English Policies: 1) Non British ship were forbidden for transportation. 2) Certain products such as tobacco, sugar and cotton could be exported only to Britain. 3) Heavy duties on products

import from other than British. 4) Forbidden to start certain industries such as iron and textiles. 5) By a proclamation westward movement was banned. This was because British bought land in western tracts and got rent. If people moved to west then they would not get rent as people will get more land.

Due to continuous wars in Europe, Britain was debt ridden and needed money in 1765. English parliament passed stamp act which imposed stamp taxes on all business transactions in American colonies. This aroused violent resentment and led to boycott of british goods. Colonist claimed that since English parliament had no representation from America and hence they had no right to impose taxes. They also said that such tax will not be used for American purposes. Massachusetts Assembly: Leaders from all colonies to consider their common problem. They declared that English parliament has no right to tax. They threatened to stop import of british goods. English repealed stamp act but still insisted for its right to levy tax. Then parliament imposed tax on consumer goods that were coming into colonies. Again colonies objected with same reason. Colonies cut the English import by 1/2. English later withdrew it leaving only tax on tea to assert their claim to tax. Boston Tea Party: In 1773, several colonies refused to unload tea from English ship due to tax on tea. In boston, governor ordered unloading, citizens get onto the ship and threw tea baskets into sea. British closed all ports of boston for trade. Philadelphia congress: Representation from all 13 colonies met here in 1774. Appealed to british king to remove restriction on industries and trade and also not to impose any taxes. King ordered troops to take care of situation. Colonies planned for armed revolt. In 1776, second congress took place and adopted declaration for independence. The declaration recognised natural rights of people and concept of equality. People are source of authority and affirmed people’s right to set up their govt. Upto this point colonies were fighting for their rights as Englishmen but not they were to fight for independence. Jefferson authored the declaration of independence and led addition of right of bill. Significance: Natural right of man and concept of equality.

French Revolution: Three estates: 1) Clergy 2) nobles 3) common man. First two enjoyed privileges while later paid taxes. Third estate: 1) peasants: serfdom was abolished. Majority was landless. 2) Middle class. All three estate were represented in feudal assembly but due to their large proportion third estate declared themselves as National Assembly. They worked out a constitution. Later, this new assembly began to enact legislations. It adopted declaration to accept equality before law, open public offices, freedom of speech etc. It called for equitable distribution of tax burden and private property. This called for destruction of old feudal system. Jacobian: They believe in direct democracy. All people were given right to vote. Govt to provide work to people. Happiness was the aim of the govt. Abolition of slavery in French colonies. This was first democratic society unlike Americans. Significance: Destruction of feudalism. Land of church were bought by common people. Privileges were abolished. The idea of sovereignty was realised by way of constitution which flowed from people. Ideas of equality, liberty and freedom were propagated which helped other nations to organise similar revolutions.

Russia, Britain, Austria, Prussia and France formed Holy Alliance to stop such revolutionary trends and protect the autocratic rule in their countries. They were opposed to rights and democratic ideas. This was unsuccessful as many revolts broke and leaders were forced to bring reforms.

Unification of germany: In 18th century germany was divided into a number of states and most powerful was Prussia. This had hampered economic development of Germany. In 1815, german states along with astria was formed Germanic Confederation. Revolutionary revolts in 1848 got some reforms from rulers and in Frankfurt, a constitutional assemble was formed there which called for unification under Prussia monarchy. This offer was rejected by Prussia. Hence efforts were unsuccessful in building single nation. This task then took up by autocratic rulers by force. Bismark:

he followed a policy of Blood and Iron. This was a policy of war. First aim was to eliminate Austria from Germanic confederation. He united northern states after removal of Austria into new german confederation in 1866. Prussian king was made hereditary monarch. War between france and Prussia led to defeat of Prussia and annexation of german territory from him. This completed unification of germany. French also became republic after this defeat.

Italy: Italian people were faced to unify Italy where Italians were living under various foreign powers. The movement was called as Young Italy. It was aimed and independence and unification and establishment of republic.

After French revolution the condition of people did not change. A secret society Bebeuf’s Conspiracy was established to overthrow the govt for socialism cause.

Utopian socialism: New social system. From each according to his capacity to each according to work. Society free from exploitation. Workers to contribute their best and enjoy fruits which are shared. Methods were impractical and ineffective.

Internationalism was an important feature of socialism. 1847: Communist league.

Marx: Scientific socialism: workers produce more value than they get as wage. Difference is appropriated by capitalist as profit. Profit can be increased at the cost of workers. Therefore, interest of the two class are irreconcilable. Economic crisis was unavoidable due to the difference in purchasing capacity of workers and total production. The only solution is to dissolve private ownership of land and elimination of profit motive. Production to be carried out for social welfare. Classless society with no difference between what is good for society and individual.

1864: International working men’s association of first international. Total abolition of class rule. Universal character of working class. This international was persecuted by governments.

Imperialism and Colonialism: The subordination of one country by another which involves exploitation through military or other means is called as imperialism. Direct control is not a necessity of imperialism, exploitative character should be present. In other words, the control over territory outside its limits to exploit the territory for one’s own benefit qualifies as imperialism. Exploitation could be political or economical.

With the discovery of new area through voyages, Europeans settle in these new areas permanently. In the start coastal regions were occupied in Africa, this was the time of slave trade.

Reasons for imperialism: The capitalist mode of production called for increased production and low wages to earn more profit. Low wages means low purchasing power capacity of people. Hence, production was more than demand. New markets have to be found. Selling in other European countries was also difficult because of protection tariff. In addition to this, increased supply of raw materials was needed which only colonies could provide. Imperial powers have changed the pattern of production from food to cash crops and from subsidence agriculture to market led agriculture. Better means of transport due to scientific discoveries.

Towards the end of 19th century, Asia, Africa and South Africa became good investment destinations because of 1) abundance of raw material 2) number of people who could work on low wages. The investment was not to industrialize but to setup industries like mining aimed mainly for export. This was led by banks which had some control over industries through credit. Strong political control is necessary to safeguard investment. Annexation of morocco by France is because of the call

of French capitalist. Extreme Nationalism: People wanted to be superior. This trend was started because of newly weld nation-states tried to show their superiority over other. Adding colonies in their empire was expected to believe that their status will improve. Colonies such as Aden, Cyprus, Hong Kong and Singapore were acquired to protect the sea trade lines by British. Colonies are acquired one after other to protect other colonies. The military manpower increased at no extra cost.

Christian missionaries wanted to spread Christianity and hence supported Imperialism. There was a thought that European races are superior and it is their burden to civilize inferior races and hence imperialism is a noble effort on their part.

New discoveries also helped in expanding imperialism because of new market possibilities.

Asia and Africa: Lower industrial production and technological development lead to inferior military power as compared to European powers. Low cost mass production gave edge to European good over Indian goods even though Indian good were of high quality. Strong nation-states did not develop.

China: Before the opium wars, only two ports were open for them to trade. There was no market for British goods in China. They used to purchase silk, tea etc from china. To create a market, British used to smuggle opium into china and used that money to finance their purchase. In 1839, Chinese seized the opium consignment of British and destroyed it, British attacked China and easily destroyed it. Chinese were forced to pay war damages and also to open 5 ports for British. The British subjects will be tried only in British court rather than Chinese Court. Other countries also adopted the differential judicial process and are called as extraterritorial rights. Chinese were also not allowed to import tariff on foreign goods. Also Hong Kong was turned over to British.

Later, France and British again declared war on China to grant more privileges. Korea was under Chinese lordship, Japan in order to increase its influence attacked China. Korea was given independence and China also ceded some island to Japan and also war damages. British, France, Russia and Germany gave loan to China to pay damages but divided China in their sphere of influences.

USA had apprehension that China will be sold out to European power and hence it suggested Open Door Policy. Or Me Too Policy. According to this policy, all countries have equal rights to trade with China. Britain supported this policy because it was afraid that Russia and Japan can easily overtake china due to their geographical proximity.

Scramble for privilege stopped in China after a revolution called as Boxer Rebellion. Foreign powers were victorious and levied heavy damages on China as punishment. Though china was not annexed by any power but with grant of privilege in collusion with Chinese overlord was reduced to colony in exchange for loans.

Sphere of influence is called as cutting of Chinese Melon.

Russia and Britain were trying to exercise their area of influence over Iran. They setup bank their to increase their economic influence. Southern part was under British influence and Northern was under Russian influence, central part was neutral and open to trade by both countries. Russia and Britain reached agreement to let Tibet independent and over Afghanistan Russia declared it outside of its influence while Britain agreed not to annex it till it remain loyal to Britain.

After Russian revolution in 1917, new govt gave up its right over Iran and it was then came under total influence of Britain. Iran was though independent. Later, oil was found in Iran and USA and

Britain setup industries there. After the overthrow of Chinese monarchy in 1911, Tibet came under British influence. USA with show of force through naval power in 1853, forced japan to open up economy, later similar agreement were signed with other European powers. In 1867, with Meiji restoration, change of govt took place which started to modernise the economy. Japan became one of the most developed country of the world and with this its imperial aim began to grow as it had very less raw material of itself. Japan controlled Korea and also defeated Russia to gain influence in China.

Africa: In the start, coastal areas were dominated by European powers which led to start of slave trade. In America, Spanish rule has resulted in large-scale extermination of original inhabitants. Portuguese established slave centre at Lisbon and captured slaves from Africa to sell them to European traders. Before this arabs were doing slave trade. Some American traders also traded slaves in exchange of fire arms from Europeans.

Europeans also directly captured slaves. Later when demand of slaves increased in America, direct trade from Africa to America took place.

Later, Royal charter was given for company to trade in slave.

By early nineteenth century, slave trade lost its importance. In order to conquer Africa, slave trade needs to be scrapped because European powers can wage wars in order to portray that war is waged to eliminate African slave traders.

In the start coastal areas were occupied by the European powers. There were only two interior areas captured by Europeans, in the north was Algeria and in the south was cape colony. Large number of Europeans settled in cape colony and this area had largest number of European settlers called as Boers and had taken to farming.

Explorer explored the area, missionaries went there to spread Christianity and this was followed by Traders. European governments supported their traders by troops and other supports.

Africans were economically weak and also had outdated firepower given to them by Europeans for slave trade. They could not continue long wars against Europeans and also could not face the sophisticated weapons of Europeans. Divided states among and within themselves, rulers took European help to counter their rivals.

European powers fought among themselves and later reached to an agreement to divide Africa among themselves. In 1884-85, Congress in berlin took place to decide how to divide Africa among themselves. No representation from African state was there on the congress.

Partition of Africa was nearly completed by end of 19 th century. This is called as paper partition as actual plans were made on paper and realisation took longer using military power. About 30% of all lines diving areas are in straight lines.

Cape colony was in South Africa.

Abyssinia now Ethiopia was an independent state. Italy made an attempt to invade it but with the help of French arms it defeated Italy in a battle known as Battle of Adowa. This was the only battle where European power was defeated.

In 1823, President of USA had proclaimed the Munroe Doctrine which warned the European powers against any attempt to extend their power in western hemisphere. New dimension added to this

doctrine in 1895, when there was territorial dispute between Guyana and Nicaragua arose. US forced Britain not to send troops. At this time US declared that it is sovereign on the continent. Later in 1904, there was a British naval blockade to Venezuela. USA opposed this which led to removal of blockade. USA mentioned that only it has power to settle the internal dispute of states in American continent. The blockade was done because Venezuela was not able to pay the loan.

The USA, has expanded its influence through annexation in areas nearby American continents. This policy is called as Big Stick Policy and international policeman. The influence is spread through economic investments called as Dollar Diplomacy. The influence in south America was due to weak govt in that region. The countries of SA were politically independent but they are economically dependent upon USA.

A French company took up the construction of panama canal in Colombia. In 1901, USA decided to undertake the canal project alone and entered an agreement with Colombia. Colombia was to give right to USA to use Canal Zone across her territory in lieu of annual rent. Colombian parliament refused to ratify the agreement. USA organised local revolt and send troops there. USA recognised panama as an important state. New agreement was signed with panama to use canal for annual rent.

Effects of imperialism: 1) Destruction of local industries and economic backwardness. 2) Natural resources were exploited and exported. 3) Commercialisation of agriculture. 4) Racial discrimination. 5) Destruction of local culture and religion.

By the end of 19th century whole of the Asia and Africa was divided among world powers. Previously as all countries were able to conquer part that is not already conquered, hence instead of war powers come to a agreement. In 1914, no further conquer can be done and hence war became logical.

Germany entered imperialism lately. After unification, industrialisation started in a big way in Germany. Iron and steel production was highest in the world. Germany also got involved in ship making and made world’s largest ship. Asia and Africa were already under imperialist power and hence Germany tried to expand towards east.

Ottoman empire was on the decline. They laid a railway line between Berlin and Baghdad. Russia, France and Britain were afraid because this will increase German influence and diminish their.

Europe: Major Powers of Europe were Britain, Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and France. They all were concerned over Balkan Countries. These Balkan countries were under Ottoman Empire in 19th century. All the six European countries were waiting to annex these states due to the declining power of Ottoman Empire. Russia started Pan-Slav movement which means that all slav of eastern Europe were one people.

Austria-Hungary had some Slav in its area. So Russia encouraged movements against Austria and Ottoman Empire. Serbia led this movement to unite all Slav areas in ottoman and Austria. Similarly germany encouraged Pan-German movement. France want to take revenge of its defeat in 1870 from germany and acquire lost territories.

European countries began to organise military, new weapons etc. Propaganda of hatred against other countries to create a narrative of war was also started.

Triple alliance in 1882 between Austria, Italy and Germany. Italy loyalty was not certain because it wants to take away Italian people territory from Austria.

Triple Entente was created between France, Britain and Russia in 1907.

Immediate Reasons: 1) Britain and France signed a secret agreement in 1904, Britain to have Egypt while France will take over Morocco. German emperor went to morocco and promised full help for independence. War was averted when France gave a part of French Congo. 2) In 1908, Austria annexed Ottoman provinces of Bosnia. Russia threatened for a war and this was did not like by Serbia which was aspiring for pan-slav. Russia backed off when Germany supported Austria.

Balkan War: In 1912, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro started war against Turks. Turks lost all their possession in Europe. There was another war to distribute the territories among themselves. Austria with its clout got Albania independent leading to setback for Serbia.

New weapons were introduced in WW1: Machine gun and liquid fire were among them. For the first time aircrafts were used for bombing civilian population. Britain introduced tanks. Poison gas was also used.

In order to break supplies of the other side, naval warfare became important. German used their U-boats to sink enemy as well as neutral county boats heading for British ports.

USA declared war on Germany in 1917, when Germany sink its boat called as Lusitania. USA was important arms and ammunition provider to Entente countries. Entente countries took large loans in USA to pay for supplies. If they do not won then it would be difficult for them to pay back. If germany won the war it would become rival to USA.

In 1917, October revolution led to the formation of Bolshevik government. They were opposed to war since the beginning. Lenin signed peace treaty with Germany in 1918 and withdrew from the war without any annexation etc. Germany imposed hard terms on Germany. Foreign interventions in pro czar favour led to a civil war leading to Bolshevik win after 3 years.

End of war: Socialist parties in various countries propose convening of International Socialist Conference to draft proposals for ending the war without annexation and recognition of the right of people to self determination. Conference could not be held. The proposal of the Bolshevik government in Russia to conclude peace without annexation and indemnities and on the basis of self determination was welcomed by many people in countries at war.

Later, pope also made proposal for peace but none were taken seriously.

Uprising and mutinies were seen in countries inspired by the success of October revolution to overthrow the government.

In 1918, USA, Woodrow Wilson proposed 14 point. 1) open negotiations 2) freedom of navigation 3) reduction of armaments 4) independence of Belgium 5) restoration of Alsace-lorraine to France 6) creation of independent states in Europe 7) International organisation to guarantee independence of all states. Some of these points were accepted when peace was made at the end of war.

Revolution in germany led to overthrow of monarchy and establishment of republic. After this germany surrendered and war was over.

Peace: Defeated countries were not invited to peace conference. Britain, France and USA were main developer of treaty. Russia was also excluded. The treaty was not result of negotiations but imposition in the face of threat of invasion. Treaty of Versailles: With germany in 1919. Germany was declared

as guilty of aggression. Alsace-Lorraine were returned to France. The saar region of Germany, coal mine area was ceded to France for 15 years and it was to be governed by League of Nations. Germany also ceded pre-war time territories to Denmark, Belgium etc. Demilitarisation of Rhine area and disarming of germany. Its army was reduced to 1 lakh and not to have airforce and submarines. Germany was disposed of all colonies. China was aligned with Allies during WW1 and also represented at Paris Conference. Germany was required to pay war and damages.

Austria was broken up to ensure independence of Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland and Czechoslovakia.

New Balkan nations were created. Baltic countries under Russia were made independent.

Ottoman empire was completely disarmed. Britain and Mesopotamia (iraq) went to Britain and Syria went to France. These were called as mandates. In theory, Mandatory powers like Britain and France were to look after the well beings of mandate people but in reality these were treated as colonies.

League of nation was formed as a world organisation of all independent states. It bounds its members to not to resort to war, preserve peace and peaceful means of settlement and guaranteed independence. It allowed for sanctions. Military and economic actions can be taken against any country which committed aggression.

ILO was setup to improve the condition of labour and social conditions.

Failures of LoN: 1) Russia and Germany were not members while India was a member. 2) USA decided not to join it. 3) Not an effective organisation. In 1930, many countries resorted to aggression while LoN was a silent spectator.

LoN ratified distribution of spoils after the wars in form of territories which were imposed. Most of the territories which went to victorious powers were mandates and could not be annexed.

USA emerged as world power after the war and Europe lost its economic and military supremacy. Strengthening of freedom movement in Asia and Africa. Soviet Union soon came up as super power. The super power Soviet Union declared her support to freedom movement in other countries strengthened the freedom movements. The Allies propaganda of democracy and freedom and involvement of soldiers from Asia and Africa also strengthened the freedom movements. The war destroyed the supremacy of European race because Asians and Africans also fought shoulder to shoulder, this help in strengthening the freedom movements. Large amount of colony resources were used in the war which created resentment.

Russian Revolution: Europe was undergoing important social, economic and political transformation. Russia was still under “old world” under Czar. Serfdom was abolished in 1861 but it did not improve the situation of peasants. They still had small land holdings with no capital to develop them. They also had to pay redemption dues to decades and which hunger for land provided social base for revolution. Russian industrial revolution came late and with foreign capital. Foreign investors wanted quick return and hence paid low wages. Russian capitalist had less capital and in order to be competitive they also paid less to workers. Czar occupied many territories with diverse nationalities. They imposed Russian language on these people and also tried to influence their culture. Changes in Europe influenced many thinkers in Russia. Their efforts brought end to serfdom.

In the last quarter of the 19th century, there was a movement known as going to the people when intellectuals started preaching their ideas to the peasants. Worker organisations were setup after industrialization begun were dominated by ideas of socialism. 1883, Russian Social Democratic Party was formed by George Plekhanov. All socialist parties was united into the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898. This party soon split into Mensheviks and Bolsheviks. Mensheviks believed in participating in elections just like France and Germany and were in minority. Bolsheviks were in majority and they believed that, in a country with democratic setup, there is no point in participating in election and there is a need for revolution and cadre be abide by the party.

In 1904, Japan defeated Russia, this strengthened the revolutionary movements. In 1905, a group fo peaceful workers with family went to Czar palace in St. Petersburg to present petition to Czar, were fired upon. This is called as Bloody Sunday. Army and Naval forces revolted against such incidents. This led to development of Soviets or worker’s representatives. Beginning with committees to conduct strikes, they wielded political powers. Later Soviets of peasants were also formed. Later Czar declared setting up of Duma to make laws and also freedom of speech, press and associations. The view was to make Russia a constitutional monarchy. 1095 revolution brought army, non-russian revolutionary into close contact with Russian revolutionaries.

Czar took Russia to WW1. Corruption, high commodity prices, low modernisation caused Russia defeat and death of soldiers. This raised the discontent among the people. Lenin demanded two things: 1) People should believe that revolution is the only way 2) Existing government should be in crisis to overthrow it.

Revolution: It was started with working women demonstration for purchasing bread. Later general worker strike followed which was joined by soldier. Czar gave in and provincial government was formed in 1917. Fall of Czar is called as February revolution because according to older calendar it happened on 27 Feb 1917.

Demands of people: 1) Peace 2) Land to the tiller 3) Control of industry by worker 4) Equal status for non-russian nationalities. Provincial government under its leader did not fulfil these demands and lost people support. Lenin was in exile at the time of February revolution came to Russia and put forward clear roadmap for peace, land to tiller and power to soviets. His party was Bolsheviks Party. He also declared equal status to non-russians. He recognised the right to self-determination. Provincial government fell and All Russian Congress of Soviets met and assumed full political power. This is called as October revolution.

Congress of soviets withdrew from the war and bought peace with Germany after giving territories asked by Germany. Estates of church, landlords and Czar were taken away and distributed for personal cultivation. Control of industries was transferred to Shop Committees of workers. Important industries were nationalised, foreign debt was decided not to pay and foreign investment was confiscated. Proclamation of self determination was issued. New government called as Council of People’s Commissars headed by lenin was formed. October revolution was peaceful.

Civil war broke out by the supporters of Czar. Troops of foreign powers also joined them. Red army was consisted of Workers and peasants but it won over the armed rebels of Czar and allied forces.

Consequences of revolution: 1) Abolition of autocratic rule. 2) Formation of USSR on basis of socialism. 3) Abolition of private property. 4) Economic planning started. 5) Right to work 6) Education was given high priority. 7) Equality of all nationalities was recognised in the constitution. 8) Autonomy to develop distinct culture and language. 9) After revolution Third International or

Comintern was formed. All communist parties in the work paid their allegiance to it. It organised and promoted policies for revolution all around that world. Communist parties came up in most of the countries. Socialism helped in mitigating discrimination based on caste, race, sex etc. It also helped in spreading internationalism and universalism. It also hastened the spread of imperialism. Soviet union was first to call for independence of all countries. Soviet Union had annulled all unequal treaties that Czar imposed on China. It brought the idea of equality, not only in political but also in social and economic sphere.

Facist: They suppress democracy and Socialism. Establishment of dictatorship. The term originated in Italy. Italy: Mussolini organised armed gangs against socialist and communist in 1919. Italian government was dominated by capitalist and landlords. In 1921, election were held where socialist won most seats but not majority. He organised a march in Rome. Italian King called Mussolini to become part of the government. Fascist believes that no two nations can live in peace. One must expand to survive. They also glorified war.

Economic Depression of 1929: Increase in commodity prices after WW1 in America. More than half the population lived below subsidence level. The stock market crashed in 1929. American banks closed down leading to loss of savings. Business and agriculture could not able to get credit. Industries fired workers leading to lack of purchasing power capacity. Goods could not be sold leading to further closing down of factories. This situation spread to other European countries in 1931. After WW1 economies except Russia were dependent on American Banks. Consequences: 1) Loss of production 2) unemployment 3) Poverty.

The crisis was caused by overproduction. In capitalist economy, capitalist increased profit by producing more and more. The pay of worker was less and hence lack of market. Prices had to be brought down to sell them. But prices cannot be reduced because that will led to loss of profit. Goods remained unsold and factories closed down to stop further production. This leads to further erosion of purchasing power and unemployment. Lakhs of tonnes of wheat was burnt to stop the prices from falling even when lakhs were starving. The reconstruction programme was called as New Deal.

Russia: After WW1 russia was under economic strain. Production was below pre-war level. 1) Peasants were made to part with their produce after leaving out for their use. They were not allowed to sell in the market. Salaries were made to pay in kind and not in cash. These measures were resented but were accepted to save the revolution. After civil war these measures were called off and New Economic Policy was introduced in 1921. 1) Peasants were allowed to sell in the market. 2) salaries in cash 3) Some private industries were allowed. In 1929, First five year plan was introduced. Russia achieved heavy industrialisation. Other countries followed economic boycott to shatter Russian economy.

Russia: Small farms were hindrance in mechanization of farms. State introduced its own farms and also promoted collective farming. By 1937, all lands were under collective farming. Individual ownership were eliminated. Lenin died in 1924 and stalin became the leader. Political democracy and freedom of expression were destroyed. Stalin assumed dictatorial power. Development of art and literature also suffered due to lack of freedom. In 1934, Russia became member of LoN.

Turkey: Ottoman empire lost the war and many arab region were given to British and France as Mandates. The ruler of turkey accepted the dictated treaty. People began to rise against the rule of European powers. Some of its parts were also given to Italy and Turkey. This led to Khilafat movement. Even before treaties were signed, national government under Mustafa kemal was organised. This government signed a friendship treaty with soviet in 1921 under which arms and

political support were given to Turkey. After treaty with Turkish sultan, Greece invaded turkey but government under kemal repealed it. European powers were forced to leave turkey and return the annexed territory. Turkey became completely independent. Education was taken out of religious leaders. Religion was separated from the state. Institution of caliph was abolished. Modernisation was started and it became republic and feudal elements were abolished.

China: China was under imperialist influence. In 1911 there was a revolution which resulted in establishment of a republic. But the power went to warlords. National movement in China aimed at the overthrow of foreign domination and unification of china by ending the rule of the warlords. The founder was Sun Yat Sen. He played role in 1911 and 1917. He set up a government in South China. Party formed was called as Kuomintang. Russia supported Chinese struggle. In 1921 communist party of china was formed which worked with Knomintang. Russia provided active support. In 1925 Sun yet sen died and unity between party broke and civil war started. In 1930 japnese attacked china, both parties re-united to repeal aggression. Communist party played important role in fighting against Japan. Communist party came out victorious in the civil wars.

Africa: Major independence movements were started after WW2 but after WW1 first association for the purpose was formed called as Pan-African Congress. This movement asserted African identity and independence. African National Congress was formed in SA, first country where such struggle started.

Japan, Italy and Germany united to fight against communism by the pack Anti-commitern Pact in 1937. Soviet union called for formation of socialist front in countries to counter fascist in 1935. Soviet said that dis-unity among socialist, communist parties had led to emergence of fascist forces. Popular fronts in many countries came up after this. 1) Popular front averted French takeover by fascist. Their policy brought together various anti-imperialist forces in the colonies. 2) It created worldwide opinion against the evil of fascist forces.

LoN followed a policy of appeasement for fascist nations.

Industrialist, landlords, churches, bankers etc. were wary of communists and were opposed to it.

In 1931, Japan invaded N-E china over a minor incident of railway line operated by Japan. China was a member of LoN and appealed to stop Japan. Britain and France were opposed to such moves and Japan finally acquired Manchuria. USA also did nothing. In 1933, Japan quit LoN and also started acquiring USA and British territory there. Other nation still appeasing japan. Britain has special reason as it did not want to endanger its hold over its asian colonies.

Germany: Germany joined LoN later but Hitler withdrew later and started military modernisation programme in violation of treaty of Versailles. It made an army of 8 lakh people. German troops also entered in Rhineland which was demilitarialized under the treaty to weaken the attack against France. Russia entered LoN in 1934.

In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia. It appealed to LoN and LoN declared Italy as aggressor and also called for arms sanction against Italy. But nothing happened in ground and Italy took over Ethiopia.

Spanish Civil War: In 1931 spain became republic under Popular Front. Army elements with the help of Germany and Italy started civil war. Popular front government called for helped but only Soviet Union came forward. Thousands of volunteer from the world formed the International Bridge to fight alongside popular front. This was finest example of Internationalism. Fascist forces won in 1939. Germany tested many new weapons in Spanish war.

Germany invaded Austria in 1938 and occupied it. Britain and France did not raise concern. Hitler laid its claim over a part of Czechoslovakia. This area had world’s largest munition factories. It also provide Germany leeway to expand into eastern regions. Munich Pact was signed between Germany, Britain, Italy and France in1938 to give part of Czechoslovakia to Germany without people’s will. German claim was based on the fact that this part had sizable german population. Later whole of Czechoslovakia was occupied by the Germany.

Soviet Union signed Non-Aggression Pact with Germany in 1939.

After WW1, east Prussia was separated from Germany. City of Danzig was made independent city. Hitler was demanding it back into Germany and Britain refused. Germany invaded Poland and Britain and France declared war on Germany. This marked the beginning of WW2. There was no or little fighting on ground after Poland and later Denmark and Norway. This is called as Phoney War.

After german attack on Poland, soviet union attacked eastern Poland and occupied it. Germany later invaded France and Paris fell. Truce was signed with France according to which half of France went to Germany and also France had to pay for German Forces in France. This was completed so quickly that it is called as Blitzkrieg or lightening speed. Later germans bombarded Britain to scare her and force her to support in 1940. This is called as Battle of Britain.

In 1942, USA, Britain and Soviet Union signed United Nations Declaration of friendship. Not to have a separate peace treaty and pool all resources until victor. Co-operate against common enemy.

In 1941, before United Nation Declaration, USA and Britain issued declaration: 1) USA and Britain would not seek any territory. 2) Also supported right of every people to have government of their choice.

UN Declaration: 1) Supported above points 2) All Chinese territories taken by Japan would be restored to her.

Britain, USA and Soviet Union met in Yalta, Russia to decide the fate of Germany. In this conference it was decided to setup UN.

UN: 1) General Assembly 2) Security Council – Peace and Security – Primary Organ 3) Economic and Social Council – to promote respect for and observance of human rights and fundamentals freedom for all. 4) Trusteeship council 5) ICJ 6) Secretariat. Other Agencies: FAO, ILO, WHO and UNCESCO.

Postsdam Conference: Britain, USA and Soviet Union in Postsdam near Berlin. To decide what to do with Germany. Germany was divided into four zones under Soviet, USA, France and Britain. Aim: 1) Disarmament of Germany 2) Destroy Nazi Party 3) Prepare condition for democratic Germany. 4) International tribunal to try people for crime against humanity. 5) Decision regarding the border of Poland and Germany.

Consequence of WW2: Before it communist government was only in Russia but after war there were lot of countries where communist government existed.

The German zone under British, France and USA continued on capitalist lines. In 1948, these zones were merged into one western germany with Federal Republic of Germany. Eastern Germany was under Russia. Land were distributed to peasants and public ownership of industries was completed. Soviet zone became German Democratic Republic.

After WW2, soviet exercised influence over other communist governments and hence its isolation was thing of the past.

Cold War: US-led: 1) NATO 2) SENTO 3) Baghdad Pact – Signed between Iran, Britain, Turkey and Pakistan and Iran. After Iranian revolution it exit and called as CENTO.

Soviet-led: Warsaw pact: Russian stationed its troop in some Balkan countries.

NAM: 1) Stabilisation of peace, liquidation of colonialism and imperialism in all forms 2) Peaceful existence between nations 3) condemn racial discrimination 4) respect of human rights. 5) economic relation among nations based on equality.

After the Russian invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. US started program to develop more deadly weapons called as Star wars. It was meant to take conflict in outer space and fight from there.

From 1985, freedom of speech was granted and also reform in political system were introduced. Economic reforms: 1) Perestroika – re-structuring 2) glasnost – openness. Other political parties were allowed to function. Demand from other Soviet territories for more autonomy and independence also. A treaty was drafted for this purpose and preserve the union with more autonomy. In 1919, coup was designed by communist. The coup failed but soviet collapsed. Many republics declared independence later.

In 1989, berlin wall was opened and political parties from across the other side were allowed to function. In 1990, new election and new government. Division was ended for unified germany.

Ethiopia defeated Italy at Battle of Adowa in 1896.

Boxer revolution in China in 1899 -1900 which was suppressed by joint operation of European, japnese and USA.

In 1907 Iran was divided into three zones.

In 1910 Japan defeated Russia to occupy Manchuria.

In 1904: Gentlemen Agreement. Egypt free hand to British and Morocco to France. Most of the territorial claims among European powers were decided by negotiation to avoid war. These agreements took place without involvement of indigenous people. This can be seen in morocco crisis. In 1911.

European countries were militarily growing which was one cause of the war. These states introduced Conscription i.e., compulsory military training for everyone.

States in Europe before WW1 were not formed based on nationality.