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World History

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History of the world 1Civilization 22

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 38Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 40

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History of the world 1

History of the world

World population from 10,000 BCE to 2,000 CE. The vertical (population) scale islogarithmic.

The history of the world is thehistory of humanity, beginning withthe Paleolithic Era. Distinct from thehistory of Planet Earth (which includesearly geologic history and prehumanbiological eras), world historycomprises the study of archeologicaland written records, from ancient timeson. Ancient recorded history beginswith the invention of writing.[1][2]

However, the roots of civilizationreach back to the period before theinvention of writing. Prehistory beginsin the Paleolithic Era, or "Early StoneAge," which is followed by theNeolithic Era, or New Stone Age, and the Agricultural Revolution (between 8000 and 5000 BCE) in the FertileCrescent. The Neolithic Revolution marked a change in human history, as humans began the systematic husbandryof plants and animals.[][3][4] Agriculture advanced, and most humans transitioned from a nomadic to a settledlifestyle as farmers in permanent settlements. Nomadism continued in some locations, especially in isolated regionswith few domesticable plant species;[5] but the relative security and increased productivity provided by farmingallowed human communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by advances in transportation.

As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labor to store foodbetween growing seasons. Labor divisions then led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the development of cities.The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of writing and accounting.[] Many cities developedon the banks of lakes and rivers; as early as 3000 BCE some of the first prominent, well-developed settlements hadarisen in Mesopotamia,[] on the banks of Egypt's River Nile,[6][7][] and in the Indus River valley.[8][9][10] Similarcivilizations probably developed along major rivers in China, but archaeological evidence for extensive urbanconstruction there is less conclusive.The history of the Old World (particularly Europe and the Mediterranean) is commonly divided into Ancient history(or "Antiquity"), up to 476 CE; the Postclassical Era (or "Middle Ages"[11][12]), from the 5th through 15th centuries,including the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE – c. 1258 CE) and the early European Renaissance (beginning around1300 CE);[13][14] the Early Modern period,[] from the 15th century to the late 18th, including the Age ofEnlightenment; and the Late Modern period, from the Industrial Revolution to the present, including ContemporaryHistory. The ancient Near East,[15][16][17] ancient Greece, and ancient Rome figure prominently in the period ofAntiquity. In the history of Western Europe, the fall in 476 CE of Romulus Augustulus, by some reckonings the lastwestern Roman emperor, is commonly taken as signaling the end of Antiquity and the start of the Middle Ages. Bycontrast, Eastern Europe saw a transition from the Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire, which did not declineuntil much later. In the mid-15th century, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of modern printing,[18] employingmovable type, revolutionized communication, helping end the Middle Ages and usher in the ScientificRevolution.[19] By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology, especially in Europe, hadreached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution.[20]

Outside of the Old World, including ancient China,[21] and ancient India, historical timelines unfolded differently. By the 18th century, however, due to extensive world trade and colonization, the histories of most civilizations had

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become significantly intertwined (see Globalization). In the last quarter-millennium, the rate of growth ofpopulation, knowledge, technology, commerce, weapons destructiveness and environmental degradation has greatlyaccelerated, creating opportunities and perils that now confront the planet's human communities.[22][23]

Prehistory

Early humans

Cave painting, Lascaux, France

Genetic measurements indicate that the ape lineage which would leadto Homo sapiens diverged from the lineage that would lead tochimpanzees (the closest living relative of modern humans) aroundfive million years ago.[] It is thought that the Australopithecine genus,which were likely the first apes to walk upright, eventually gave rise togenus Homo. Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about200,000 years ago, and reached behavioral modernity about 50,000years ago.[24]

Modern humans spread rapidly from Africa into the frost-free zones ofEurope and Asia around 60,000 years ago.[] The rapid expansion ofhumankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent Ice Age, when temperateregions of today were extremely inhospitable. Yet, humans had colonised nearly all the ice-free parts of the globe bythe end of the Ice Age, some 12,000 years ago. Other hominids such as Homo erectus had been using simple woodand stone tools for millennia, but as time progressed, tools became far more refined and complex. At some point,humans began using fire for heat and cooking. They also developed language in the Palaeolithic period and aconceptual repertoire that included systematic burial of the dead and adornment of the living. Early artisticexpression can be found in the form of cave paintings and sculptures made from wood and bone. During this period,all humans lived as hunter-gatherers, and were generally nomadic.

Rise of civilization

Cuneiform—earliest known writing system

The Neolithic Revolution, beginning about 8,000 BCE, saw thedevelopment of agriculture, which drastically changed the humanlifestyle. Farming permitted far denser populations, which in timeorganised into states. Agriculture also created food surpluses that couldsupport people not directly engaged in food production. Thedevelopment of agriculture permitted the creation of the first cities.These were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power withnearly no agricultural production of their own. Cities established asymbiosis with their surrounding countrysides, absorbing agriculturalproducts and providing, in return, manufactured goods and varyingdegrees of military control and protection.[25][26][27]

The development of cities was synonymous with the rise ofcivilization.[28] Early civilizations arose first in lower Mesopotamia(3500 BCE),[29][30] followed by Egyptian civilization along the Nile (3300 BCE)[] and the Harappan civilization inthe Indus Valley (in present-day Pakistan; 3300 BCE).[31][32] These societies developed a number of unifyingcharacteristics, including a central government, a complex economy and social structure, sophisticated language andwriting systems, and distinct cultures and religions. Writing was another pivotal development in human history, as itmade the administration of cities and expression of ideas far easier.

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As complex civilizations arose, so did complex religions, and the first of their kind apparently originated during thisperiod.[33][34][35] Inanimate entities such as the Sun, Moon, Earth, sky, and sea were often deified.[36] Shrinesdeveloped, which evolved into temple establishments, complete with a complex hierarchy of priests and priestessesand other functionaries. Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship anthropomorphic deities. Among theearliest surviving written religious scriptures are the Egyptian Pyramid Texts, the oldest of which date to between2400 and 2300 BCE.[37] Some archaeologists suggest, based on ongoing excavations of a temple complex at GöbekliTepe ("Potbelly Hill") in southern Turkey, dating from c. 11,500 years ago, that religion predated the AgriculturalRevolution rather than following in its wake, as had generally been assumed.[38]

Antiquity

TimelineDates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Regions not included in the timeline include: Southern Africa, the Caribbean, Central Asia, Northern Europe, Korea, Japan, Oceania,

Siberia, Southeast Asia, and Taiwan.

Cradles of civilization

Ancient Egyptians built the Great Pyramids ofGiza.

The Bronze Age is part of the three-age system (Stone Age, BronzeAge, Iron Age) that for some parts of the world describes effectivelythe early history of civilization. During this era the most fertile areas ofthe world saw city states and the first civilizations develop. These wereconcentrated in fertile river valleys: the Tigris and Euphrates inMesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in the Indian subcontinent,and the Yangtze and Yellow River in China.

Sumer, located in Mesopotamia, is the first known complexcivilization, developing the first city-states in the 4th millennium BCE.It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, cuneiformscript, appeared c. 3000 BCE. Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs. These pictorial representationseventually became simplified and more abstract. Cuneiform texts were written on clay tablets, on which symbolswere drawn with a blunt reed used as a stylus. Writing made the administration of a large state far easier.

Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas. The Mediterranean Sea, at the juncture of threecontinents, fostered the projection of military power and the exchange of goods, ideas and inventions. This era alsosaw new land technologies, such as horse-based cavalry and chariots, that allowed armies to move faster.These developments led to the rise of empires. Such extensive civilizations brought peace and stability over widerareas. The first empire, controlling a large territory and many cities, developed in Egypt with the unification ofLower and Upper Egypt c. 3100 BCE. Over the next millennia, other river valleys would see monarchical empiresrise to power. In the 24th century BCE, the Akkadian Empire arose in Mesopotamia;[39] and c. 2200 BCE the XiaDynasty arose in China.

History of the world 4

"The Wrestler", an Olmec era statuette, 1200 –800 BCE.

Over the following millennia, civilizations would develop across theworld. Trade would increasingly become a source of power as stateswith access to important resources or controlling important trade routeswould rise to dominance. In c. 2500 BCE, the Kingdom of Kermadeveloped in Sudan, south of Egypt. In modern Turkey the Hittitescontrolled a large empire and by 1600 BCE, Mycenaean Greece beganto develop.[40][41] In India this era was the Vedic period, which laid thefoundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indiansociety, and ended in the 6th century BCE. From around 550 BCE,many independent kingdoms and republics known as theMahajanapadas were established across the country.

As complex civilizations arose in the Eastern Hemisphere, mostindigenous societies in the Americas remained relatively simple forsome time, fragmented into diverse regional cultures. During theFormative stage in Mesoamerica, (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), morecomplex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in whatis now Mexico, Central America, and Peru. They include civilizationssuch as the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Moche, and Nazca. They developed agriculture as well, growing maize and othercrops unique to the Americas, and creating a distinct culture and religion. These ancient indigenous societies wouldbe greatly affected by European contact during the early modern period.

Axial AgeBeginning in the 8th century BCE, the so-called "Axial Age" saw a set of transformative religious and philosophicalideas develop, mostly independently, in many different locations. During the 6th century BCE, ChineseConfucianism,[42][43] Indian Buddhism and Jainism, and Jewish Monotheism all developed. (Karl Jaspers' Axial Agetheory also includes Persian Zoroastrianism on this list, but other scholars dispute Jaspers' timeline forZoroastrianism.) In the 5th century BCE Socrates and Plato made significant advances in the development ofAncient Greek philosophy.In the east, three schools of thought were to dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. These were Taoism,[44]

Legalism[45] and Confucianism.[46] The Confucian tradition, which would attain dominance, looked for politicalmorality not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition. Confucianism would later spread into theKorean peninsula and toward Japan.In the west, the Greek philosophical tradition, represented by Socrates,[] Plato,[47] and Aristotle,[48][49] was diffusedthroughout Europe and the Middle East in the 4th century BCE by the conquests of Alexander III of Macedon, morecommonly known as Alexander the Great.[50][51][52]

Regional empiresThe millennium from 500 BCE to 500 CE saw a series of empires of unprecedented size develop. Well-trainedprofessional armies, unifying ideologies, and advanced bureaucracies created the possibility for emperors to ruleover large domains, whose populations could attain numbers upwards of tens of millions of subjects. The greatempires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to becomeagricultural centres.[53] The relative peace that the empires brought encouraged international trade, most notably themassive trade routes in the Mediterranean, and the Silk Road. In southern Europe, the Greeks (and later the Romans)established cultures whose practices, laws, and customs are considered the foundation of contemporary westerncivilization.

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Major regional empires of this period include:• The Median Empire, from 678 BCE, centered in present-day Iran, but extending west to present-day Turkey and

east to present-day Pakistan. The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian empires of the period, up to theSassanid Empire (224-651 CE).

Parthenon epitomizes sophisticated culture ofAncient Greece.

• The Delian League (from 478 BCE) and the succeeding AthenianEmpire (454-404 BCE), centered in present-day Greece.

• Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE), of Macedon, founded anempire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece topresent-day Pakistan. The empire divided shortly after his death, butthe influence of his Hellenistic successors made for an extendedHellenistic period (323 – 30 BCE) throughout the region.

• The Maurya Empire (322 – 185 BCE) in present-day India. In the3rd century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the MauryaEmpire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka theGreat. From the 3rd century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw theperiod referred to as ancient India's Golden Age. From the 4th to 6th centuries, northern India was ruled by theGupta Empire. In southern India, three prominent Dravidian kingdoms emerged: Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of Hindu culture in the 4th and 5th centuries.

• The Roman Empire, centered in present-day Italy. Beginning in the 3rd century BCE, the Roman Republic beganexpanding its territory through conquest and colonization. By the time of Augustus (63 BCE - 14 CE), who wouldbecome the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean. Theempire would continue to grow, controlling much of the land from England to Mesopotamia, reaching its greatestextent under the emperor Trajan (d. 117 CE). In the 3rd century CE, the empire would split into western andeastern regions, with (sometimes) separate emperors. The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to Germaninfluence under Odoacer. The eastern empire, now known as the Byzantine Empire, with its capital atConstantinople, would continue for another thousand years, until overthrown by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 CE.

• The Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 BCE), the first imperial dynasty of China, followed by the Han Empire (206 BCE –220 CE). The Han Dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other endof the Silk Road. While the Romans constructed a vast military of unprecedented power, Han China wasdeveloping advanced cartography, shipbuilding, and navigation. The East invented blast furnaces and werecapable of creating finely tuned copper instruments. As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han Chinaadvanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and manyothers.

• The Aksumite Empire, centered in present-day Ethiopia. By the 1st century CE the Aksumite Empire hadestablished itself as a major trading empire, dominating its neighbours in South Arabia and Kush, and controllingthe Red Sea trade. They minted their own currency, and carved enormous monolithic stelae such as the Obelisk ofAxum to mark their Emperors' graves.

• Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as2000 BCE. In Mesoamerica,[54] vast pre-Columbian societies were built, the most notable being the ZapotecEmpire (200 BCE – 100 CE), and the Mayan Empire, which reached its highest state of development during theMesoamerican Classic period (c. 250 – 900 CE), but continued throughout the Post-Classic period until thearrival of the Spanish in the 16th century CE. Maya civilization arose as the mother culture of the Olmecs[55]

gradually declined. The great Mayan city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spreadthroughout the Yucatán and surrounding areas. The later empire of the Aztecs was built on neighboring culturesand was influenced by conquered peoples such as the Toltecs.

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Ptolemy's world map, c. 150 CE

Some areas experienced slow but steady technological advancements,with important developments such as the stirrup and moldboard plowarriving every few centuries. There were, however, in some regions,periods of rapid technological progress. Most important, perhaps, wasthe Mediterranean area during the Hellenistic period, when hundreds oftechnologies were invented.[56][57][58] Such periods were followed byperiods of technological decay, as during the Roman Empire's declineand fall and the ensuing early medieval period.

Declines and fallsThe empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central bureaucracy.These costs fell most heavily on the peasantry, while land-owning magnates increasingly evaded centralised controland its costs. Barbarian pressure on the frontiers hastened internal dissolution. China's Han Empire fell into civil warin 220 CE, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time. Thegreat empires of Eurasia were all located on temperate coastal plains. From the Central Asian steppes, horse-basednomads (Mongols, Turks) dominated a large part of the continent. The development of the stirrup, and the breedingof horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer, made the nomads a constant threat to the more settledcivilizations.The gradual break-up of the Roman Empire,[59][60] spanning several centuries after the 2nd century CE, coincidedwith the spread of Christianity westward from the Middle East. The Western Roman Empire fell[61] under thedomination of Germanic tribes in the 5th century, and these polities gradually developed into a number of warringstates, all associated in one way or another with the Roman Catholic Church. The remaining part of the RomanEmpire, in the eastern Mediterranean, would henceforth be the Byzantine Empire.[62] Centuries later, a limited unitywould be restored to western Europe through the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire[63] in 962, comprising anumber of states in what is now Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czechia, Belgium, Italy, and parts of France.In China, dynasties would similarly rise and fall.[64][65] After the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty[66] and the demiseof the Three Kingdoms, nomadic tribes from the north began to invade in the 4th century, eventually conqueringareas of Northern China and setting up many small kingdoms.

Postclassical EraThe Postclassical Era is named for the more Eurocentric era of "Classical Antiquity," but "the Postclassical Era" refers to a more global outline. The era is commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The Western Roman Empire fragmented into numerous separate kingdoms, many of which would be later confederated under the Holy Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire survived until late in the Middle Ages. The Postclassical period also corresponds to the Islamic conquests,[67] subsequent Islamic golden age,[68][69] and commencement and expansion of the Arab slave trade, followed by the Mongol invasions in the Middle East and Central Asia. South Asia saw a series of middle kingdoms of India, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India. In western Africa, the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire developed. On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where gold, spices, and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture. The Chinese Empire experienced the successive Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty. Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road through the Gobi Desert, provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations. During this

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same period, civilizations in the Americas, such as the Inca, Maya, and Aztec, reached their height. All would beseriously compromised by contact with European colonists at the beginning of the Modern period.

History of IslamThe history of Islam concerns the Islamic religion and its adherents, known as Muslims. "Muslim" is an Arabic wordmeaning "one who submits to God." Muslims and their religion have greatly impacted the political, economic, andmilitary history of the Old World, especially the Middle East, where lie its roots.

Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, founded670 — oldest mosque in Muslim West

From their center on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began theirexpansion during the early Middle Ages. By 750CE, they came toconquer most of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe,ushering in an era of learning, science, and invention known as theIslamic Golden Age. The knowledge and skills of the ancient MiddleEast, of Greece, and of Persia were preserved in the Middle Ages byMuslims, who also added new and important innovations from outside,such as the manufacture of paper from China and decimal positionalnumbering from India. Much of this learning and development can belinked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence the city of Meccahad served as a center of trade in Arabia, and the prophet Muhammadhimself was a merchant. With the new Islamic tradition of the Hajj, thepilgrimage to Mecca, the city became even more a center for exchanging goods and ideas. The influence held byMuslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamiccivilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to the Europeans, Indians, andChinese who based their societies on an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith toChina (resulting in a present-day population of some 37 million Chinese Muslims, mainly ethnic Turkic Uyghurs,whose territory was annexed to China), India, southeast Asia, and the kingdoms of western Africa, and returned withnew discoveries and inventions.

Medieval EuropeEurope during the Early Middle Ages was characterized by depopulation, deurbanization, and barbarian invasion, allof which had begun in Late Antiquity. The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of theWestern Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East, once part of the eastern empire,became part of the Caliphate after conquest by Muhammad's successors. Although there were substantial changes insociety and political structures, the break was not as extreme as once put forth by historians, with most of the newkingdoms incorporating as many of the existing Roman institutions as they could. Christianity expanded in westernEurope and monasteries were founded. In the 7th and 8th centuries the Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty,established an empire covering much of western Europe; it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed topressure from new invaders – the Vikings, Magyars, and Saracens.

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Castles like Segovia Castle, Spain, were commonin High Middle Ages Europe.

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the populationof Europe increased greatly as new technological and agriculturalinnovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase.Manorialism – the organization of peasants into villages that owedrents and labor service to nobles – and feudalism – a political structurewhereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to theiroverlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors – weretwo of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed duringthe High Middle Ages. Kingdoms became more centralized after thedecentralizing effects of the breakup of the Carolingian Empire. TheCrusades, which were first preached in 1095, were an attempt bywestern Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from theMuslims, and succeeded long enough to establish some Christian states in the Near East. Intellectual life was markedby scholasticism and the founding of universities, while the building of Gothic cathedrals was one of the outstandingartistic achievements of the age.

The Late Middle Ages were marked by a number of difficulties and calamities. Famine, plague and war decimatedthe population of western Europe. The Black Death alone killed approximately a third of the population between1347 and 1350. It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in Asia, the disease reachedMediterranean and western Europe during the late 1340s,[70] and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years;between a third and a half of the population.[71]

The Middle Ages[72] witnessed the first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many modernEuropean states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are,in many regards, the result of the military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period.[73] The MiddleAges lasted until the beginning of the Early Modern Period[] in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation-states,the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation,[74] the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance,[75] andthe beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange.[76]

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Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa

Yoruba bronze head, Ife, 11th–14th century

Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa was home to many differentcivilizations. The Aksumite Empire declined in the 7th century asIslam cut it off from its Christian allies and its people moved furtherinto the Ethiopian highlands for protection. They eventually gave wayto the Zagwe Dynasty who are famed for their rock cut architecture atLalibela. The Zagwe would then fall to the Solomonic Dynasty whoclaimed descent from the Aksumite emperors and would rule thecountry well into the 20th century. In the West African Sahel region,many Islamic empires rose, such as the Ghana Empire, the MaliEmpire, the Songhai Empire, and the Kanem Empire. They controlledthe trans-Saharan trade in gold, ivory, salt and slaves.

South of the Sahel civilisations rose in the coastal forests where horsesand camels could not survive. These include the Yoruba city of Ife(noted for its naturalistic art) and the Oyo Empire, the Benin Empire ofthe Edo people centered in Benin city, the Igbo Kingdom of Nri whichproduced advanced bronze art at Igbo Ukwu, and the Akan who arenoted for their intricate architecture.

In what is now modern Zimbabwe various kingdoms evolved from theKingdom of Mapungubwe in modern South Africa. They flourished through trade with the Swahili people on theEast African coast. They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as Great Zimbabwe, capital of theKingdom of Zimbabwe, Khami, capital of Kingdom of Butua and Danamombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the RozwiEmpire. The Swahili people themselves were the inhabitants of the East African coast from Kenya to Mozambiquewho traded extensively with Asians and Arabs, who introduced them to Islam. They built many port cities such asMombasa, Zanzibar, and Kilwa, which were known to Chinese sailors under Zheng He and Islamic geographers.

Indian SubcontinentIn nothern India, after the fall (550 CE) of the Gupta Empire, the region divided in to a complex and fluid network ofsmaller kingdoms, including the Rajput states.[77] Early Muslim incursions began in the west in 711 CE, when theArab Umayyad Empire annexed much of present-day Pakistan. Arab military advancement was largely halted at thatpoint, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast. In the12th century, Turkic Muslims would found the Delhi Sultanate, which would control most of the northernsubcontinent. At the end of the 15th century, the Muslim Deccan Sultanates would arise from the west coast to eastin the middle of the Indian Peninsula. Postclassical dynasties in Southern India included those of the Chalukyas,theRashtrakutas, the Hoysalas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy,and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.

East AsiaAfter a period of relative disunity, the Sui Dynasty reunified China in 581, and under the succeeding Tang Dynasty(618–907) China entered a second golden age. The Tang Dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after half acentury of turmoil the Northern Song Dynasty reunified China in 982, yet pressure from nomadic empires to thenorth became increasingly urgent. North China was lost to the Jurchens in 1141, and the Mongol Empire[78][79]

conquered all of China in 1279, along with almost half of Eurasia's landmass. After about a century of Mongol YuanDynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming Dynasty (1368).

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In Japan, the imperial lineage had been established by this time, and during the Asuka period (538 to 710) theYamato Province developed into a clearly centralized state.[80] Buddhism was introduced,[81] and there was anemphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and Confucianism. The Nara period of the 8th centurymarked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age. During this period, theimperial government undertook great public works, including government offices, temples, roads, and irrigationsystems. The Heian period (794 to 1185) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans,and the beginning of Japanese feudalism.[82] The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regionalfamilies (daimyō) and the military rule of warlords (shōgun), stretched from 1185 to 1868. The emperor remained,but mostly as a figurehead, and the power of merchants was weak.Postclassical Korea saw the end of the Three Kingdoms era, the three kingdoms being Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla.Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668,[83] marking the beginning of the North and South States period(남북국시대), with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north. About 900CE, this arragement reverted back to the Later Three Kingdoms, with Goguryeo (then called Hugoguryeo andeventually named Goryeo) emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936.[84] The founding Goryeodynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled for the next 500 years.

Central AsiaStarting with the Sui Dynasty (581-618), the Chinese began expansion into eastern Central Asia, and had to dealwith Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia.[85][86] Originally therelationship was largely cooperative, but in 630 the Tang Dynasty began an offensive against the Turks.,[87]

capturing areas of the Mongolian Ordos Desert. The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control ofareas in Inner and Central Asia.[88][89] In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became thesole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east. The desert nomads of Arabiacould militarily match the nomads of the steppe, and the early Arab Empire gained control over parts of CentralAsia.The Hephthalites were the most powerful of the nomad groups in the 6th and 7th century, and controlled much of theregion. In the 10th and 11th centuries the region was divided between several powerful states including the Samaniddynasty, that of the Seljuk Turks, and the Khwarezmid Empire. The most spectacular power to rise out of CentralAsia developed when Genghis Khan united the tribes of Mongolia. The Mongol Empire spread to comprise all ofCentral Asia and China as well as large parts of Russia, and the Middle East. After Genghis Khan died in 1227, mostof Central Asia continued to be dominated by the successor Chagatai Khanate. In 1369, Timur, a Turkic leader in theMongol military tradition, conquered most of the region. Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death,however. The region then became divided among a series of smaller Khanates, including the Khanate of Khiva, theKhanate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Kokand, and the Khanate of Kashgar.

Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia, early 12thcentury

Southeast Asia

The beginning of the Middle Ages in Southeast Asia saw the fall (550CE) of the Kingdom of Funan to the Chenla Kingdom, which was thenreplaced by the Khmer Empire (802 CE). The Khmer's capital cityAngkor was the largest city in the world prior to the industrial age andcontained over a thousand temples, the most famous being AngkorWat. The Sukhothai (1238 CE) and Ayutthaya (1351 CE) kingdomswere major powers of the Thai people, who were influenced by theKhmer. Starting in the 9th century, the Pagan Kingdom rose to

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prominence in modern Burma. Other notable kingdoms of the period include the Srivijayan Empire and the LavoKingdom (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), the Champa and the Haripunchai (both about 750), theDai Viet (968), Lanna (13th century), Majapahit Empire (1293), Lan Xang (1354), and the Ava Kingdom (1364). Itwas also during this period that Islam spread to present-day Indonesia (beginning in the 13th century), and the Malaystates began to emerge.

OceaniaThe Tu'i Tonga Empire was founded in the 10th century AD and expanded between 1200 and 1500. Tongan culture,language, and influence spread widely within Polynesia during this period,[90][91] through East 'Uvea, Rotuma,Futuna, Samoa and Niue, parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia and the LoyaltyIslands,[92] Indigenous written records from this period are scant, but some history can be established through oraltradition, archaeology, and linguistics.

Machu Picchu—leading icon of Inca civilization

The Americas

In North America, this period saw the rise of the Mississippian culturein the modern United States c. 800 CE, marked by the extensive12th-century urban complex at Cahokia. The Ancient Pueblo Peoplesand their predecessors (9th - 13th centuries) built extensive permanentsettlements, including stone structures that would remain the largestbuildings in North America until the 19th century.[][] In Mesoamerica,the Teotihuacan civilization fell and the Classic Maya collapseoccurred. The Aztec came to dominate much of Mesoamerica in the14th and 15th centuries. In South America, the 14th and 15th centuriessaw the rise of the Inca. The Inca Empire of Tawantinsuyu, with itscapital at Cusco, spanned the entire Andes Mountain Range, making itthe most extensive Pre-Columbian civilization.[93][94] The Inca wereprosperous and advanced, known for an excellent road system and unrivaled masonry.

Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man epitomizesRenaissance artistic and scientific advances.

Modern history

Modern history (the "modern period," the "modern era," "moderntimes") is history of the period following the Middle Ages."Contemporary history" is history that only covers events from c. 1900to the present day.

Early modern period

"Early Modern period"[95] is a term used by historians to refer to theperiod between the Middle Ages (Post-classical era) and the IndustrialRevolution – roughly 1500 to 1800. The Early Modern period ischaracterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapidtechnological progress, secularized civic politics, and the nation-state.Capitalist economies began their rise, initially in northern Italianrepublics such as Genoa. The Early Modern period also saw the riseand dominance of the mercantilist economic theory. As such, the Early

History of the world 12

Modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism,serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the late decades of the Protestant Reformation,the disastrous Thirty Years' War, the Age of Discovery, European colonial expansion, and the peak of Europeanwitch-hunting.

Renaissance

Europe's Renaissance, beginning in the 14th century,[96] consisted of the rediscovery of the classical world'sscientific contributions, and of the economic and social rise of Europe. But the Renaissance also engendered aculture of inquisitiveness which ultimately led to Humanism[97] and the Scientific Revolution.[98] Although it sawsocial and political upheaval and revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, the Renaissance is perhaps known best forits artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, whoinspired the term "Renaissance man".[99][100] This era in European culture also saw the 16th-century ProtestantReformation and the 17th-century Age of Enlightenment,[101] which led to the Scientific Revolution.[102]

European expansion

World map by Ortelius, 1570, incorporating newdiscoveries by Europeans

Movable-type printing press arose in mid-15thcentury. 50 years later, nine million books were

in print.

During this period, European powers came to dominate most of theworld. One theory of why that happened holds that Europe's geographyplayed an important role in its success. The Middle East, India andChina are all ringed by mountains and oceans but, once past these outerbarriers, are nearly flat. By contrast, the Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines,Carpathians and other mountain ranges run through Europe, and thecontinent is also divided by several seas. This gave Europe somedegree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders. Beforethe era of firearms, these nomads were militarily superior to theagricultural states on the periphery of the Eurasian continent and, ifthey broke out into the plains of northern India or the valleys of China,were all but unstoppable. These invasions were often devastating. TheGolden Age of Islam[103] was ended by the Mongol sack of Baghdad in1258. India and China were subject to periodic invasions, and Russiaspent a couple of centuries under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Central andwestern Europe, logistically more distant from the Central Asianheartland, proved less vulnerable to these threats. Geographycontributed to important geopolitical differences. For most of theirhistories, China, India and the Middle East were each unified under asingle dominant power that expanded until it reached the surroundingmountains and deserts. In 1600 the Ottoman Empire[104] controlledalmost all the Middle East, the Ming Dynasty ruled China,[105][106] andthe Mughal Empire held sway over India. By contrast, Europe wasalmost always divided into a number of warring states. Pan-Europeanempires, with the notable exception of the Roman Empire, tended tocollapse soon after they arose. Another doubtless important geographicfactor in the rise of Europe was the Mediterranean Sea, which, formillennia, had functioned as a maritime superhighway fostering theexchange of goods, people, ideas and inventions.

Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their environments. Productivity remained low, and climatic changes easily instigated boom-and-bust cycles that brought about civilizations' rise and fall. By

History of the world 13

about 1500, however, there was a qualitative change in world history. Technological advance and the wealthgenerated by trade gradually brought about a widening ofpossibilities.[107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117] Many have also argued that Europe's institutionsallowed it to expand,[118][119] that property rights and free-market economics were stronger than elsewhere due to anideal of freedom peculiar to Europe. In recent years, however, scholars such as Kenneth Pomeranz have challengedthis view, although this revisionist approach to world history has been met with criticism for systematically"downplaying" European achievements.[120] Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly — given the continent'sgeography — was largely the work of its Atlantic states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands.Initially the Portuguese and Spanish Empires were the predominant conquerors and sources of influence, and theirunion resulted in the Iberian Union,[121] the first global empire, on which the "sun never set". Soon the morenorthern English, French and Dutch began to dominate the Atlantic. In a series of wars fought in the 17th and 18thcenturies, culminating with the Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the new world power.

Regional developments

Persia came under the rule of the Safavid Empire in 1501, succeeded by the Afsharid Empire in 1736, and the QajarEmpire in 1796. Areas to the north and east were held by Uzbeks and Pashtuns. The Ottoman Empire, after takingConstantinople in 1453, quickly gained control of the Middle East, the Balkans, and most of North Africa.Elsewhere in Africa, this period saw a decline in many civilizations and an advancement in others. The SwahiliCoast declined after coming under Portuguese (and later Omani) control. In west Africa, the Songhai Empire fell tothe Moroccans in 1591 when they invaded with guns. The south African Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smallerkingdoms such as Mutapa , Butua, and Rozwi. Ethiopia suffered from the 1531 invasion from neighboring MuslimAdal Sultanate, and in 1769 entered the Zemene Mesafint (Age of Princes) during which the Emperor became afigurehead and the country was ruled by warlords, though the royal line later would recover under EmperorTewodros II. The Ajuuraan Empire, in the Horn of Africa, began to decline in the 17th century, succeeded by theGeledi Sultanate. Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period. The Oyo Empire experienced its goldenage, as did the Benin Empire. The Ashanti Empire rose to power in what is modern day Ghana in 1670. TheKingdom of Kongo also thrived during this period. European exploration of Africa reached its zenith at this time.In the Far East, the Chinese Ming Dynasty gave way (1644) to the Qing, the last Chinese imperial dynasty, whichwould rule until 1912. Japan experienced its Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568 – 1603), followed by the Edo period(1603-1868). The Korean Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) ruled throughout this period, successfully repelling 16th- and17th-century invasions from Japan and China. Japan and China were significantly affected during this period byexpanded maritime trade with Europe, particularly the Portuguese in Japan. During the Edo period, Japan wouldpursue isolationist policies, to eliminate foreign influences.On the Indian subcontinent, the Delhi Sultanate and the Deccan Sultanates would give way, beginning in the 16thcentury, to the Mughal Empire. Starting in the northwest, the Mughal Empire would by the late 17th century come torule the entire subcontinent,[122] except for the southernmost Indian provinces, which would remain independent.Against the Muslim Mughal Empire, the Hindu Maratha Empire was founded on the west coast in 1674, graduallygaining territory – a majority of present-day India—from the Mughals over several decades, particularly in theDeccan Wars (1681-1701). The Maratha Empire would fall to the British in 1818, under the control of the BritishEast India Company, with all former Maratha and Mughal authority devolving to the British Raj in 1858.In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the Sultanate of Malacca in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian Sumatra. ThePortuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown bythe Dutch in 1641. The Johor Sultanate, centered on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominanttrading power in the region. European colonization would affect the whole of Southeast Asia – the British in Burmaand Malaysia, the French in Indochina, the Dutch in the Netherlands East Indies, and the Spanish in the Philippines.Only Thailand would successfully resist colonization.

History of the world 14

The Pacific islands of Oceania would also be affected by European contact, starting with the circumnavigationalvoyage of Ferdinand Magellan, who landed on the Marianas and other islands in 1521. Also notable were thevoyages (1642–44) of Abel Tasman to present-day Australia, New Zealand and nearby islands, and the voyages(1768-1779) of Captain James Cook, who made the first recorded European contact with Hawaii. Britain wouldfound its first colony on Australia in 1788.In the Americas, the western European powers vigorously colonized the newly-discovered continents, largelydisplacing the indigenous populations, and destroying the advanced civilizations of the Aztecs and the Inca. Spain,Portugal, Britain, and France all made extensive territorial claims, and undertook large-scale settlement, includingthe importation of large numbers of African slaves. Portugal claimed Brazil. Spain claimed the rest of SouthAmerica, Mesoamerica, and southern North America. Britain colonized the east coast of North America, and Francecolonized the central region of North America. Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America,with a first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784,[] and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812.[]

In 1762, in the midst of the Seven Years War, France secretly ceded most of its North American claims to Spain inthe Treaty of Fontainebleau. Thirteen of the British colonies declared independence as the United States of Americain 1776, ratified by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, ending the American Revolutionary War. Napoleon Bonaparte wonFrance’s claims back from Spain in the Napoleonic Wars in 1800, but sold them to the United States in 1803 as theLouisiana Purchase.In Russia, Ivan IV (“the Terrible”) was crowned (1547) the first Tsar of Russia, and by annexing the Turkic Khanatesin the east, transformed Russia into a regional power. The countries of western Europe, while expandingprodigiously through technological advancement and colonial conquest, competed with each other economically andmilitarily in a state of almost constant war. Often the wars had a religious dimension, either Catholic versusProtestant, or (in eastern Europe) Christian versus Muslim. Wars of particular note include the Thirty Years War, theWar of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years War, and the French Revolutionary Wars. Napoleon came to powerin France in 1799, an event foreshadowing the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century.

Modern periodThe Scientific Revolution changed humanity's understanding of the world and led to the Industrial Revolution, amajor transformation of the world's economies.[102][123] The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century had made littleimmediate impact on industrial technology; only in the second half of the 18th century did scientific advances beginto be applied significantly to practical invention. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used newmodes of production — the factory, mass production, and mechanisation — to manufacture a wide array of goodsfaster and using less labour than previously. The Age of Enlightenment also led to the beginnings of moderndemocracy in the late-18th century American and French Revolutions. Democracy and republicanism would grow tohave a profound effect on world events and on quality of life.After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, the imperial activities of the West turned tothe lands of the East and Asia.[124][125] In the 19th century the European states had social and technologicaladvantage over Eastern lands.[126] Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Egypt and the MalayPeninsula;[127] the French took Indochina; while the Dutch cemented their control over the Dutch East Indies. TheBritish also colonized Australia, New Zealand and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigratingto these colonies.[127] Russia colonised large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia.[128][129] In the late 19th century, theEuropean powers divided the remaining areas of Africa. Within Europe, economic and military challenges created asystem of nation states, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations withaspirations for cultural and political autonomy. This nationalism would become important to peoples across theworld in the 20th century.During the Industrial Revolution, the world economy became reliant on coal as a fuel, as new methods of transport, such as railways and steamships, effectively shrank the world.[123] Meanwhile, industrial pollution and

History of the world 15

environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically.The advantages that Europe had developed by the mid-18th century were two: an entrepreneurial culture,[126][130]

and the wealth generated by the Atlantic trade[126] (including the African slave trade). By the late 16th century, silverfrom the Americas accounted for the Spanish empire's wealth.[131] The profits of the slave trade and of West Indianplantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.[132] While somehistorians conclude that, in 1750, labour productivity in the most developed regions of China was still on a par withthat of Europe's Atlantic economy (see the NBER Publications by Carol H. Shiue and Wolfgang Keller[133]), otherhistorians like Angus Maddison hold that the per-capita productivity of western Europe had by the late Middle Agessurpassed that of all other regions.[134]

Contemporary history

1900–45

World War I static trench warfare, westernEurope

History's only use of nuclear weapons inwar—Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1945

The 20th century[135][136][137] opened with Europe at an apex of wealthand power, and with much of the world under its direct colonial controlor its indirect domination.[138] Much of the rest of the world wasinfluenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States andJapan.[139] As the century unfolded, however, the global systemdominated by rival powers was subjected to severe strains, andultimately yielded to a more fluid structure of independent nationsorganized on Western models.

This transformation was catalysed by wars of unparalleled scope anddevastation. World War I[140] destroyed many of Europe's empires andmonarchies, and weakened Britain and France.[141] In its aftermath,powerful ideologies arose. The Russian Revolution[142][143][144] of1917 created the first communist state, while the 1920s and 1930s sawmilitaristic fascist dictatorships gain control in Italy, Germany, Spainand elsewhere.[145]

Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of theGreat Depression, helped precipitate World War II.[146][147] Themilitaristic dictatorships of Europe and Japan pursued an ultimatelydoomed course of imperialist expansionism. Their defeat opened theway for the advance of communism into Central Europe, Yugoslavia,Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, China, North Vietnam and North Korea.

1945–2000

After World War II ended in 1945, the United Nations was founded inthe hope of allaying conflicts among nations and preventing futurewars.[148][149] The war had, however, left two nations, the UnitedStates[150] and the Soviet Union, with principal power to guideinternational affairs.[151] Each was suspicious of the other and feared a global spread of the other'spolitical-economic model. This led to the Cold War, a forty-year stand-off between the United States, the SovietUnion, and their respective allies. With the development of nuclear weapons[152] and the subsequent arms race, all ofhumanity were put at risk of nuclear war between the two superpowers.[153] Such war being viewed as impractical,proxy wars were instead waged, at the expense of non-nuclear-armed Third World countries.

History of the world 16

The Cold War lasted to the 1990s, when the Soviet Union's communist system began to collapse, unable to competeeconomically with the United States and western Europe; the Soviets' Central European "satellites" reasserted theirnational sovereignty, and in 1991 the Soviet Union itself disintegrated.[154][155][156] The United States for the timebeing was left as the "sole remaining superpower".[157][158][159]

In the early postwar decades, the African and Asian colonies of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French and other westEuropean empires won their formal independence.[160][161] These nations faced challenges in the form ofneocolonialism, poverty, illiteracy and endemic tropical diseases.[162][163]

Many Western and Central European nations gradually formed a political and economic community, the EuropeanUnion, which expanded eastward to include former Soviet satellites.[164][165][166][167]

Last Moon landing — Apollo 17 (1972)

The 20th century saw explosive progress in science and technology,and increased life expectancy and standard of living for much ofhumanity. As the developed world shifted from a coal-based to apetroleum-based economy, new transport technologies, along with thedawn of the Information Age,[168] led to increasedglobalization.[169][170][171] Space exploration reached throughout thesolar system. The structure of DNA, the template of life, wasdiscovered,[172][173][174] and the human genome was sequenced, amajor milestone in the understanding of human biology and thetreatment of disease.[175][176][177][178][179] Global literacy ratescontinued to rise, and the percentage of the world's labor pool neededto produce humankind's food supply continued to drop.

The technologies of sound recordings, motion pictures, and radio andtelevision broadcasting produced a means for rapid dissemination of information and entertainment. Then, in the lastdecade of this century, a rapid increase took place in the use of computers, including personal ones. A globalcommunication network emerged in the Internet. One-way mass media gave way to individual communication inwhat has been called a shift from the fourth to a fifth civilization.[180]

The century saw several man-made global threats emerge or become more serious or widely recognized, includingnuclear proliferation, global climate change,[181][182] deforestation, overpopulation, near-Earth asteroids andcomets,[] and the dwindling of global natural resources (particularly fossil fuels).[183]

21st century

Depiction of the Internet, a source of informationand communication

The 21st century has been marked by economic globalization, withconsequent risk to interlinked economies, and by the expansion ofcommunications with mobile phones and the Internet. Worldwidedemand and competition for resources has risen due to growingpopulations and industrialization, mainly in India, China and Brazil.This demand is causing increased levels of environmental degradationand a growing threat of global warming.[184] That in turn has spurredthe development of alternate or renewable sources of energy (notablysolar energy and wind energy), proposals for cleaner fossil fueltechnologies, and consideration of expanded use of nuclear energy(somewhat dampened by nuclear plant accidents).[185][186][187]

History of the world 17

Notes[1] According to David Diringer ("Writing", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986 ed., vol. 29, p. 558), "Writing gives permanence to men's knowledge

and enables them to communicate over great distances.... The complex society of a higher civilization would be impossible without the art ofwriting."

[2] Webster, H. (1921). World history (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cboXAAAAIAAJ). Boston: D.C. Heath. Page 27 (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=cboXAAAAIAAJ& pg=PR5& pg=PA27).

[3] Bellwood, Peter. (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20566-7[4] Cohen, Mark Nathan (1977) The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture, New Haven and London: Yale

University Press. ISBN 0-300-02016-3.[5] See Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel.[13] Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (http:/ / www. boisestate. edu/ courses/ hy309/ docs/ burckhardt/

burckhardt. html), trans S.G.C Middlemore, republished in 1990 ISBN 0-14-044534-X[15] William W. Hallo & William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East: A History, Holt Rinehart and Winston Publishers, 1997[16] Jack Sasson, The Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, New York, 1995[17] Marc Van de Mieroop, History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000–323 BC., Blackwell Publishers, 2003[19][19] Grant, Edward. The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts.

Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996.[20] More; Charles. Understanding the Industrial Revolution (2000) online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=102816164)[22] Reuters – The State of the World (http:/ / stateoftheworld. reuters. com) The story of the 21st century[26] Chandler, T. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987.[27] Modelski, G. World Cities: –3000 to 2000. Washington, DC: FAROS 2000, 2003.[28] The very word "civilization" comes from the Latin civilis, meaning "civil," related to civis, meaning "citizen," and civitas, meaning "city" or

"city-state."[29] Ascalone, Enrico. Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 1). Berkeley: University of California

Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-25266-7).[30] Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest.[31][31] Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking.[32][32] Allchin, Raymond (ed.) (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge

University Press.[34] "The Sun God and the Wind Deity at [[Kizil Caves|Kizil (http:/ / www. transoxiana. org/ Eran/ Articles/ tianshu. html)]," by Tianshu Zhu,]

in Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I, Webfestschrift Marshak: Ēran ud Anērān, 2003.[35] Marija Gimbutas. The Language of the Goddess, Harpercollins, 1989, ISBN 0-06-250356-1.[36] Turner, Patricia, and Charles Russell Coulter, Dictionary of Ancient Deities, New York, Oxford University Press, 2001.[38] Patrick Symmes, "History in the Remaking: a temple complex in Turkey that predates even the Pyramids is rewriting the story of human

evolution," Newsweek, March 1, 2010, pp. 46–48.[39] Wells, H. G. (1921), 'The Outline of History: Being A Plain History of Life and Mankind' (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=rTAMAAAAIAAJ& client=firefox-a), New York, Macmillan Company, p. 137.[40] Chadwick, John (1976) The Mycenaean World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29037-6.[41] Mylonas, George E. (1966), Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-03523-7.[44][44] Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003). ISBN 1-85168-315-1[47] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Plato (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ plato/ )[50] PDF: A Bibliography of Alexander the Great (http:/ / hum. ucalgary. ca/ wheckel/ bibl/ alex-bibl. pdf) by Waldemar Heckel[51] Alexander III the Great (http:/ / virtualreligion. net/ iho/ alexander. html), entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith[53] Morgan, L. H. (1877). Ancient society (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=V2hURbcPp0YC); or, Researches in the lines of human

progress from savagery, through barbarism to civilization. New York: H. Holt and Company.[54] " Central America (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761574502/ Central_America. html)". MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006.

Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?id=1257007771573674) 2009-10-31.[56] Camp, J. M., & Dinsmoor, W. B. (1984). Ancient Athenian building methods (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7ChJMHxovjUC).

Excavations of the Athenian Agora, no. 21. [Athens]: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.[57][57] Drachmann, A. G. (1963). The mechanical technology of Greek and Roman antiquity, a study of the literary sources. Copenhagen:

Munksgaard.[58] Oleson, J. P. (1984). Greek and Roman mechanical water-lifting devices: the history of a technology. Phoenix, 16 : Tome supplémentaire.

Dordrecht: Reidel.[60] Edward Gibbon. "General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West" (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ source/

gibbon-fall. html), from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Brief excerpts of Gibbon's theories.[61] Gibbon, Edward (1906). in J.B. Bury (with an Introduction by W.E.H. Lecky): The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volumes II, III,

and IX). New York: Fred de Fau and Co..

History of the world 18

[62] Bury, John Bagnall (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ secondary/BURLAT/ home. html). Macmillan & Co., Ltd..

[63] Bryce, J. B. (1907). The Holy Roman empire (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0jNI4vCO7d8C). New York: MacMillan.[67] Fred Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ med/ donner. html) Chapter 6[68] Golden age of Arab and Islamic Culture (http:/ / trboard. org/ modules/ makale/ makale. php?id=57)[71] The Black Death and AIDS: CCR5-{Delta}32 in genetics and history (http:/ / qjmed. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 99/ 8/ 497). S.K.

Cohn, Jr and L.T. Weaver. Oxford Journals.[72] Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1989) Joseph R. Strayer, editor in chief, ISBN 0-684-19073-7[73] Rudimentary chronology of civil and ecclesiastical history, art, literature and civilisation, from the earliest period to 1856 (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=r2gBAAAAQAAJ). (1857). London: John Weale.[74] McManners, J. (2002). The Oxford history of Christianity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Rgm7NIEKCbgC). Oxford: Oxford

University Press.[75] Pater, W. (1873). Studies in the history of the renaissance (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aS4CAAAAQAAJ). London: Macmillan

and.[78][78] Buell, Paul D. (2003), Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 0-8108-4571-7[79][79] Howorth, Henry H. History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part I: The Mongols Proper and the Kalmuks. New York: Burt

Frankin, 1965 (reprint of London edition, 1876).[80][80] Mason, R.H.P and Caiger, J.G, A History of Japan, Revised Edition, Tuttle Publishing, 2004[81] See Nihon Shoki, volumes 19, Story of Kinmei. (http:/ / applepig. idv. tw/ kuon/ furu/ text/ syoki/ syoki19_2. htm#sk19_11)"Nihon Shoki[82] Sansom (1958) pp. 210–211.[83] Encyclopedia of World History, Vol I, P464 Three Kingdoms, Korea, Edited by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J.

Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, Mark F. Whitters, ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4[84] Korea through the Ages Vol. 1 p113[85][85] .[86][86] .[87][87] .[88][88] .[89][89] .[90] Recent Advances in the Archaeology of the Fiji/West-Polynesia Region" (http:/ / www. anthropology. hawaii. edu/ Alumni/ addison/

publications/ Sand_Addison_2008. pdf) 2008: Vol 21. University of Otago Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology.][91] "Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WRapfjQ_iTEC&

lpg=PA87& ots=zaLs4Yarz1& pg=PA87), Patrick Vinton Kirch; Roger C. Green (2001)[92] "Geraghty, P., 1994. Linguistic evidence for the Tongan empire" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xOlI8czLshIC& lpg=PP1&

pg=PA233), Geraghty, P., 1994 in "Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World: pp.236-39.[93] History of the Inca Empire (http:/ / trailingincas. info/ ) Inca history, society and religion.[94] Map and Timeline (http:/ / www. timespacemap. com/ search/ eventsearch. htm?_what="inca+ empire"& _maptype=1) of Inca events[95] "Early Modern," historically speaking, refers to Western European history from 1501 (after the widely accepted end of the Late Middle

Ages; the transition period was the 15th century) to either 1750 or c. 1790–1800, by which ever epoch is favored by a school of scholarsdefining the period—which, in many cases of periodization, differs as well within a discipline such as art, philosophy or history.

[96][96] The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge. (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp. Page 539 (cf., TheEuropean Renaissance which flourished from the 14th to the 16th century [...])

[97] Briffault, R. (1919). The making of humanity. London: G. Allen & Unwin ltd. 371 pages (cf. [...] humanism of the Renaissance [...])[98][98] The freethinker. (1881). London: G.W. Foote. Page 394 (cf., [...] scientific revolution began with the Italian Renaissance about 1500 [...])[99] BBC Science and Nature, Leonardo da Vinci (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ leonardo/ ) Retrieved on May 12, 2007[100] BBC History, Michelangelo (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ michelangelo. shtml) Retrieved on May 12, 2007[101] The Age of Enlightenment has also been referred to as the Age of Reason. Historians also include the late 17th century, which is typically

known as the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism, as part of the Enlightenment; however, contemporary historians have considered the Ageof Reason distinct to the ideas developed in the Enlightenment. The use of the term here includes both Ages under a single all-inclusivetime-frame.

[102] Sedgwick, W. T., & Tyler, H. W. (1917). A short history of science (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KdsEAAAAYAAJ). NewYork: The Macmillan company.

[103] Joel L. Kraemer (1992), Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam, p. 1 & 148, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-07259-4.[104] Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4.[105][105] Ebrey, Walthall, Palais. (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN

0-618-13384-4.[106][106] Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN

0-521-66991-X (paperback).[107] Grant, A. J. (1913). A history of Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YJBCAAAAIAAJ). London; Longmans, Green and Co.

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[108] Lavisse, E. (1891). General view of the political history of Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nHk4AAAAMAAJ). New York:Longmans, Green and Co.

[109] Postan, M. M., & Miller, E. (1987). The Cambridge economic history of Europe. Vol.2, Trade and industry in the Middle Ages.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[110] Breasted, J. H., & Robinson, J. H. (1920). History of Europe, ancient and medieval: Earliest man, the Orient, Greece and Rome (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=BFsAAAAAYAAJ). Boston: Ginn and.

[111] Thatcher, O. J., Schwill, F., & Hassall, A. (1909). A general history of Europe, 350–1900 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=ORAMAAAAYAAJ). London: Murray.

[112] Nida, W. L. (1913). The dawn of American history in Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zLcXAAAAIAAJ). New York:Macmillian.

[113] Robinson, J. H., Breasted, J. H., & Smith, E. P. (1921). A general history of Europe, from the origins of civilization to the present time(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Wl0AAAAAYAAJ). Boston: Ginn and company.

[114] Goodrich, S. G. (1840). The second book of history, combined with geography; containing the modern history of Europe, Asia, and Africa(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ETMFAAAAYAAJ). Illustrated by Engravings and colored maps, and designed as a sequel to "Thefirst book of history. Boston: Hickling, Swan and Brewer.

[115] Turner, E. R. (1921). Europe since 1870 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tNoLAAAAYAAJ). Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.[116] Weir, A. (1886). The historical basis of modern Europe (1760–1815): an introductory study to the general history of Europe in the

nineteenth century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tLkfAAAAMAAJ). London: S. Sonnenschein, Lowrey.[117] Hallam, H. (1837). View of the state of Europe during the middle ages (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3ixjAAAAMAAJ). London:

J. Murray.[118] Russell, W., & Lady of Massachusetts. (1810). The history of modern Europe, particularly France, England, and Scotland with a view of

the progress of society, from the rise of those kingdoms, to the late revolutions on the continent (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=X5a28RAi25AC). Hanover, N.H.: Printed by and for Charles and Wm. S. Spear.

[119] Ogg, F. A., & Sharp, W. R. (1926). Economic development of modern Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=McA9AAAAIAAJ).New York: Macmillan.

[120] Ricardo Duchesne, "Asia First?" (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ pdf/ 10. 1111/ j. 1540-5923. 2006. 00168. x?cookieSet=1),The Journal of the Historical Society, Vol. 6, Issue 1 (March 2006), pp.69–91

[121] Jonathan Locke Hart, Empires and Colonies, Cambridge, Polity, 2008, p. 54 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LnevC1FYdnEC&pg=PA54).

[122] "The Mughal Empire" (http:/ / www. sscnet. ucla. edu/ southasia/ History/ Mughals/ mughals. html)[123] Beard, C. (1902). The industrial revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dnJMAAAAIAAJ). S. Sonnenschein & co., lim., 1919.[124] Grosvenor, E. A. (1899). Contemporary history of the world, ' Partition of Africa, Asia, and Oceania (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=DVQPAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA141)'. New York and Boston: T.Y. Crowell & Co.[125] Imperialism (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ modsbook34. html). Internet Modern History Sourcebook, fordham.edu.[126] Robinson, J. H., Breasted, J. H., & Beard, C. A. (1914). Outlines of European history (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=s0AiAAAAMAAJ). Boston: Ginn.[127] McIntyre, W. D. (1977). The Commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press[128] Russia., Crawford, J. M., & World's Columbian Exposition. (1893). Siberia and the Great Siberian Railway: With a general map (http:/ /

books. google. com/ books?id=eulxAAAAIAAJ). Industries of Russia, v. 5. St. Petersburg: The Departmen[129][129] Korff, S. A. (1921). Russia in the Far East. Washington: The Endowment.[130][130] Wood, N. (1984). John Locke and agrarian capitalism. Berkeley: University of California Press.[131][131] Walton, T. R. (1994). The Spanish treasure fleets. Sarasota, Fla: Pineapple Press[133] Wolfgang Keller and Carol Shiue (http:/ / www. nber. org/ cgi-bin/ author_papers. pl?author=carol_shiue), nber.org.[137] TIME Archives (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ archive/ collections/ 0,21428,c_writers,00. shtml) The greatest writers of the 20th Century[138][138] Etemad, B. (2007). Possessing the world: taking the measurements of colonisation from the eighteenth to the twentieth century. European

expansion and global interaction, v. 6. New York: Berghahn Books.[139] Wells, H. G. (1922). The Outline of History: Being A Plain History of Life and Mankind (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=FGgMAAAAIAAJ). New York: The Review of Reviews. Page 1200.[140][140] Herrmann David G (1996). The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War.[142] Bunyan, James and H. H. Fisher, eds. The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1918: Documents and Materials (Stanford, 1961; first ed. 1934).[143] Reed, John. Ten Days that Shook the World (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ reed/ 1919/ 10days/ 10days/ index. htm). 1919, 1st

Edition, published by BONI & Liveright, Inc. for International Publishers. Transcribed and marked by David Walters for John Reed InternetArchive (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ reed/ works/ index. htm). Penguin Books; 1st edition. June 1, 1980. ISBN 0-14-018293-4.Retrieved May 14, 2005.

[144] Trotsky, Leon. The History of the Russian Revolution (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ trotsky/ works/ 1930-hrr/ index. htm).Translated by Max Eastman, 1932. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 8083994. ISBN 0-913460-83-4. Transcribed for the WorldWide Web by John Gowland (Australia), Alphanos Pangas (Greece) and David Walters (United States). Pathfinder Press edition. June 1,1980. ISBN 0-87348-829-6. Retrieved May 14, 2005.

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[145] Davis, W. S., Anderson, W., & Tyler, M. W. (1918). The roots of the war; a non-technical history of Europe, 1870–1914, AD (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=DOtGAAAAIAAJ). New York: Century.

[148] An Insider's Guide to the UN, Linda Fasulo, Yale University Press (November 1, 2003), hardcover, 272 pages, ISBN 0-300-10155-4[149] United Nations: The First Fifty Years, Stanley Mesler, Atlantic Monthly Press (March 1, 1997), hardcover, 416 pages, ISBN

0-87113-656-2[150][150] Avery, S. (2004). The globalist papers. Louisville, Ky: [Compari].[152] Race for the Superbomb (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ bomb/ ), PBS website on the history of the H-bomb[153] As irrefutably demonstrated by a number of incidents, most prominently the October 1962 Cuban missile crisis.[154] Brown, Archie, et al., eds.: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,

1982).[155] Gilbert, Martin: The Routledge Atlas of Russian History (London: Routledge, 2002).[156] Goldman, Minton: The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Connecticut: Global Studies, Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc., 1986).[157][157] Richard H. Schultz, Wayne A. Downing, Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, W. Bradley Stock, "Special Operations Forces: Roles And Missions In The

Aftermath Of The Cold War". 1996. Page 59[158][158] Caraley, D. (2004). American hegemony: preventive war, Iraq, and imposing democracy. New York: Academy of Political Science. Page

viii[159][159] After 1970s, the United States superpower status has came into question as that country's economic supremacy began to show signs of

slippage. For more see, McCormick, T. J. (1995). America's half-century: United States foreign policy in the Cold War and after. TheAmerican moment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Page 155

[160] Chamberlain, Muriel Evelyn. Decolonization: The Fall of the European Empires (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=T6zBLY312-wC).Historical Association studies. Oxford, UK: Malden, MA, 1999.

[161] Abernethy, David B. The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415–1980 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC). 2000.

[162] Stern, N. H., Jean-Jacques Dethier, and F. Halsey Rogers. Growth and Empowerment: Making Development Happen (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=V7KgWjcvcUkC). Munich lectures in economics. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2005.

[163] Weiss, Thomas George. UN Voices: The Struggle for Development and Social Justice. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.Pages 3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5cxA4LwpKVoC& pg=PA3).

[164] Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6[165] Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1[166] The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN

0-19-870052-0[167] The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher,

2004) ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3[168] Lallana, Emmanuel C., and Margaret N. Uy, "The Information Age".[172] Clayton, Julie. (Ed.). 50 Years of DNA, Palgrave MacMillan Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1-4039-1479-8[173] Watson, James D. The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (Norton Critical Editions). ISBN

978-0-393-95075-5[174] Calladine, Chris R.; Drew, Horace R.; Luisi, Ben F. and Travers, Andrew A. Understanding DNA, Elsevier Academic Press, 2003. ISBN

978-0-12-155089-9[176] Ensembl (http:/ / www. ensembl. org/ ) The Ensembl Genome Browser Project[180] McGaughey, William, Five Epochs of Civilization, Thistlerose, 2000, ISBN 0-9605630-3-2[181] Earth Radiation Budget, http:/ / marine. rutgers. edu/ mrs/ education/ class/ yuri/ erb. html[182] Wood, R.W. (1909). Note on the Theory of the Greenhouse, Philosophical Magazine '17', p. 319–320. For the text of this online, see http:/ /

www. wmconnolley. org. uk/ sci/ wood_rw. 1909. html[183] Edwards, A. R. (2005). The sustainability revolution: portrait of a paradigm shift. Gabriola, BC: New Society. p. 52[184] "Foreword", Energy and Power (A Scientific American Book), pp. vii–viii.[185] M. King Hubbert, "The Energy Resources of the Earth", Energy and Power (A Scientific American Book), pp. 31–40.[186] Renewable energy (http:/ / www. sefi. unep. org) (UNEP); Global Trends In Sustainable Energy Investment (http:/ / sefi. unep. org/

english/ globaltrends) (UNEP).[187] NREL (http:/ / www. nrel. gov) – US National Renewable Energy Laboratory

History of the world 21

References• Williams, H. S. (1904). The historians' history of the world; a comprehensive narrative of the rise and

development of nations as recorded by over two thousand of the great writers of all ages. New York: The OutlookCompany; [etc.].

• Blainey, Geoffery (2000). A Short History Of The World. Penguin Books, Victoria. ISBN 0-670-88036-1• Gombrich, Ernst H. A Little History of the World. Yale. UK and USA, 2005.• H.G. Wells (1920), The Outline of History Volume One (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=-64EAAAAYAAJ), New York, MacMillan.• H. Spodek (2001), The World's History: combined volume, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall.• G. Parker (1997), The Times Atlas of World History, London, Times Books.• The Biosphere (A Scientific American Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, ISBN 0-7167-0945-7.

This seminal book, originally a 1970 Scientific American magazine issue, covered virtually every major concernand concept that has since been debated regarding materials and energy resources, population trends andenvironmental degradation.

• Energy and Power (A Scientific American Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1971, ISBN0-7167-0938-4.

• Jared Diamond (1996). Guns, Germs, and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. New York: W. W. Norton.ISBN 0-393-03891-2.

• Fernand Braudel (1996). The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Berkeley,Calif.: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20308-9.

• Fernand Braudel (1973). Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800. New York: HarperCollins.ISBN 0-06-010454-6.

• Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, Free Press, 1992, ISBN 0-02-910975-2.• Marshall Hodgson, Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History, Cambridge, 1993.• Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy,

Princeton, 2000.• Clive Ponting, World History: a New Perspective, London, 2000.• Ronald Wright, A Short History of Progress, Toronto, Anansi, 2004, ISBN 0-88784-706-4.• Guy Ankerl, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western, Geneva,

INUPRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5.

Further reading•• Louis-Henri FOURNET, "Diagrammatic Chart of World History", Editions Sides (1986) ISBN

978-2-868-61096-6• David Landes, "The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor", New York, W.

W. Norton & Company (1999) ISBN 978-0-393-31888-3• David Landes, "Why Europe and the West? Why Not China?", Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20:2, 3, 2006.• Ricardo Duchesne, "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society, Vol. 6, Issue 1 (March 2006), pp. 69–91

(http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ pdf/ 10. 1111/ j. 1540-5923. 2006. 00168. x?cookieSet=1) (PDF)• William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community, Chicago, University of Chicago

Press, 1963.• Larry Gonick, The Cartoon History of the Universe, Volume One, Main Street Books, 1997, ISBN

978-0-385-26520-1, Volume Two, Main Street Books, 1994, ISBN 978-0-385-42093-8, Volume Three, W. W.Norton & Company, 2002, ISBN 978-0-393-32403-7.

History of the world 22

External links• Crash Course World History (https:/ / www. youtube. com/ playlist?list=PLBDA2E52FB1EF80C9)• British Museum - A History of the World (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ channel/ object_stories/

a_history_of_the_world. aspx)• Civilisation (http:/ / documentarystorm. com/ civilisation/ ) | documentarystorm.com

CivilizationCivilization (or civilisation in British English) is a society with a high level of cultural and technologicaldevelopment and specifically a society that has agriculture and a city or territorial state.[1][2] The emergence ofcivilization is generally associated with the Neolithic, or Agricultural Revolution, which occurred in variouslocations between 8,000 and 5,000 BCE, specifically in southwestern and southern Asia, northern and central Africaand Central America.[3] This revolution marked the beginning of stable agriculture and animal domestication whichenabled economies and cities to develop.The next era of civilization was antiquity or the Axial age in the period between 800 BCE–200 BCE during which aseries of male sages, prophets, religious reformers and philosophers, from China, India, Iran, Israel and Greece,changed the direction of civilizations. This was followed by the middle ages and the early modern period with thespread of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam and the age of discovery. Civilization made a gradual transition tomodernity when scientific methods were developed which led many to believe that the use of science would lead toall knowledge, thus throwing back the shroud of myth and new information about the world was discovered viaempirical observation,[4] versus the historic use of reason and innate knowledge.Judgements of how civilized a society is, are based on methods and extent of agriculture, trade routes, division oflabor, a special governing class, and urbanism. Secondary elements include a developed transportation system,writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and tort-based legal systems, art, architecture,mathematics, scientific understanding, metallurgy, political structures, and organized religion. In a classical context,people were called "civilized" to set them apart from barbarians, savages, and primitive culture while in amodern-day context, "civilized people" have been contrasted with indigenous people or tribal societies. Use of theword "civilized" may be controversial because it could imply superiority or inferiority.

Ancient Egypt is a canonical example of an early culture considered acivilization

Etymology

The word civilization comes from the Latincivilis, meaning civil, related to the Latin civis,meaning citizen, and civitas, meaning city orcity-state.[5]

In the sixth century, the Byzantine EmperorJustinian oversaw the consolidation of Romancivil law. The resulting collection is called theCorpus Juris Civilis. In the 11th century,professors at the University of Bologna, WesternEurope's first university, rediscovered theCorpus Juris Civilis, and its influence began tobe felt across Europe. In 1388, the word civil

Civilization 23

appeared in English meaning "of or related to citizens."[6] In 1704, civilization was used to mean "a law which makesa criminal process into a civil case." Civilization was not used in its modern sense to mean "the opposite ofbarbarism"—as contrasted to civility, meaning politeness or civil virtue—until the second half of the 18th century.According to Emile Benveniste (1954[7]), the earliest written occurrence in English of civilisation in its modernsense may be found in Adam Ferguson's An Essay on the History of Civil Society (Edinburgh, 1767 – p. 2): "Notonly the individual advances from infancy to manhood, but the species itself from rudeness to civilisation."It should be noted that this usage incorporates the concept of superiority and maturity of "civilized" existence, ascontrasted to "rudeness", which is used to denote coarseness, as in a lack of refinement or "civility."Before Benveniste's inquiries, the New English Dictionary quoted James Boswell's conversation with SamuelJohnson concerning the inclusion of Civilization in Johnson's dictionary:

On Monday, March 23 (1772), I found him busy, preparing a fourth edition of his folio Dictionary... He wouldnot admit civilization, but only civility. With great deference to him I thought civilization, from to civilize,better in the sense opposed to barbarity than civility, as it is better to have a distinct word for each sense, thanone word with two senses, which civility is, in his way of using it.

Benveniste demonstrated that previous occurrences could be found, which explained the quick adoption of Johnson'sdefinition. In 1775 the dictionary of Ast defined civilization as "the state of being civilized; the act of civilizing",[7]

and the term was frequently used by Adam Smith in An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations(1776).[7] Beside Smith and Ferguson, John Millar also used it in 1771 in his Observations concerning thedistinction of ranks in society.[7]

The history of the word in English appears to be connected with the parallel development in French, which may bethe original source. As the first occurrence of civilization in French was found by Benveniste in the Marquis deMirabeau's L'Ami des hommes ou traité de la population (written in 1756 but published in 1757), Benveniste's querywas to know if the English word derived from the French, or if both evolved independently — a question whichneeded more research. According to him, the word civilization may in fact have been used by Ferguson as soon as1759.[7]

Furthermore, Benveniste notes that, contrasted to civility, a static term, civilization conveys a sense of dynamism. Hethus writes that:

It was not only a historical view of society; it was also an optimist and resolutely non theological interpretationof its evolution which asserted itself, sometimes at the insu of those who proclaimed it, and even if some ofthem, and first of all Mirabeau, still counted religion as the first factor of 'civilization.[7][8]

In the late 1700s and early 1800s, both during the French revolution, and in English, "civilization" was referred to inthe singular, never the plural, because it referred to the progress of humanity as a whole. This is still the case inFrench.[] More recently "civilizations" is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader term "cultures" in bothpopular and academic circles.[9] However, the concepts of civilization and culture are not always consideredinterchangeable. For example, a small nomadic tribe may be judged not to have a civilization, but it would surely bejudged to have a culture (defined as "the arts, customs, habits... beliefs, values, behavior and material habits thatconstitute a people's way of life").Civilization is not always seen as an improvement. One historically important distinction between culture and civilization stems from the writings of Rousseau, and particularly his work concerning education, Emile. In this perspective, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accordance with human nature, and "human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original prediscursive or prerational natural unity". (See noble savage.) From this notion, a new approach was developed especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder, and later by philosophers such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. This sees cultures (plural) as natural organisms which are not defined by "conscious, rational, deliberative acts" but rather a kind of pre-rational "folk spirit". Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful concerning

Civilization 24

material progress, is seen as un-natural, and leads to "vices of social life" such as guile, hypocrisy, envy, andavarice.[] During World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this approach tocivilization was behind Nazism and German militarism and nihilism.[10] Also the early socialist theorist CharlesFourier used the word civilization in a negative sense and as such "Fourier´s contempt for the respectable thinkersand ideologies of his age was so intense that he always used the terms philosopher and civilization in a pejorativesense. In his lexicon civilization was a depraved order, a synonym for perfidy and constraint...Even at its pettiest andmost myopic, however, Fourier´s attack on civilization had qualities not to be found in the writing of any other socialcritic of his time." [11]

In his book The Philosophy of Civilization, Albert Schweitzer outlined the idea that there are dual opinions withinsociety: one regarding civilization as purely material and another regarding civilization as both ethical and material.He stated that the current world crisis was, then in 1923, due to a humanity having lost the ethical conception ofcivilization. In this same work, he defined civilization, saying that it "is the sum total of all progress made by man inevery sphere of action and from every point of view in so far as the progress helps towards the spiritual perfecting ofindividuals as the progress of all progress."

Characteristics

26th century BCE Sumerian cuneiform script inSumerian language, listing gifts to the high

priestess of Adab on the occasion of her election.One of the earliest examples of human writing.

Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number oftraits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society.[12]

Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence,types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, socialstratification, economic systems, literacy, and other cultural traits.

All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence.Growing food on farms results in a surplus of food, particularly whenpeople use intensive agricultural techniques such as irrigation and croprotation. Grain surpluses have been especially important because theycan be stored for a long time. A surplus of food permits some people todo things besides produce food for a living: early civilizations includedartisans, priests and priestesses, and other people with specializedcareers. A surplus of food results in a division of labor and a morediverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations.However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to foodsurpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the PacificNorthwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture. It is possible that food surpluses and relatively largescale social organization and division of labor predates plant and animal domestication.[13]

Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word civilization is sometimessimply defined as "'living in cities'".[14] Non-farmers tend to gather in cities to work and to trade.

Civilization 25

"No one in the history of civilization has shapedour understanding of science and natural

philosophy more than the great Greekphilosopher and scientist Aristotle (384–322BCE), who exerted a profound and pervasiveinfluence for more than two thousand years"

—Gary B. Ferngren[15]

Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complexpolitical structure, namely the state.[16] State societies are morestratified[17] than other societies; there is a greater difference amongthe social classes. The ruling class, normally concentrated in the cities,has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through theactions of a government or bureaucracy. Morton Fried, a conflicttheorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, have classifiedhuman cultures based on political systems and social inequality. Thissystem of classification contains four categories:[citation needed]

• Hunter-gatherer bands, which are generally egalitarian.[18]

• Horticultural/pastoral societies in which there are generally twoinherited social classes; chief and commoner.

• Highly stratified structures, or chiefdoms, with several inheritedsocial classes: king, noble, freemen, serf and slave.

• Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized,institutional governments.[19]

Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns ofownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in oneplace allows people to accumulate more personal possessions thannomadic people. Some people also acquire landed property, or privateownership of the land. Because a percentage of people in civilizationsdo not grow their own food, they must trade their goods and services for food in a market system, or receive foodthrough the levy of tribute, redistributive taxation, tariffs or tithes from the food producing segment of thepopulation. Early civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for these increasingly complextransactions. To oversimplify, in a village the potter makes a pot for the brewer and the brewer compensates thepotter by giving him a certain amount of beer. In a city, the potter may need a new roof, the roofer may need newshoes, the cobbler may need new horseshoes, the blacksmith may need a new coat, and the tanner may need a newpot. These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the sametime. A monetary system is a way of organizing these obligations to ensure that they are fulfilled fairly.

Writing, developed first by people in Sumer, is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany therise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state."[20] Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing tokeep accurate records. Like money, writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and thecomplexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other. However, writingis not always necessary for civilization. The Inca civilization of the Andes did not use writing at all, yet it stillfunctioned as a society.Aided by their division of labor and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diversecultural traits. These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science andtechnology.Through history, successful civilizations have spread, taking over more and more territory, and assimilating moreand more previously-uncivilized people. Nevertheless, some tribes or people remain uncivilized even to this day.These cultures are called by some "primitive," a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. "Primitive" implies insome way that a culture is "first" (Latin = primus), that it has not changed since the dawn of humanity, though thishas been demonstrated not to be true. Specifically, as all of today's cultures are contemporaries, today's so-calledprimitive cultures are in no way antecedent to those we consider civilized. Anthropologists today use the term"non-literate" to describe these peoples.

Civilization 26

Civilization has been spread by colonization, invasion, religious conversion, the extension of bureaucratic controland trade, and by introducing agriculture and writing to non-literate peoples. Some non-civilized people maywillingly adapt to civilized behaviour. But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominancethat civilization engenders.

Cultural identity"Civilization" can also refer to the culture of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilizationor not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of manufactures and arts that make it unique.Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion,and complex customs associated with the elite.The intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimesassimilating them into the civilization (a classic example being Chinese civilization and its influence on nearbycivilizations such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam). Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containingmany nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as discrete units. Earlytwentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler,[21] uses the German word "Kultur," "culture," for what many call a"civilization". Spengler believes a civilization's coherence is based on a single primary cultural symbol. Culturesexperience cycles of birth, life, decline, and death, often supplanted by a potent new culture, formed around acompelling new cultural symbol. Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as, "...themost external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable."[21]

This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian Arnold J. Toynbee in themid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume A Study of History, which tracedthe rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations." Civilizations generallydeclined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a "creative minority", through moral or religiousdecline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes.Samuel P. Huntington defines civilization as "the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level ofcultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species." Huntington's theoriesabout civilizations are discussed below.[22]

The clash of civilizations according to Huntington.

Complex systems

Another group of theorists, making useof systems theory, looks at acivilization as a complex system, i.e., aframework by which a group of objectscan be analyzed that work in concert toproduce some result. Civilizations canbe seen as networks of cities thatemerge from pre-urban cultures, andare defined by the economic, political,military, diplomatic, social, andcultural interactions among them. Any organization is a complex social system, and a civilization is a largeorganization. Systems theory helps guard against superficial but misleading analogies in the study and description ofcivilizations.

Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade

Civilization 27

networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensivetrade routes, including the Silk Road through Central Asia and Indian Ocean sea routes linking the Roman Empire,Persian Empire, India, and China, were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared anypolitical, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations. The first evidence of such long distance trade is in the ancientworld. During the Uruk period Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iranand Afghanistan.[23] Resin found later in the Royal Tombs of Ur [24] it is suggested was traded northwards fromMozambique.Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "world system", a processknown as globalization. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and evenculturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort ofintegration – cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic – is the key indicator in determiningthe extent of a civilization. David Wilkinson has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of theMesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization" around1500 BCE.[25] Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expandedto a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenthcentury. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, orhomogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations" might becharacterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to theCrusades as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies haveexpanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recentEuropean colonialism.

FuturePolitical scientist Samuel Huntington[26] has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a clashof civilizations. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts betweennation-states and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries. These views have been stronglychallenged by others like Edward Said, Muhammed Asadi and Amartya Sen.[27] Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norrishave argued that the "true clash of civilizations" between the Muslim world and the West is caused by the Muslimrejection of the West's more liberal sexual values, rather than a difference in political ideology, although they notethat this lack of tolerance is likely to lead to an eventual rejection of (true) democracy.[28] In Identity and ViolenceSen questions if people should be divided along the lines of a supposed 'civilization', defined by religion and cultureonly. He argues that this ignores the many others identities that make up people and leads to a focus on differences.Some environmental scientists see the world entering a Planetary Phase of Civilization, characterized by a shift awayfrom independent, disconnected nation-states to a world of increased global connectivity with worldwide institutions,environmental challenges, economic systems, and consciousness.[29][30] In an attempt to better understand what aPlanetary Phase of Civilization might look like in the current context of declining natural resources and increasingconsumption, the Global scenario group used scenario analysis to arrive at three archetypal futures: Barbarization, inwhich increasing conflicts result in either a fortress world or complete societal breakdown; Conventional Worlds, inwhich market forces or Policy reform slowly precipitate more sustainable practices; and a Great Transition, in whicheither the sum of fragmented Eco-Communalism movements add up to a sustainable world or globally coordinatedefforts and initiatives result in a new sustainability paradigm.[31]

Author Derrick Jensen argues that modern civilization is intrinsically directed towards the domination of theenvironment and humanity itself in a harmful and destructive fashion.[32]

The Kardashev scale classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist (see also: Civilizations and the Future, Space

Civilization 28

civilization).

Fall of civilizationsThere have been many explanations put forward for the collapse of civilization. Some focus on historical examples,and others on general theory.• Ibn Khaldūn's Muqaddimah influenced theories of the analysis, growth and decline of the Islamic

civilization.[33] He suggested repeated invasions from nomadic peoples limited development and led to socialcollapse.

• Edward Gibbon's work The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was a well-known and detailed analysis ofthe fall of Roman civilization. Gibbon suggested the final act of the collapse of Rome was the fall ofConstantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. For Gibbon:

The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripenedthe principle of decay; the cause of the destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and, as soonas time or accident had removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure ofits own weight. The story of the ruin is simple and obvious; and instead of inquiring why the RomanEmpire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it has subsisted for so long.[Gibbon, Declineand Fall of the Roman Empire, 2nd ed., vol. 4, ed. by J. B. Bury (London, 1909), pp. 173–174.-ChapterXXXVIII: Reign Of Clovis.--Part VI. General Observations On The Fall Of The Roman Empire In TheWest.]

• Theodor Mommsen in his "History of Rome (Mommsen)", suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of theWestern Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of "genesis," "growth,""senescence," "collapse" and "decay."

• Oswald Spengler, in his "Decline of the West" rejected Petrarch's chronological division, and suggested that therehad been only eight "mature civilizations." Growing cultures, he argued, tend to develop into imperialisticcivilizations which expand and ultimately collapse, with democratic forms of government ushering in plutocracyand ultimately imperialism.

• Arnold J. Toynbee in his "A Study of History" suggested that there had been a much larger number ofcivilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through thecycle identified by Mommsen. The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a cultural elite became aparasitic elite, leading to the rise of internal and external proletariats.

• Joseph Tainter in "The Collapse of Complex Societies" suggested that there were diminishing returns tocomplexity, due to which, as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, they would decline whenfurther increases actually produced a negative return. Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2ndcentury CE.

• Jared Diamond in his 2005 book "Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed" suggests five majorreasons for the collapse of 41 studied cultures: environmental damage, such as deforestation and soil erosion;climate change; dependence upon long-distance trade for needed resources; increasing levels of internal andexternal violence, such as war or invasion; and societal responses to internal and environmental problems.

• Peter Turchin in his Historical Dynamics [34] and Andrey Korotayev et al. in their Introduction to Social Macrodynamics, Secular Cycles, and Millennial Trends [35] suggest a number of mathematical models describing collapse of agrarian civilizations. For example, the basic logic of Turchin's "fiscal-demographic" model can be outlined as follows: during the initial phase of a sociodemographic cycle we observe relatively high levels of per capita production and consumption, which leads not only to relatively high population growth rates, but also to relatively high rates of surplus production. As a result, during this phase the population can afford to pay taxes without great problems, the taxes are quite easily collectible, and the population growth is accompanied by the growth of state revenues. During the intermediate phase, the increasing overpopulation leads to the decrease of

Civilization 29

per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and staterevenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by thestate. As a result, during this phase the state starts experiencing considerable fiscal problems. During the finalpre-collapse phases the overpopulation leads to further decrease of per capita production, the surplus productionfurther decreases, state revenues shrink, but the state needs more and more resources to control the growing(though with lower and lower rates) population. Eventually this leads to famines, epidemics, state breakdown, anddemographic and civilization collapse (Peter Turchin. Historical Dynamics. Princeton University Press,2003:121–127).

• Peter Heather argues in his book The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History of Rome and the Barbarians[36]

that this civilization did not end for moral or economic reasons, but because centuries of contact with barbariansacross the frontier generated its own nemesis by making them a much more sophisticated and dangerousadversary. The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were forthe first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire. Although this argument isspecific to Rome, it can also be applied to the Asiatic Empire of the Egyptians, to the Han and Tang dynasties ofChina, to the Muslim Abbasid Caliphate, and others.

• Bryan Ward-Perkins, in his book The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization,[37] shows the real horrorsassociated with the collapse of a civilization for the people who suffer its effects, unlike many revisionisthistorians who downplay this. The collapse of complex society meant that even basic plumbing disappeared fromthe continent for 1,000 years. Similar Dark Age collapses are seen with the Late Bronze Age collapse in theEastern Mediterranean, the collapse of the Maya, on Easter Island and elsewhere.

• Arthur Demarest argues in Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization,[38] using a holisticperspective to the most recent evidence from archaeology, paleoecology, and epigraphy, that no one explanationis sufficient but that a series of erratic, complex events, including loss of soil fertility, drought and rising levels ofinternal and external violence led to the disintegration of the courts of Mayan kingdoms which began a spiral ofdecline and decay. He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today.

• Jeffrey A. McNeely has recently suggested that "A review of historical evidence shows that past civilizationshave tended to over-exploit their forests, and that such abuse of important resources has been a significant factorin the decline of the over-exploiting society."[39]

• Thomas Homer-Dixon in "The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization [40]",considers that the fall in the energy return on investments; the energy expended to energy yield ratio, is central tolimiting the survival of civilizations. The degree of social complexity is associated strongly, he suggests, with theamount of disposable energy environmental, economic and technological systems allow. When this amountdecreases civilizations either have to access new energy sources or they will collapse.

Civilization 30

History

Early civilizations

Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread inprehistory: the Fertile Crescent (11,000 BP), the Yangtze and Yellow River basins (9000BP) and the New Guinea Highlands (9000–6000 BP), Central Mexico (5000–4000 BP),Northern South America (5000–4000 BP), sub-Saharan Africa (5000–4000 BP, exact

location unknown), eastern USA (4000–3000 BP).[]

The process of sedentarization is firstthought to have occurred around12,000 BCE in the Levant region ofsouthwest Asia though other regionsaround the world soon followed. Theemergence of civilization is generallyassociated with the Neolithic, orAgricultural Revolution, whichoccurred in various locations between8,000 and 5,000 BCE, specifically insouthwestern/southern Asia,northern/central Africa and CentralAmerica.[41] This revolution markedthe beginning of stable agriculture andanimal domestication which enabled economies and cities to develop.

The following articles discuss the development of major early civilizations.•• Neolithic•• Bronze Age South Asia

•• Indus Valley Civilization•• Ancient Near East

•• Mesopotamia• Levant / Canaan• Bronze Age Anatolia / Aegean

•• Bronze Age Europe•• Bronze Age China•• Africa

•• Ancient Egypt• Ancient Somalia (Punt)•• Kush•• Axum•• Nok

•• Pre-Columbian Americas• Norte Chico / Caral•• Olmec•• Zapotec civilization

Civilization 31

Antiquity (Axial Age)Karl Jaspers, the German historical philosopher, proposed that the ancient civilizations were affected greatly by anAxial Age in the period between 800 BCE–200 BCE during which a series of male sages, prophets, religiousreformers and philosophers, from China, India, Iran, Israel and Greece, changed the direction of civilizations.[42]

William H. McNeill proposed that this period of history was one in which culture contact between previouslyseparate civilizations saw the "closure of the oecumene", and led to accelerated social change from China to theMediterranean, associated with the spread of coinage, larger empires and new religions. This view has recently beenchampioned by Christopher Chase-Dunn and other world systems theorists.• Mediterranean civilizations of the Classical Period

•• Ancient Greece•• Ancient Rome•• Hellenistic civilization

•• Middle East• Persia since the Achaemenids•• Second Temple Judaism

•• Ancient India• Ancient China (Qin Dynasty, Han Dynasty)• Ancient Nomads (Xiongnu, Huns, Kok Turk Empire)

Medieval to Early Modern•• Christendom

•• Western Christianity•• Eastern Christianity

•• Islamic World•• Islamic Golden Age•• Caliphate•• Somalia

•• Adal Sultanate•• Ajuuraan Empire•• Warsangali Empire

• Mongol-Turkish (Ilkhanate, Timurid Empire)•• Mughal India•• Ottoman Empire

•• Asia• Chola Empire, Tamilnadu, India• Pandya Empire, Tamilnadu, India• Chera Kingdom, Tamilnadu, India• Pallava Kingdom, Tamilnadu, India•• Sui China•• Tang China•• Song China•• Goryeo Korea• Mongol Empire (Yuan)•• Ming China•• Feudal Japan

Civilization 32

•• Confucian Vietnam•• Southeast Asia

• Funan, Chenla, Champa, Anghor Cambodia• Dvaravati, Hariphunchai, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya Kingdom, pre Modern Thailand•• Pagan Burma• Sri Vijaya, Sailendra, Mataram and Majapahit

•• Mesomerican civilizations•• Toltec•• Aztec civilization•• Maya civilization

•• Andean civilizations•• Chimor• Kingdom of Cusco/Inca Empire•• Aymara

•• African civilizations•• Wagadou•• Mali Empire•• Songhai Empire•• Ashanti Empire•• Abyssinia•• Benin Empire

Modernity•• Western world

•• Western Europe•• North America•• South America• Australia and New Zealand

•• Intermediate world•• Eastern Europe

•• Slavic world•• Greece

•• Greater Middle East•• Arab world•• Iranian world•• Israel•• Turkic world

•• Eastern world•• East Asia

•• Japan•• Korea

•• South Asia•• Southeast Asia

•• Malay world

Civilization 33

•• Sub-Saharan AfricaExamples of civilizations

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (Kairouan, Tunisia), also called the Mosque of Uqba, is the oldest mosque in NorthAfrica and one of the most important monuments of Islamic civilization.[43][44]

The city of Mohenjo-daro, built around 2600 BCE by the Indus valley civilization, spanning Pakistan, India andAfghanistan is one of the world's earliest cities. 

The Acropolis, directly influencing architecture and engineering in Western, Islamic, and Eastern civilizations up tothe present day, 2400 years after construction. 

Civilization 34

The Roman Forum, the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the Ancient Rome civilization, during theRepublic and later Empire, its ruins still visible today in modern-day Rome. 

The Great Wall of China

Notes[1] http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ civilization[2] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=YN_kGDvNCqEC[3] "Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration", Anil K. Gupta*, Current

Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 10 July 2004 (http:/ / repository. ias. ac. in/ 21961/ 1/ 333. pdf)[4] Baird, F. E., & Kaufmann, W. A. (2008). Philosophic classics: From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall.[5] Larry E. Sullivan (2009), The SAGE glossary of the social and behavioral sciences (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3041K2Zv76AC&

pg=PT73), Editions SAGE, p. 73[6] "Civil", Merriam-Webster, 226.[7] Émile Benveniste, "Civilisation. Contribution à l'histoire du mot" (Civilisation. Contribution to the history of the word), 1954, published in

Problèmes de linguistique générale, Editions Gallimard, 1966, pp.336–345 (translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek as Problems in generallinguistics, 2 vols., 1971)

[8] Benveniste (French): Ce n'était pas seulement une vue historique de la société; c'était aussi une interprétation optimiste et résolument nonthéologique de son évolution qui s'affirmait, parfois à l'insu de ceux qui la proclamaient, et même si certains, et d'abord Mirabeau, comptaientencore la religion comme le premier facteur de la "civilization".

[9] "Civilization" (1974), Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed. Vol. II, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 956. Retrieved 25 August 2007.[10] " On German Nihilism (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ LeoStraussOnGermanNihilism1941)" (1999, originally a 1941 lecture),

Interpretation 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay.[11][11] Johnathan Beecher. Charles Fourier: the visionary and his world. University of California Press. 1986. Pgs. 195-196[12] Gordon Childe, V., What Happened in History (Penguin, 1942) and Man Makes Himself (Harmondsworth, 1951)[14] Tom Standage (2005), A History of the World in 6 Glasses, Walker & Company, 25.[15] Gary B. Ferngren (2002). " Science and religion: a historical introduction (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&

pg=PA33& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". JHU Press. p.33. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0[16][16] Grinin, Leonid E (Ed) et al (2004), "The Early State and its Alternatives and Analogues" (Ichitel)[17][17] Bondarenko, Dmitri et al (2004), "Alternatives to Social Evolution" in Grinin op cit.[18][18] DeVore, Irven, and Lee, Richard (1999) "Man the Hunter" (Aldine)[20] Pauketat, Timothy R. 169.[21] Spengler, Oswald, Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History (1919)

Civilization 35

[22] Samuel P. Huntington (1997), The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=LO4xG-bH1CQC& pg=PA43), Simon and Schuster, p. 43

[23] Algaze, Guillermo, The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization" (Second Edition, 2004)(ISBN 978-0-226-01382-4)

[24] http:/ / www. mesopotamia. co. uk/ tombs/ index. html[25] Wilkinson, David, The Power Configuration Sequence of the Central World System, 1500–700 BCE (http:/ / jwsr. ucr. edu/ archive/ vol10/

number3/ pdf/ jwsr-v10n3-wilkinson. pdf) (2001)[26] Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, (Simon & Schuster, 1996)[29] Orion > Thoughts on America (http:/ / www. orionsociety. org/ pages/ oo/ sidebars/ America/ Rockefeller. html)[30] Kosmos Journal Paths to Planetary Civilization (http:/ / www. kosmosjournal. org/ kjo/ backissue/ s2006/ laszlo-1. shtml)[31] GTinitiative.org (http:/ / www. gtinitiative. org/ documents/ Great_Transitions. pdf)[32] Jensen, Derrick (2006), "Endgame: The Problem of Civilisation", Vol 1 & Vol 2 (Seven Stories Press)[33] Massimo Campanini (2005), Studies on Ibn Khaldûn (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=5DoasQxzvNQC& pg=PA75), Polimetrica s.a.s.,

p. 75[34] http:/ / www. eeb. uconn. edu/ faculty/ turchin/ HistDyn. htm[35] http:/ / cliodynamics. ru/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=172& Itemid=70[38][38] ISBN 0-521-53390-2[39][39] McNeely, Jeffrey A. (1994) "Lessons of the past: Forests and Biodiversity" (Vol 3, No 1 1994. Biodiversity and Conservation)[40] http:/ / www. theupsideofdown. com[41] "Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration", Anil K. Gupta*, Current

Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 10 July 2004 (http:/ / repository. ias. ac. in/ 21961/ 1/ 333. pdf)[42] Tarnas, Richard (1993). The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas that Have Shaped Our World View (Ballantine Books)[43] Hans Kung, Tracing the Way : Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sm0BfUKwct0C&

pg=PA248), Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, p. 248[44] Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya (Muslim Heritage) (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ topics/ default.

cfm?TaxonomyTypeID=101& TaxonomySubTypeID=19& TaxonomyThirdLevelID=280& ArticleID=1176)

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External links• The dictionary definition of civilization at Wiktionary• Quotations related to Civilization at Wikiquote• "The Elements of Civilization." (http:/ / www. mrdowling. com/ 603-civilization. html) Common Core Standards

based lesson for middle school students

Article Sources and Contributors 38

Article Sources and ContributorsHistory of the world  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=564341752  Contributors: 10metreh, 119, 11bo53, 2001:5B0:21FF:3EF0:0:0:0:3B, 2828pop, 28421u2232nfenfcenc,2help, 777player, A Softer Answer, AKA MBG, AKMask, Aacc78, Abab99, Abductive, Adashiel, Adavidb, Addihockey10, Afewnotes, Agni365, Agüeybaná, Ahoerstemeier, Akhilleus, AlanLiefting, Alanthenuttall, Albert ip, Albia, Alhutch, Alkivar, Allens, Alvestrand, Ancheta Wis, Andi d, Andkore, Andrejoubert, Andrew Kanaber, Andrewman327, Andylkl, Andys627, AnnaLincoln, Antandrus, Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, Arbor to SJ, Arcandam, Ardric47, Aristotle1990, Arkuat, Art LaPella, Artoasis, Asbestos, Atb129, Athenean, Atoric,AubreyEllenShomo, Aunt Entropy, Auntof6, Avala, Avsa, Azitnay, Badamsambu, Badgernet, Balthazarduju, Barek, Bart133, Barticus88, Bcrowell, Behun, Beland, Belligero, Ben Ben, BertholdWerner, Betacommand, Bevo, Billy Stidham, Birdzeye, Blaxthos, Blututh, BlytheG, Bmgoau, Bob rulz, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bornintheguz, Bradtcordeiro, Brendanconway, Brianthe Editor, Brockert, Brunnock, Brutannica, Bryan Derksen, BryanG, Buaidh, Buggie111, CIS, CJLL Wright, CJWilly, Cabiria, Cadiomals, Caesura, Calliopejen1, CalumH93, Can't sleep, clownwill eat me, CanadianCaesar, CanisRufus, Cap'nTrade, CardinalDan, Carlsotr, Caseyrd1, Catpad309440857, Cethegus, Chakrashok, Chocoforfriends, Chris the speller, ChrisHodgesUK,Christy123456789, Ciphergoth, Ckatz, CloudNine, Cmdrjameson, Cmichael, Cnheying, Cntras, Coffeewhite, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Corleonebrother, Courcelles, Cowlinator,Craigy144, Cutesybuttons, Cyde, D prime, D-Rock, DBaba, DCrazy, DVD R W, Daanschr, DabMachine, DameonX, Dangerous Angel, DanielCD, Danthemankhan, Darth Panda, Davesilvan,David Eppstein, Dawkeye, Dbachmann, Deanricci, Deckiller, Deeplogic, Deglr6328, Dejvid, Deli nk, Deor, Deqon, DerHexer, Dgw, Dialectric, Diego123, Dijxtra, Discospinster, Dlrohrer2003,Dmarquard, Dougweller, DrKiernan, DragonflySixtyseven, Drmies, Drogo Underburrow, Drpickem, Dualus, Dublin1994, Dudley Miles, Duran, Dwcsite, Dynamax, Dzenanz, ESkog, Ealdgyth,Earth, Editor711, Edward, Eixo, El C, Elias Enoc, EmperorOfSiberia, Emrrans, Ensign beedrill, Entreri, Epbr123, Eric Forste, Eric Shalov, EronMain, Erud, Eruditorum, Erviniumd, Ettrig,Everyking, Ezeu, Fang 23, Faviot, Favonian, Felix Wan, Felixgunner, Fenice, Ferkelparade, Ffaarr, Fifelfoo, Filceolaire, Fireswordfight, Fjbfour, Flauto Dolce, Florian Blaschke, Fluffernutter,Foant, FreplySpang, G0T0, GC2maxpro, GVnayR, Gaius Cornelius, Gary King, Gazjo, Gcle2003, Gdr, Geniac, George, Gidonb, Glenn, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, Goingin, GoodDamon,GoonerDP, Grafen, GregorB, Gsociology, Gtg204y, Gun Powder Ma, Gurch, Guy M, Gyonis, Hadseys, Hairy Dude, Harizotoh9, HarryHenryGebel, Haus, Hdt83, Henryodell, Heron, Hhaarty,Hijiri88, HisSpaceResearch, Hmains, Holyguacomole2, Hottentot, HueSatLum, Huelga, Hydao, I'm so Kewall, Ibadibam, Ice Vision, Idaltu, Immunize, Imzogelmo, Infrogmation, InvaderCito,Itssnowing, J.delanoy, J04n, JDoorjam, JForget, JHunterJ, Jacob Lundberg, Jacotto, Jagged 85, James0321, Jannex, Jao, Jaredwf, Javiermurillocom, Jay-Sebastos, Jedravent, Jeepday, Jeeves, JeffG., Jericho4.0, Jerome Charles Potts, Jerry mcmanus, Jesperh85, Jespinos, Jguk 2, Jhenderson777, Jie, Jim1138, JinJian, Jmcc150, Johan Magnus, John D. Croft, Johnwrobertsjr, Jojit fb,Jojobobbob, Jonathunder, Jooler, Jordain, JorisvS, Jossi, Jrtayloriv, Jtneill, KF, KPH2293, Kakorot, Karolkalna, Kelisi, Kenshe, King of Hearts, Klilidiplomus, Knowledge Seeker,KnowledgeOfSelf, Knulclunk, Koavf, Kozuch, Kpalion, Ktacheny, Kukini, L Kensington, LAX, Lancevortex, Lapinmies, Larsinio, Lasery papaya, Laubzega, Laurinavicius, Leevanjackson,LegolasGreenleaf, Leithp, Leszek Jańczuk, Lexor, Ligulem, LilHelpa, LittleWink, Logologist, Lotje, Lowellian, Lucius Sempronius Turpio, Lunadesign, M. Adiputra, M3luv4, MC MasterChef,MJ94, Mac Davis, Macduffman, Macedonian, Mackan, Majorly, Mana Excalibur, Marcika, MarcusMaximus, Marek69, Mark Foskey, Markaci, Marknesbitt, Masterpiece2000, Matt Heard,Matthew Fennell, Maurreen, Mayooranathan, McCart42, Mdd4696, Meeso, MelbourneStar, Mentifisto, Mercury101, Meredyth, Michalws, Mihirgk, Mike Rosoft, Mike s, Mikeizthegreatest,Mkill, Moonriddengirl, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mpondopondo, Mr. Vernon, Mr. Wikipediania, MrOllie, Mussav, Mwenemucii, Mxn, Mygerardromance, N-k90, NSLE,Nakon, Natalie Erin, Natsymir, NatusRoma, NawfalQ, NawlinWiki, Nectarflowed, Nehrams2020, Nengscoz416, NewEnglandYankee, NewsPAPER, Nihil novi, Nixeagle, Noisy,Noneedforsalvation, Nubiatech, Numbermaniac, Nyh, OStewart, Oberiko, Ofekalef, Ojigiri, OlEnglish, Oliverseeley, Olvegg, OrenBochman, Orenburg1, OrinR, Orkh, Ornil, Oxag, PBP,PK2117, Palaeovia, Paleorthid, ParisianBlade, Parkwells, PatrickA, Paul-L, Percy Snoodle, Peteruetz, Pethr, Petru Dimitriu, Phil Boswell, Philg88, Philip Trueman, Phoenix7777, Piano nontroppo, Pinethicket, Piotrus, Pjamescowie, Pju0353, Plasticup, PolarYukon, Portillo, Prashanthns, Prestonmag, Prolog, Pseudomonas, Psmith, Pulse Project org, Quadell, QuantumEleven,Qwyrxian, Qxz, R'n'B, RCSB, RJHall, RafaelG, RainbowOfLight, Ran, Ranveig, Raven4x4x, Reade, Reconsider the static, RedWolf, Reddi, Reegan.milne, RevRagnarok, Revolución, Rewhitley,Rex Germanus, RexNL, Rhtcmu, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Rick Norwood, Ricmar, Rjensen, RobDe68, Robdurbar, Robert Bond, Roentgenium111, Rohitphy, Ronhjones, Rootboot,Rorschach, Roy da Vinci, Rune.welsh, RustyPete12, Rw2, Ryulong, S23678, S8333631, SD6-Agent, SOA, Sab128, Saccerzd, Sadalmelik, Saddhiyama, Sadharan, Sainsf, Salleman, Salliesatt,Sam Hocevar, Sander Säde, Sandersen121, Sandstein, SarahStierch, Scapler, Scfischer, Schzmo, Scienceislife, Sdornan, Serendipodous, Seyon, Sgeureka, ShaneCavanaugh, Shanes,ShardPhoenix, Shii, Shirudo, Shoemaker's Holiday, Shorne, Shultzc, Sidmow, Sietse Snel, SimonD, SimonP, Skipsievert, Skizzik, Slashme, SoCalSuperEagle, Soliloquial,Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme, SpaceFlight89, Srs, Ssbjy, Stagyar Zil Doggo, Stahob, Staszek Lem, Stbalbach, Stebulus, SteinAlive, SteinbDJ, Stephen Bain, Stephen Compall, Steven J.Anderson, Sun Creator, Superm401, Symane, Symmetrian, T8dgr8, TAKASUGI Shinji, TEB728, THEDUDE3069, Ta bu shi da yu, Taief.shahed, Talonird, Tartaros, Tassedethe, Tavis, Taxman,Tedcoombs, Teflon Don, TestPilot, Thanatosimii, Thaurisil, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Utahraptor, The number c, TheArmadillo, TheLeopard,TheMadBaron, TheNuclearFamilySurvives,AndForThatIAmProudToBeAnAmerican, Thedropsoffire, Thehelpfulone, Thejavadrinker, Themightyquill, Theunde4dg4mer, Thisour, Thom56,Tiamut, TimBentley, TimVickers, Timwi, Tktktk, Tobby72, Torchiest, Tpbradbury, Triona, Twas Now, Twerbrou, Twinsday, Tyrannus Mundi, UberCryxic, Ugur Basak, UhOhFeeling, Ukexpat,Unschool, UnvoicedConsonant, User2004, UtDicitur, Utcursch, Uxbona, Vanbaalenj, Varpur94, Venu62, Verrai, Versus22, Vibhijain, Vir, Viriditas, Voyaging, Vyhuhol, Waggers, Wavelength,Waza, Wbrameld, Westendgirl, WhiteC, Whouk, Wiki alf, Wiki235, WikiTome, Wikiacc, Wikidea, Wikiklrsc, Will Beback, Wmcg, Wolfdog, Wolvesnthemist, Woohookitty, Wwoods,Wwoody123, Xaxafrad, Xgu, Xianxxx, Xiaphias, Xinjao, Xnuala, Yair rand, Ymirfrostgiant, Yom, Yosef1987, Ysc262, Yuninjie, Zaalbar, Zealander, Zeangrypanda, Zenibus, Zenyu, Zink Dawg,Zoeperkoe, Zonder, ZooFari, 965 anonymous edits

Civilization  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=564747208  Contributors: (, *drew, 100110100, 116redrock, 123957a, 1exec1, 4shizzal, 7, ABF, AK63, AThing, Abasass, Abdullais4u, Acroterion, ActivExpression, Adam McMaster, AdamBMorgan, Adashiel, Addshore, Afroshman, Afterwriting, Ahmed 313-326, Ahoerstemeier, Ahsaninam, Ahwoooga, Aitias, Akarkera, Alansohn, AlexD, AlexiusHoratius, Ali besharatian, Allens, Alphachimp, Alphax, Alsandro, AmazingAthiest, Americanhero, Amir85, Amitkasher, Amp71, Ancheta Wis, Andersmusician, Andres, Andrew Lancaster, Andrew schaug, Andrewmcmahon96, Andycjp, AngelOfSadness, Angelo De La Paz, Ano-User, Anomaly2002, AnonGuy, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Antivandalblaster, Anup Ramakrishnan, Aogouguo, Appenzeller, Appraiser, Aramx123, ArchetypeRyan, Arcillaroja, ArglebargleIV, Arny, Arturj, AstareGod, Athkalani, Athkalani2000, Avala, Averaver, Avoided, Axezz, Ayyagari ravi15, Azeira, Azukimonaka, BD2412, BanyanTree, BaodlywoaterAlbanian, Barek, Bart133, Barticus88, Basilo12, Baumgaertner, Bazonka, Beland, Belligero, Ben-Zin, Bender235, Bendyboom, Benea, Bento00, Bernard the Varanid, Beyond My Ken, Bfigura's puppy, Bfinn, Bhazad, Bhny, Big Brother 1984, BigDunc, Bikeable, Binksternet, Biruitorul, Bismaydash, Blackangel25, Blackfungo, BluenoseGuy, BoH, Bob A, Bob1960evens, Bob24616, Bobblehead, Bobo192, Bogolov, Bongwarrior, Brekass, BrettAllen, Brianga, Bridies, BrokenSegue, BrokenSphere, Brunnock, Burmanow, Burschik, C messier, CAAP AH1, CALR, CJLL Wright, CK6569, CSWarren, CactusWriter, Caiyu, Calmer Waters, Caltas, Calton, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Cantiorix, CaptainRon, CardinalDan, Carsoncvb, Ccacsmss, Charles Matthews, Chaser, Cheater no1, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, ChrisGualtieri, CiteCop, Ck lostsword, Ckatz, Clorox, CloveWiki, Cobaltcigs, Cold Season, Colt .55, CommonsDelinker, ConanBaltar, Conversion script, Corollo12, Corpx, Courcelles, Cplax21, Crazycomputers, Credema, Crusoe8181, Cryogenist, Curps, Cybercobra, Cyr, D6, DMacks, DVdm, Daanschr, Daku1, Damicatz, Dancter, Dancxjo, Dandrake, Danno uk, Dark Dragon Sword, Darlene4, Darth Panda, David Levy, David jatt, DavidCary, Davidmacd, Davydog, Dbachmann, DeadEyeArrow, Deckiller, Deeceevoice, Deiaemeth, Delldot, Demeter, Demonsthenes, DerHexer, Dia^, Diego Moya, Discospinster, Dispenser, Dissident, Dixielander, Diyforlife, DocWatson42, Docu, Dogaroon, Don4of4, Dougweller, Dppowell, Draksis314, Drlouie, DryaUnda, Duladog, Dv82matt, Dynamax, Dysprosia, Dúnadan, ESkog, Ed Poor, Edokter, Eduardo Sellan III, EduardoValle, Eduen, Efio, Eliz81, Eloquence, Emeraldcityserendipity, Emilfarb, Endroit, Enkyo2, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Epolk, Ergative rlt, Eric-Wester, ErrantX, Espen, Eugene van der Pijll, EugeneZelenko, Evalowyn, Evercat, Exander, Ezeu, F Notebook, FF2010, Farennikov, Fat&Happy, Fennessy, FillardQ, Fishal, Fl, Flamarial, Flibjib8, Flockmeal, Foant, Forestfarmer, Fred Bauder, Freedom skies, Fundamental metric tensor, FunkDemon, Futurebird, GB fan, GD 6041, GHDTHGGJYSWGDHU, GOD, GVnayR, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gardar Rurak, Gareth Griffith-Jones, George2001hi, GeorgeStepanek, Georgepauljohnringo, Georgewilliamherbert, Gert7, Ghewgill, GhostPirate, Gillean666, Giraffedata, Glc9144, Glenn, Gnfnrf, Godardesque, Goethean, GoldenXuniversity, Gonefishingforgood, Graham87, GreatWhiteNortherner, Green9118, Gregp278, Gritchka, Gscshoyru, Gsd97jks, Gsklee, Guardian Tiger, Guardian of the Rings, Gurch, Gyaidun, H-stt, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Hajenso, Hajor, Halsteadk, Hanfresco, Hans Joseph Solbrig, Heegoop, Heironymous Rowe, Hengist Pod, Heron, Herunar, Historic1982, Hitec81, HongQiGong, Hongkongeditor, Hongooi, Hunterkiller04, Hydao, IZAK, Iblardi, Ice Cold Beer, Id447, Immunize, Impala2009, Infrogmation, Intiguemaster, Intranetusa, InverseHypercube, Iohannes Animosus, Iridescent, Irishguy, Isarra (HG), J. W. Love, J.delanoy, JCha, JForget, JLMadrigal, JW1805, Ja 62, Jab843, JackLumber, Jacob Lundberg, Jagged 85, Java7837, Jbbo9, Jeargle, Jeff Dahl, Jeff G., Jennavecia, Jerome Charles Potts, Jespinos, Jihinotenshi, Jim1138, Jimmilu, Jimmy da tuna, Jjmckool, Jjoutcast2000, Jklin, Jleon, Jncraton, Jni, John D. Croft, John254, JohnMac777, Johnnewton, Jokernuget, Jonathanischoice, Jonathunder, Jongmalunga, JorgeGG, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh Parris, Jossi, Jozwiak22, Jpbowen, Jramsay1927, Jrtayloriv, Js2081, Jschnur, Jujube123, Justinmo, Jyril, Kafziel, Kaihsu, Kanguole, Kaveh, Kbdank71, Kbh3rd, Keitei, Kevs, Kingturtle, Knowledge Seeker, Knownot, Koavf, Koyaanis Qatsi, Kralizec!, Krellis, Kripkenstein, Krisna2, Krisna3, Kristus, Ksyrie, Kukini, Kurando, KyraVixen, Kyriakos, L Kensington, LachlanA, Larry Sanger, Larrycz, Leafyplant, LeaveSleaves, Lee, Lee M, Lemean, Lemuel Gulliver, Leodescal, Lerdsuwa, Life in General, Liftarn, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Livinginhaidian, Loadmaster, Losecontrol, Lotje, Lowellian, Lself, LtPowers, Luckimg2, Luk, Lulusuke, Lumos3, Luna Santin, Luvenno, M.V.E.i., MASQUERAID, MBenwa4225, ML, Mac Davis, Macknack123, Madhero88, Magioladitis, Majlesi, Makedonia, Malo, Mamouri, Mandel, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Marek69, Mark Dingemanse, MarsRover, MarshalN20, Marskell, Martijn Hoekstra, Martin451, Martindo, Master Jay, Master of the Oríchalcos, Masudr, Materialscientist, Mato, Matthew Stannard, Matthew Yeager, Maurreen, Maxim11maxim, Mayumashu, Mayur, Mazarin07, Maziar fayaz, Maziotis, Meanmrmustard1,07, Medicineman84, Meelar, MegaPr0n, Megalodon99, Mentifisto, MercuryApex, Metrocat, Mianhassan, Michael Hardy, Mike Dill, Mikedow, Miquonranger03, Miranda, Miss Madeline, Mitch360, Miyagawa, Mmounties, Modernist, Modster, Moe Epsilon, Monty845, Moof100, MoraSique, Moverton, Mozzini66, Mpntod, MrOllie, Mrh30, Mrwojo, MsFionnuala, Mschlindwein, Mufka, Myleslong, Mythbuster2010, N419BH, N5iln, Naus, Nejtan, Neo-Jay, Neotribal42, NerdyNSK, Nergal, Nerroth, Netscott, Netsnipe, Neutrality, NickBush24, Nigholith, Nightshadow28, Nikodemos, Nikola Smolenski, Niluop, Nine9s, Nirutochi, Nirvana888, Nkowali, Noctibus, Nodoze, NovakFreek, Nsaa, Ntsimp, NuclearWarfare, Numbermaniac, O.Koslowski, OStewart, Obli, OceaNotion, Oceanlakesskater, Olorin28, Omicronpersei8, One-dimensional Tangent, Openstrings, Opie, Ortolan88, Osubuckeyeguy, Ottawa4ever, Ottershrew, Ourcivilisation, OverlordQ, Owen, P. B. Mann, P4k, Pantaxen, PatternOfPersona, Paul A, Paul August, Pawyilee, Pax:Vobiscum, Peak, Pedro Aguiar, Pekinensis, Pengyanan, Penwhale, Perey, Peter.thelander, Pfly, Phanerozoic, Philip Cross, Philip Trueman, PhnomPencil, PiCo, Piano non troppo, Pichpich, Pietrow, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, PleaseStand, Pmonks, Poga, Polsmeth, Polupolu890, Pontificalibus, Pooresd, Porkies84, Possum, President Rhapsody, Prodego, Pruxo, Psb777, PsotS, Purpleravens, Pyroclastic, Qazmlp1029, Quadell, QueenCake, Quincy2010, R'n'B, R9tgokunks, RTG, RaGnaRoK SepHír0tH, Radical Robert, Rattus, Raul654, Rbanzai, Rcgy, RecoveringAddict, RedRalph, Reedy, Regancy42, Regibox, Reginmund, Rejedef, Rejs12345, RekishiEJ, Relyable info, Rettetast, RexNL, Rhialto, Rholton, Riana, Rich Farmbrough, Richardb43, Rickyrab, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Rkef, Rmhermen, Roadfish, Roadrunner, RobertG, RockMFR, Rocklee11, Rockman03, RodC, Rodhullandemu, Rokus2000, Romanfall, Ronhjones, RookZERO,

Article Sources and Contributors 39

Root Beers, Rorrenigol, Roscoe x, Rowellcf, Roy Lee's Junior, Roy da Vinci, Roylee, RuM, Runehelmet, Ryulong, S.K., S8333631, SEWilco, Sahgal, Sandius, Sandstein, Sannse, Sattler31,SchfiftyThree, SchreiberBike, SchuminWeb, Sean Heron, Seaphoto, Seba5618, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Serinde, Shaka Marday, Shanel, Shawnregan, Sheogorath, Shin19, Shiva'sTrident, Shizhao, Siddhant, Signalhead, SilkTork, SimonP, Singularity, SiobhanHansa, Siqbal, Skomorokh, Skullketon, Skunkboy74, SkyMachine, Slakr, Slark, SlaveToTheWage, Slon02,Smartse, Smartylolipops, Sn80, Snagari, Snowded, Soccerproffesor, Soetermans, Someone the Person, Sonia, Sopher99, Soulparadox, Sparkygravity, Spartan-James, Spidey665, SpikeJones,Spinningspark, SpookyMulder, Sprayed, SqueakBox, Ssnnuu ssnnuu, Stainedglasscurtain, Stbalbach, Stefan, Stephenb, Steve Masterson, Stevefis, Sticky Parkin, StradivariusTV, Stupid Corn,Sumerophile, Supadawg, SuperHamster, Surfer43, Susan118, Sven10, Swarm, Swift as an Eagle, Symane, TGilmour, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Taipei SocialScience, Takabeg, Tamaratrouts,Tangent747, Tarret, Taskinen, Tauseefzahid, Tazmaniacs, Tbhotch, Tctwood, Teamjenn, Teeninvestor, Teledildonix314, Telempe, Temari Lovers, That Guy, From That Show!, The Banner, TheLink Changer, The Poetaster, The Real Walrus, The Transhumanist, The Ungovernable Force, TheLeopard, TheRhani, Thedjatclubrock, Thine Antique Pen, Thingg, Thumperward, Tide rolls,TigerShark, TimR, Timir2, Tinaaa222, Titodutta, Tobby72, Tolly4bolly, Tom Morris, Tom Radulovich, Tom harrison, Tomeasy, Tommy2010, TomoK12, TriNotch, Trusilver, UberScienceNerd,UnHoly, Unukorno, Uriyan, Vald, Valery Staricov, Van helsing, Vbrayne, Vedant, Velella, Versageek, Vicenarian, Vicer99, VictorianMutant, Viller the Great, VirtualDelight, Vivin,Vkvora2001, Voidvector, Vrenator, Vzbs34, WAS 4.250, WBardwin, WGee, WIN, WOW, Wabbit98, Washburnmav, Washdivad, Washnugget, Wavelength, Wenom, WereSpielChequers,Wereon, Wesley, Whisky drinker, Whispering, Wiki Raja, WikiPuppies, WikipedianMarlith, Wikiscribe, Wimt, Wissons, Wjfox2005, Wmahan, Wmcg, Wmcg2, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Workpermit, Wpfdc, Wtanaka, Wtmitchell, X911, Yerpo, Yidisheryid, Yom, Yorkshirian, Yoshirocks8, Yuje, Yworo, Zachorious, Zaledin, Zamboni, ZanLJackson, Zazaban, Zenyu, Zephyrus67,Zhonghuo, Zinjixmaggir, Zirland, Ziusudra, Zoicon5, Zone101, Zxcvbnm, Валерий Стариков, ااممییرر, అహ్మద్ నిసార్, Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, 1816 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 40

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:World population growth (lin-log scale).png  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_population_growth_(lin-log_scale).png  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: WaldirFile:Lascaux 04.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lascaux_04.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Peter80Image:Sumerian 26th c Adab.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sumerian_26th_c_Adab.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dbachmann, Huntster, Jafeluv,Maksim, Marcus Cyron, Mdd, Mel22, Mmcannis, Phirosiberia, Sumerophile, Yann, Zunkir, Zykasaa, 7 anonymous editsImage:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: RicardoLiberatoImage:The Wrestler (Olmec) by DeLange.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Wrestler_(Olmec)_by_DeLange.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: George andAudrey DeLange (see delange.org)Image:Parthenon from west.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon_from_west.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:MountainImage:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PtolemyWorldMap.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Chipmunkdavis,Flamarande, Fred J, Horatius, Lliura, Mapmarks, Paddy, Snek01, Thuresson, Wayiran, 1 anonymous editsFile:Grande Mosquée de Kairouan, vue d'ensemble.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grande_Mosquée_de_Kairouan,_vue_d'ensemble.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: weetoon66File:Alcazar05 5-4-04.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alcazar05_5-4-04.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Miguel303xm, Pelayo2Image:Ife Kings Head.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ife_Kings_Head.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:UkabiaImage:Angkor wat temple.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Angkor_wat_temple.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Originaluploader was Fuzheado at en.wikipediaFile:80 - Machu Picchu - Juin 2009 - edit.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:80_-_Machu_Picchu_-_Juin_2009_-_edit.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Martin St-Amant (S23678)Image:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Originaldrawing: Photograpy:File:OrteliusWorldMap.jpeg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OrteliusWorldMap.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alexan, AnRo0002, AndreasPraefcke,David Kernow, Electionworld, Flamarande, Geagea, Jan Arkesteijn, Mattes, Roke, Túrelio, W!B:, ¡0-8-15!, 4 anonymous editsImage:Gutenburg bible.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gutenburg_bible.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Nectarflowed aten.wikipediaFile:Royal Irish Rifles ration party Somme July 1916.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_Irish_Rifles_ration_party_Somme_July_1916.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Royal Engineers No 1 Printing Company.Image:Nagasakibomb.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagasakibomb.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The picture was taken by Charles Levy from oneof the B-29 Superfortresses used in the attack.Image:Apollo 17 Cernan on moon.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Apollo_17_Cernan_on_moon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA - taken byHarrison H. SchmittFile:Internet map 1024.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Internet_map_1024.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Barrett Lyon The OpteProjectFile:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: en:User:HajorFile:Sumerian 26th c Adab.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sumerian_26th_c_Adab.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dbachmann, Huntster, Jafeluv,Maksim, Marcus Cyron, Mdd, Mel22, Mmcannis, Phirosiberia, Sumerophile, Yann, Zunkir, Zykasaa, 7 anonymous editsFile:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:JastrowFile:Civilizations map.png  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Civilizations_map.png  License: Public domain  Contributors: Usergreatpower at en.wikipediaImage:Centres of origin and spread of agriculture.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Joey RoeImage:Kairouan Mosque Stitched Panorama.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kairouan_Mosque_Stitched_Panorama.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: MAREK SZAREJKO from CLONMEL, IRELAND - POLANDimage:Mohenjodaro Sindh.jpeg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mohenjodaro_Sindh.jpeg  License: Creative Commons ShareAlike 1.0 Generic  Contributors: Originaluploader was M.Imran at en.wikipediaimage:2004 02 29 Athènes.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2004_02_29_Athènes.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Conudrum, Elekhh, Harrieta171, Platonides, SiebrandFile:Forum Romanum April 05.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Forum_Romanum_April_05.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:FoekeNoppert, G.dallorto, Marcok, SailkoFile:Simatai Great Wall.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simatai_Great_Wall.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: WalterGrassrootfile:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Vectorized by , based on original logotossed together by Brion Vibberfile:Wikiquote-logo-en.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikiquote-logo-en.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Neolux

License 41

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