THE WORLD BANK FAU 18

FA U-18

t/-,OI-OR 44N

AIN 0 1986

Agro-Industry ProfflesMEAT

s698. A371985FAU18

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PROFILES IN THIS SERIES:

OILCROPS - OVERVIEW ........... FAU-01

OIL SEEDS ..................... FAU-02

OIL PALM. .....e. . . . .. e........ .FAU-03

COCONUT. .. .. . . . . ... .......... FAU-04

SUGARse........ .. .............e.e. FAU-05

ETHANOL. . ... . ... o. . . .... . .. . FAU-06

WHEAT ..... ... o ... ....... . . .FAU-07

RICE ........ ...o.oso...... . .*. FAU-08

CORN. ............. ........ ..ee. FAU-09CASSAVAo .o..e. .e.......... ...... FAU-10ANIMAL FEEDS.o ......... ....... FAU-11

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ..... ... FAU-12

RUBBER. .......... . . . . ....... e . FAU-13

COFFEEoe eo o o ...e.................FAU-14

TEA o*o.**.oeooo*.o..............FAU-15

COCOA. .. . . .. e................e. FAU-16

COTTON. .. .. ......o . e.e.......... FAU-17MEAT ND ESSENTIAL OILo.........FAU-18

SPICES AND ESSENTIAL OILS ................. FAU-19

ABSTRIACT

The objective cf this Profile is zo provide a review of _he meatprocessing industry. -t contains carcass weight Vield

specifications, a glossary cf key terms, flowcharms of theslaughtering and nacking processes, and a bibliography of usefulreferences. It describes -arious methods of preserving meat,including drving, canning, smoking, and curing. The Profile alsooutlines the use of slaughtarhouse by-products such as offais arndan4lnma_ tarts used -r onarmacaut_:cal purposes. Seera`l -xamnlas^r :.;vestmenz nd onerazna .gostz as -7i.. as conver'lon -es(Metric/US) are inciuded .n Annexes at the and of cne Prof_s.

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-~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 1

The -:atura :: .r--ec- _nd ,ec-zr -.orw: n ::Xe for ld -anK ~s _uz~:hac ,_ ,s r-an :al:ed apcnr >z orc zutside -':el - -a-or

eid _ sec ai-zat:_r. : niv 3 -make Ln _i-ai 'uczemenz -n~_-he '1L-L ,'Ur-her, oftan zost_y Tnvesz-gat-zn. 7naer .esecirzuamszances, uo-to-daze and authoritat22ve reference material Ls£ssenz.ai.

The rcf-;es _n -his series are desianed '-r use bv cneraz-3nastaf f with exmerience in the aarictur4- sector 'but who lc noth.ave a --chnic:a ,'nowledae or he zar--'zular zcmcd__y -n,,ericuss' on. Thew ,ur-cse a -s 0o -:^ _unsJ_u:e -_r ec--.-z-

H - a =i _ --2a -ZD ar w --- - aso _ - n -ounol kzs?- ~in r.cnD.-AIaeip Bank staff to dezermine whien and what exmer-tse _s neeade _nfi.he ietai7ed valuarc_n f irnvest-menz orzosa.s 2.s a rgrc-processing.

The conditions for any zar-_cular proposai are bound to be rnjiaueln a number of respects, and the use of norms and general data :nproject analyses could give rise to significant er-ors. On theother- hand, bv providing responsible staff with a guide to z1he.ssues on which ampronriate axnertise should be sought, these-rcfr7es can contribute to the overall quality of agro procassinglnveszment. Used with care, they should also facilitate broadcre-screening such as may occur during sector work andreccnnaissance.Questions, comments and further inquiries should be addressed to:

Aaro-_ndustr_es AdviserFinance and Agro Industry UnitAgriculture and Rural Development Department

The contribution of Mr. Crister Cromberg in the review of thisProfile is gratefully acknowledged.

-.December 1985

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II

Meats

DATA SHEET ......................

INTRODUCTION ............. ,

GLOSSARY .....................................................

RAW MRATERIALS............................

L. ~ - UG H T12 N e' I. T G . ^.......... *^. *. *........... .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .

PROC.SSING. -MARKETING ASPECTS ..

OTHER FACTORS .29

BIBLIOGRAPHY .'

ANNEX I EXAMPLES OF INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COSTS

ANNEX II CONVERSION TABLES (METRIC/US)

-- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

-ata Sheet

Meat Conversion FactorsSource: Wol_ ('982)

Live Dressing Carcass Retail Ret-ai CctaiSPECiES 7eight ?ercent eigah ,'ield Carcass id'e

rlbs) , i"s) a/ { b/ WNeic-nr.- ;

Choice Steer 1146 61 699 74 5'7 '5.i

Choice Veal 202 61 123 83 102 _0._

Choice :,amb 114 50 57 39 3; 54 7

US ,No.1 Barrow 231 77 164 92 15

.a/ Values (steer,lamb, hiog) based on average weights _or USDA _-:szectedlivestock slaughter in 1979. Average weights 'or Choice V7eal basedon Livestock, Meat and Wool 'Market News (Februarv, 1980) ,USDA.

>/ Agricultural Economic Relort No. 728, -JSDA '7977).

i

-.vere __.e ~veignc SG eeav- -Czox :_e1

Sourca: ,7SDA .9,

Average W>ve ILght l r -eid, -lve -o cre-r coo -1972-75 1973-75

Poulitry Veighted Average Weianted AveraaePounds Per-anz

Chicken:''ouna 2.76 72.J7

~~~3tur ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3~~:2.30:3z_iz~~s -. 20_~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~1 J .4

Turkeys:Fryer-Roaster 9.13 78.42'oung 19.38 79 .9Old 19.52 78.20All1 - 18.30 79.04

Ducks 6.27 70.74

Geese 13.11 69.69

Note: Based on total coultrv slaughtered under U.S. Federalregulation.

i/ Yield of pre-cook (ready-to-cook) weight, including neck andgiblets, as a perentacre of tota1 Ii-,e weioht Lnsmectad.

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:_TTRODUCT:CN

3lauqhter ac ~ es-:an-e in capacity and _mpiex--y :rzm - ;.simple cumdcor2r siab to Iar;e, tachnicall7-advancead usZraabattoirs. Technology -n ecenz 7earshaas sia,ni- :cant.lV Lmcrovedmeans of animal immobllization, hide removal, smlizting, andevisceration, making slaughter rates dependent to a greaterextent on degree of mechanizazion. Cattle slaughter rates, ^orexample, can range from 20 to 300 per hour (Wolff, 1982).

Slaughterhouses have also increased their processing o- mea: intoconsumer-readv products; cutting, packing and processi-a ordifferent -tves of meat are now -rerv often an int2gral -art ofthe zIaufht3rn-ouse act -itv.

More information on slaughtering and processing is available inGerrard's Meat Technoloqv (1977,.

For investment information on coultry production and processing,the World Bank's technical paper Number 10, Appraising PoultryEnternrises for Profitability: A Manual for Potential Investors(March 1983), is recommended.

GLOSSARY

Abattoir Livestock slaughterhouse.

Barrow/Shoat/ Male swine castrated before sexual charac-Clean Hog teristics have developed.

Bobby Calves Cattle up to about 3 weeks old.

Boar Pig Male swine under breeding age (usually undersix months).

Bone-in Carcass Weight of carcass meat after removal ofWeight offal and hide or skin, but before deboning.

BOD_ value Biological Oxygen Demand during five days. (A0 number indicating the amount of oxygen

absorbed in polluted water. The higher thevalue, the worse the pollution.)

Broilers Young chickens of up to two and a half lbs.dressed weight, raised for their meat.

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Carz<ss Slauahtarad. 72vsc3rarad animal.

Clean Sheen nemaies, .or used _or _reeding, and zas-raced males, no more ::an -:wo years old..

Crone An old ewe nast breeding.

Ewe Female sheen which has produced voung.

Ewe Lamb/Gummer/ A female sheep from birth to weaning.Chilver

Ewe Teg/TMaida A famale sheen from weanina go first--ummer --ioa,' ,nearnca.,we Hicg

Fat Lambs Indoor and gasture--fed lambs, no morethan 12 months old.

Flaying Removal of animal skin, in dressing.

Gilt/Yelt/ A young female swine, usually unbred., some-Yilt/Hilt times refers to an animal with a first

litter.

Growers Hens, up to 20 weeks of age.

Joint A large piece of meat for roasting.

Killing Out Bone-in carcass weight expressed as aPercentage percentage of liveweight.

Lambs Young sheep, usually less than one yearin age.

Layers Chickens raised for egg production.

Litter Offspring of an animal at one birth.

Milk-Fed Lambs Lambs which are milk-fed, and are not morethan 6 months old.

Mutton Carcass of male and female sheep, usuallymore than one year of age.

Offal The part of butchered animals removed inevisceration and trimming.

2

ff~taf_-e ~ercsnvace ITu.oer :f ~-n-na_ _ n -ac --e;ar -a:ressect as _ernzaae r .e -r.naa ce'f animals.

Pall es Defformed lambs.

Pluck Ccntents of _he chest zavit,.

Primal Cuts Any of the major wholesale cuts excai-rbrisket, short ziates, flanks, and f-re-shanks.

Juar3ers ?^r-_ns -:sut-_-. -_:m _ioetween he '_' -r : -s

Ram Zambs/ Male sheep frcm weaning _o . rsi snear-- ga.:-cggets

Rig Imperfectlv-castrated male sheep or swine.

Runner Calves Calves which have not been special n--fed roproduce the distinctive veal color in -he_lesh.

Shoats Small 'stores' or young, weaned pies.

Side One of the two parts resulting :rom spl -_ nga carcass lengthwise through t.he medianplane.

Splitting Process whereby .n:e zarcass _-s di4i dadlengthwise through the median plane.

Stag/Brawner Male swine castrated in maturity (after(Swine) tusks, shields, enlarged sheath, crest, etc.

have developed).

Stag (cattle) Male which by reason of late or ineffectivecastration, shows some physical characterss-tics of a bull.

Steers Male cattle properly castrated at an earlyage.

Stores Young, weaned pigs.

3

Sucking Pig Unweaned cia (most are weaned a-t about nQne.weekss

Two- Three- Iazle sn.ee ! acc--rd -Z --e nuIureror Four- Shear _r _:mes they :-.ave _een snor-n.?Hams/Tuns

Veal Calves Calves which nave been =ed to oroauce :hedistinctive veal color in .teir lesh.

Wether/Wedder A castrated male sheen, from weanina _- rsshearing.

TWholesale Cuts Subdiv`sions oX -uar-ar, -ncluadna --und.nr ,nort _ozn I=G : r. .n.

-r-.skec, snor-=iaca, _'ank, aind iorssnan>:.

:AW MATERTALS

The husbandry of various animal species under the range ofconditions encountered in developing ccuntries differs to such anextent that an overview of raw material supplies nas not beenundertaken for this nrofile. For a discussion of breeding,nutrition, health and live animal characteriszics, the followingreferences should prove helpful:

GENERAL LIVESTOCK: Animal Husbandrv in the Tronics, G.Williamson and W. J. A. Pavne, reprinted1980. Longman: London.

POULTRY: Pfizer Poultry Pr,duc-ion Handbook, C.C.KeKeocha, 1984. Pfizer: Nairobi.

PIGS: Pig Production in the Tropics, J.A.Eusebio, 1980. Longman: London.

SHEEP: Goat and Sheep Production in the Tropics,C. Devendra and G. B. McLerov, 1982.Longman: London.

CATTLE: Cattle Production in the Tropics, W. J. A.Payne, 1970. Longman: London.

Small scale animal husbandry is discussed in Livestock Rearincr inthe Tropics, I. MacDonald and J. Low (1985), MacMillan, London.

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S 1AUGCTHTEJING

3asic slauahterh cus2 orocadures _nc ude ntemortam _nspectz=n,szunning, szocsena, 'iee-na, ir-sss-nc 'hie -emoval,eviscerazion, zr-mming, and zutz g), zooiinq, and -ac.-na.These omerations are schematicai>v :_-strated in nwchart ''he following page.

Antemortem Care/Inspection

For most animals fasting and rest-n-g 's recommended :4-J6 'aours:rior -_ slauariar -_ -nsure a nium cuancv 7I st-acntcent. :v=naing 2rnr.king ;wazar liS a_as n _ c.v:g :objective as well as reducing bacteria.

Other recommended procedures include (Gerrard, 1977): (1)avoidance of all types of nervous excitsment_ and unnecessar'7physical exertion which raise body temperature and result inimperfect bleeding; and (2) avoidance of excessive musclefatigue, which uses up a reserve of glvcogen in the muscles w-tzhadverse consequences for the rate of setting and meat keepingqualities.

Upon arrival at the abattoir, animals should be subjected to anantemortem inspection. This should be performed on the loadinaramp and every day thereafter to prevent the possible spread ofdiseases from sick animals. This is considered to be moreimportant than the postmortem inspection since it enablesdetection of diseases which do not produce visible signs in theviscera, such as septicaemia, tetanus, and rabies.

Special attention should be directed to appearance and movement,state of nutrition, reaction to environment, digestive system,respiratory system, reproductive organs, hide, skin, and hair.

Animals deemed sick must be slaughtered and chilled in separatefacilities. Diseased Animal parts should be disposed of in anincinerator; other condemned materials can be removed to theinedible materials rendering plant for processing.

Injured animals arriving at the abattoir should be bledimmediately and eviscerated. A %reterinarian's cert-if1cate shou'dbe available, attesting to treatment received by the animal.This is especially important when it has been treated withantibiotics.

5

Flowchart 1: Sirnplified Flowchart of Meatpacking Operations.'Oiera-c.ons a Snd '2) :oniv cmniv -o h.cas.

'ourzs: 'nsadine '1982)

3locct1~~~~~~~~~~~~~re 310cdL s Pocssingt f--- Dri~na >OrLeed Bicod

I V ES3- > i Slaughtering L->- Dehairing- Processing r p sT (1) (2)0CK F EIide Hlide

nemsDs7al ~~~~ -cess.g § } m,aides

> Edi_ble Offal

Evisceratir.g .- >-- VIscera ->VisceralPoessing~ PzxcciuczS

_ 1 1 ' ~~~~~~~>By-Pra:ucsInedibleRendering D-3 Drying >-.

Dry1ing

Timning cooling == _'nedible4 1 1 ... | Rendering

< Cooling j

<> Cuttn Prcessing >CUT and

'1 > I

Edible Processing >Iard/EdibleLRendering Ia1lcow

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Stunninq

3tunnn n _s _ ae means yv inish an animal s -r:nder-a _-sensv-e_r _r_^ stz.in. 'his s accompilsned _n a 7art'c- Of -;a,s.dependi..a cn we animal _nvoived and -:he evel- zf sornIs.i_za_=

of t-'e -acilt. Commonlv -sed technic'ues Jnziude:

For Cattle and Sheep:

- Knocking with a sledge-hammer. 3ecause the brain itself _snot damaged, this method res-ults .- very -f_iz enr _-t e nga.

- Firina a free bullet. This meh-.od _s gernera_~yv notorerarrdd because -e duia .. ±nIdi-oa-r:a Lz .z3, n damada --he -:rczss, an n ecause a :f'lctd .u_U_at s cuia :auseworker injury.

- Captive boit. This is the oreferred me-hod -or stunn_ngat--le.

For Swine and Sheep:

- Electrical stunning. This method involves the pressing ^-the electrode zo the head of -.he animai.

- Carbon dioxide gassing. This method is most frequenrtly usedwith pigs. Its arincipal advantage is that :ittle struacleor discomfort is expernenced by the animal, wnich 1isconsequently completely relaxed when stuck.

Stick-ing and 3'aeding

The objective of sticking and bleeding is to remove the bloodfrom the carcass as rapidlv and completely as possible to avoidmultiplication of bacteria and their distribution through thecarcass. The bleeding should be done immediately afterstunning, before the rate of blood pressure and heartbeat beginto fall. Prior to bleeding, the stunned animal should be hoistedto a rail, with a shackle attached to its hind leg in theshackling area.

For cattle, swine, and sheep, the bleeding time should not beless than 6-9 minutes, 6 minutes. and 4 minutes, resnectivel;jand blood amount which can be collected is about 10 kg, 2.5 kg,and 2.0-2.5 kg.

7

The blood can be used either. for ediie nurposes or for _nediibie:encierina. The zzi_-c-:on :f _icod --r .uzan a onsump a-n -nust -one ln a avroien.Lc 2nvi!:nment ls-inr .:&es ir __zed _

anima.i Is _ed. 'he icood ousti be -cl aced In senaraitcontainers and kent unt_: _he an.ma± or annmais aave beennscected and ap-roved by the vetrlnarzan. in-c:oagulants sucn

as sodium citrata are Uenerallv added. The blocd can _hen _eseparated into olasma and red blood cells or usea -n sausages :rother bv-oroducts. Since blood is extremely sensitive to growtzof bacteria, he -rcducts must be cooled or frozen immediate 7.

Frozen blood olasma inr the forn of flakes is often used insausages. Red blood cells nor=ally are taken to the nediblerendering -lanz for meat or biood-meal roduc-ion. When -heblood will oniv be used for inedlble ournses, c s nor.ai vzoilactzaa _n - :uqn *na :-.en oumeaed ~ _ -- :ender.-.q lan- :ieesec-_on on inedibie render-ng).

Blood is an extremeiy bad nolluter for water sources. Wholeblood has a BOD_ value as high as 250,000 ma/liter. (Rawmunicipal sewage, by contrast, has 30D5 vralues below o000mg/lter.) Therefore, blood should be collected as efficientlyas possible.

Efficiency criteria of bleeding, as listed in Hitchell (1982)are:

- Appearance of the Carcass. A perfec-ly bled carcass should-e red in color, not bluish.

- State of Blood Vessels. :n a poorly bled carcass, smallblood vessels can be clearly distinguished.

- State of Internal Organs. :n a poorly bled carcass, theleft ventricle contains blood and the lungs and liver have ahigh blood content.

- Blood Content of the Muscles. In a poorly bled carcass,when an incision is made between the ninth and tenth ribs,blood can be squeezed out.

In many countries, e.g., those with Islamic or Jewishpopulations, killing may have to be performed according tospecified ritual. This can affect the desiqn of thes'augnterhouse and should be taken into consideration.

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Dressing

-atm-_ and sneen :ce-ved -or 4ressina are '-unqa 'v a s-iqe -go

from an overhead rail. Heads are removed, _ollowed y ' e--crnuow-ith a oowerdriven _ ro'niar saw, washinq, and ziean rna. 2acn

Iead ns marked ^or idient_f-cation with the oarcass and hoied :na rail zonvever, where it is directed to the veterinar.inspect_on area.

Swine are normally scalded after bleeding in order to facilitatehair removal. In spite of several new procedures develoced inrecent vears, the t-rad-tional method of scalding with hot water60-635C', has been found most efficient, as long as water

OcL- '7' on J -' ep wlth' _ i_s .y aceauac ,screenina. A or-i c adng, -;' a Z ruaUras mmersz-.g :e an-mai _n-e :z 7atarfor about five minutes, the swine is placed in a dehalrinqmachine, where -lastic beacers remove the hair, wh-nhe =he swineis turned around. The scalding temperature is critical. if itis too hot, the hair becomes "fixed" and if fIcult t-o remove.hard water is used, it is recommended that a small quantity ofslake lime be added.

Hair removal by machine is normally followed by further cleaning;this usually involves burning and scraping manually with a knife.

Recently, swine skin has increased in price and newslaughterhouse construction normally includes facilities todehide the swine. In this process no scalding is necessary.

For cattle and sheep the feet are skinned, removed, andcollected. Then the hindlegs are removed and the carcass ismoved to the de-hiding and dressing working positions, whereanus, udder, tail, and hide are removed and the hip bone issplit.

The brisket is opened with an axe or a power-driven saw; thecarcass is then moved to the eviscerating position. There theabdominal viscera is removed and sent to be inspected, as is thethoracic viscera (heart, liver, lungs, etc.). Evisceratioh musttake place within an hour of sticking to prevent carcassdeterioration resulting from auto-digestion.

The carcass is sawn or cut into two halves along the spinalcolumn. It is now ready for trimming, weiahina, finalinspection, and grading. Inspection should, if possible, becentralized so that the carcass, the viscera, head, and udder ofthe same animal are examined together. If not, the different

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tarts ^f the animal s1hould have some dentiication. 'cecauseanv no en_ia. troniem sinouid c-5:s .emaln.ng ,ar-s zr :2annima snouid -e easily -denz..:inaie.

The carcass is -ceaned with a sprav wash. The wash water shculdbe 38 ~ or blood temperature for effective removal of surfacecontamination. NThile a high-cressure spray is eff_ecive for th-spurpose, the water released by the spray is more difficult _oremove -fom the carcass following chilling.

Skinned carcasses are often wrapped in plastic film to preventsurface drying and soiling of the meat while protecting itagainst light fade.

tveraae -ressinc 'er-an_aaes -Jr sneer, zat=le, and opias arepresented in Tables 2, 3, and 4, respectively.

Table 2: Dressing Percentages - Sheep

(Kc)L4veweight 45.5 100

Carcass cold 24.3 53.5Carcass loss, hot to cold 0.5 1.1Skin and feet 4.5 9.9Fat 1.3 2.9Head 1.6 3.6Stomachs 1.5 3.4

Stomach contents 4.6 10.0Large intestines 0.4 1.0Small intestine 0.8 i.3

Intestine contents 1.6 3.4Blood 2.1 4.5Miscellaneous 2.3 4.9

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Table 3: Dressing Perzentages - Ca'=1e (Heavy Heifer,

1.veweicfnl 432.5 130Carzass -oLd 243.3Carcass Loss, b.oz -o coidinmestinal cont-antsEdible by-products 58.5 -,.nedible offals 59.2 14Loss 2.4 :

Edible 3v-oroducts 58.5 100Blood 17.3 20Heart 2.- A

-ac. sx. :-nae _3.4 3

-'_ngue, _n-,ar Trout and meat 0.5 <1Rumen and reticulum \empty) 6.3

Abomasum (4th stomach/empty) 1.4 2-ileen 0.5 -

Liver 6.5 11Tail- 0.9 2Miscellaneous 9.5 . i5

:nedible offals 59.2 100Hide 31.3 52Feet 7.3 12Casings, empty 8.3 14Lungs 3.5Fat trimmings 7.8Bladder 1.0 2

Table 4: Dressing Percentages - Swine

(kc) (t

Liveweight 90.8 100Carcase excluding head 61.3 68Carcase loss, hot to cold 1.0 1Head, ex. tongue 5.9 6Tongue 0.3 <1Blood 2.7 3

Hooves and hair 0.6 <1Lungs 0.6 <1Tntestine (large and small) 2.5 3Liver 2.2 2Fat, kidney and leaf 1.5 2Stomach contents 5.0 6Miscellaneous 5.8 7

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Chillina

When dressi-n. s comzleted. -d e carcass Ls -cvea -o -nhe Zci_-!area where o-r-ed a-r z rz2'ation _s crma2- ased -o U1 lowerthe temmerature of the carcass, and 2) remove excess surfacewater. Since bacteria oroii:erate on wet surfaces, i-_ snecessary that carcasses undergo some weiaht (water) loss -oenhance keeping quality. Carcass temperature shouid be loweredquickly during the first six hours foilowing siaughter; rema_nanheat can be extracted over the next 10-12 hours, oweringtemperature of the carcass to 4 C.

Some slaughterhouses vow -facina increasing qrsssure to improvesfficiencv and t- r:duce ZsZt Zave startad o 4ebone ane innaa mmeclatalv after slauafter, ao-callea hct bon,na' -Th ebenefits, compared to the traditional deboning or znilled

carcasses, are a higher y-eid of saleable meat, iowerrefrigeration costs, and lower investment costs in chillinafacilitit2s. n addition, ore-rigor meat h,as a higher waterbinding capacity than cold-boned post-rigor meat. However, anumber of problems are attached to "hot boning", such asmicrobial growth on the warm meat surfaces.exposed after cingthe meat; warn meat is also more slippery to handle than firm,cold meat. Hot-boned meat has to be cooled very quickly afterdeboning.

While carcasses are hanging in the refrigeration unit, .t 4simportant that they are well-distributed within the unit and tna_they do not touch each other. Mixing of hot and cold carcassesshould also be avoided.

Cutting/ Deboning

Most meat destined for export must be boned so that suitable cutscan be frozen or chilled. The temperature of a cutting or boningroom should be maintained at about 10 C and the internaltemperature of the meat should be maintained at 7 0 C. Oncepacked, meat temperature should be reduced to -18 C as quickly aspossible if the meat is to be sold frozen.

Straight cuts (e.g., the legs or loins) anre produced by a butcherteam using reciprocating saws. This team also breaks up thecarcasses that require ffurther fabrication or conversion intoboneless cuts. A portable table-top band saw is used to splitprimals. Primals are subdivisions of quarters, such as the loinor the round.

12

.'_L -hecnin_ r-aba -eam f =- er.nf :utcners -rap-s -accorodina -o :he specf:caticns of ousztmers. or ocr One efeneralmarket. Mea: zuts _an =hen _e -racuum-oacked or iacca -n an'unseaied pouch. -_r boxed meat, which is later seaied. mrgezi.q--ollows for cuts that are to be sold frozen. It 7s mportan- zoselect the proper type of plastic film for wrapping, depend-ng onwhether the meat ls to be sold chilled or frozen.

Post-Mortem Changes

Rigor Mortis. This is the setting of the carcass, or the7emmorar-.y or muscles ,czurn -ter death. z us us eoU_v the znem"v -al znanae _rf uscle -lvcogen _nt Gact_- ac_ *naresults in the breakdown of certain fibers. It is completed in12-18 Aours and is affected by:

- Ambient temeratur. If it is too hith, he onset is cu cand the duration is short.

- Decrree of muscular activity trior to slauahter. Rigormortis will appear and disappear quickly and the carcasswilli fail to 'set' if the animal is subjected to stress andfatigue prior to slaughter.

- Health of the animal before slaughter. Rigor mortis isabsent or substantially reduced in the carcass of a feveredanimal.

The biochemical reactions leading to rigor mortis areaccelerated, after stunning and bleeding t-he animal, bv passingan electric current for about a minute through the carcass. Thismethod is starting to be applied at several new slaughterhouses.

Auto-Digestion. Once the protective mucous membrane of thealimentary canal dies, digestive juices are free to enter thecells, dissolving their protein contents, and softening andblackening the walls of the the intestines. If unchecked, thesejuices will penetrate other parts of the stomach. For thisreason the carcass must be eviscerated as soon as possible afterthe death of the animal.

Bloatina. Gases generated bv bacteria when they are mult'iplyingin the large intestine and the rumen after death accumulate andcause bloating.

13

Fermentation. Following the death of the animal, intestinalbac-ar-a -ene-:rae he --icod and .v'nich -resselis. wnic" afteror ^er r4 _' res 7zszance, asiaec a!y _n =.n deeper zar_s f :ezarcass where ;zeac 'oss _s low. The gases generated bv :hebacteria may give =he mneaz a gamey zaste, which is not haf. 1

but which mav be unappetizIng to the c_nsumer. 'his fermencatc-r.can be reduced or delayed by (1) ensuring that animals arewell-rested before slaughter, to ensure good rigor mortis; (2)good bleeding; (3) removal of the intestine as soon aftersticking as possible; ( f) -ast cooling of the carcass; and !'5)

cleanliness.

2oult_g Processing

Poultry processing diffars in several ways from 1ivestockprocessing and conseauently is described separately. Theoperations involved in ocultry processing are depicted inFlowchart 2.

Flowchart 2: Operations Involved in Poultry Processing.Source: Considine (1982)

Live> Killing and > Scalding > Defeathering

Poultry Bleeding

Separate Inspection StationsNot Shown

washing Eviscerating Washing

<- - -Additional Operationsfor Cut-up Packaging

iCarcassesChilling - Weiging and Packaging

Grading Whole andCut-up

14

-4i -.na and 31edina

t s rec-mended _ham r ul~ t-e raSL_ C- sd --om a-a-.. 1-r-n-the 24-h.our ceriod =r'or co stunning, since che -n_es._nes ceridto tear aasil-7 duri.na eviscsration.

Many methcds ars used in killing poultry, dependina on'-aditonal and cultural creferences. Mcst common in zmmercza;operations _s sc_cking, the severing o^f the arteries in :-ebird's neck. aometimes an electrical shock is administered cr-orto kil-ling. This can be accomplished by means of: ' 7 _owvoi=aae ,'90-10 -7.' used b' hand stunners; cr 2) hi_gh v a-,,tage

! 40- -r; s-.nninca -r :asz and 'arge slaugntsr -rt-cns. -

no rna- .aedain= -i s 'O :c 20 -sccnds.

Plucking. Pluck.ing, or removal of ffeathers and hairs, ;s donemechanicallv in a wet process or bv hand in a dry process. :hewet orocess is known as scalding, and it consists o-f t.heimmersion of the bird in hot water (66-'88 C or 150-1SO F) for aneriod of ;8-30 seconds. Water temmerature is of narticularimportance, since when the water is too hot, some of the surfacefat dissolves causing a yelilow pigment to rise to the sur-face andgiving the skin a cooked appearance. Tn general, younger z_rasscald best in temperatures between 66-71 C (150-160 0, whil'eolder, zsugher 'birds recquire higher temperatures between 32-o33-(180-190 F). Scalding -ac iitates subsequent pluckincg. ?luc n gis acccmnlished bv piacing the birds in revoiving drums, somewith short lengths of abber (flingers) protruding frcm tnem andothers containing attached rubber flails. The combined action oLfthe finaers and flails effectivelv remcves feathers.

Dry plucking requires the destruction of the nerve center in theback part of the brain, which controls the feather muscles. Thiscauses the muscles to relax so that the feathers can be easilyremoved. This state of relaxation lasts three to four minutes,until rigor mortis sets in and subsequent feather removal becomesdifficult. Plucking by hand is done in the direction of feathergrowth to avoid tearing the skin.

Dressing. A mechanical line system is used for poultry dressingand inspection. During this stage the bird's feet and head areremoved; the bird is then eviscerated and spray-washed prior tochilling.

15

_301'n. CZi_'-5 s __uenM!. Sione _V pnz. .g _ e_.mers on Zzann i.- s u aneous lcr_ on. r-.3mmerat.r-s are -hus raducsd -o -7 hen -p-r-<u.J 1ersare -ased _t _s wpor-n tat ' he lsaar osez ae or oc iquali zy (^2 noul_r- .ze Oleaned ?ricr o - mersion; 't-mperature n.ot exceed I C n the last spin--hi- nd 'a)water absor-tion dur4ng passage through -he chi_ler not exceed8%. The birds are then dried off on a ddrip line' before beinqinspected, graded, and packaged.

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?ROCESSTNG

Preser-at on of meat -enera'y invoives one or more _f t.efoilowing factors:

- Temperature. Meat is placed in a cold temperature rangewhich inhibits the development of putrefactive bacter:a.

- Absence or Reduction of Moisture. This involves removal o.the water upon which bacter-a and micro-organisms thr-ve,e.g., drying; or, changing :he state of the medium in such away that it is unavailable to the organism, e.g., :reez_La.

- :emica. 2r_eservat--ves. _nr-_euc-_n _-:mi:ca-substance to initiate certain cnemical and biocnemicaireactions which extnd t.he shel^ life of the meat.

The principal meat preservation nrocesses, canning, curing,drying, freezing, and smoking are briefly discussed below.

.Canning

Canning involves using heat tio destroy bacteria. To achievecomplete destruction of all micro-arganisms present, the productmust be heated in sealed glass or metal containers so ail partsof the product have been exposed to temperatures of 121 C (250°-)for at least three minutes. This time is often doubled toprovide an additional measure of safety. There is, however, atrade-off between safety and quality, since high temperaturesadversely affect some meat products. Pork is particularlysusceptible to heat damage.

Factors affecting the safety of canned meats include:

-the heat process per se;-the nitrite input;-the residual nitrite after processing;-the salt concentration;-the meat's pH level;-the temperature at which the meat is stored;-the population of C. botulinum spores initially present inthe product; and-the effectiveness of heat,in the destruction of spore typespresent.

17

'-mmer-ial cannina of- meats is a fairly exrensive one-rat.on.Jha the r sui-i 3ei a- s 3s extsancac :he eatc :roaucz -nsobtrained Js of relatvel-y _ow ouailty, c_mpared __ :r:zenroroducts.

Products which are normally canned are corned-beef and c 4-frant

types of beef stews in sauces and with vegetables. HEam andpressed ham are traded in large volumes as canned products,normally in cooked form. Cooked ham6 with an internaltemperature reaching a minimum of 73 C, must be stored underrefrigeration (Rust, 1976).

2ur.ng

In curing meats, curing agents (chemicals) are used to penetrateall parts of the meat and tao initiate certain reactions whichwill result in the extension of the meat's shelf life. Curingalso enhances certain desirable characteristics, e.g., color,flavor, and texture.

The most commonly used curing agents include:

- Salt, which reduces microbial growth; increases shellf life;and improves product flavor. The finished saltconcentration should not exceed 2-3% to avoid a salty taste.

- Nitrate, which is a source of nitrite. Nitrate is noteffective in producing the curing reaction until it isbroken down into nitrite, a process usually dependent onbactrerial action.

- Nitrite, which provides antimicrobial and antioxidantproperties plus flavor and a characteristic pink color.

- Sugar, which overcomes some of the salty taste and improvessurface color.

- Phosphates, which reduce the moisture loss during processingwhile improving firmness. (Not used in dry processing.)

- Ascorbates, which speed color reaction and increasestability. (Not used in dry processing.)

- Miscellaneous Spices, which preserve as well as flavor.

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xTher are --JC ouri'ng C 'assi^icatt_ons: '2 5r :urT Z',t~ and

:n arv Ctrina, the zur:-g acents are -rubed -to hne mear -solid on anc~ re a_:owed -o _emain n ciose conntact a 2th chemeat antil they have cenetrated to the cant-er. the .baec -ve _suniform oenetratton and distribution by di^-fuson. he rate ordry curing depends on the temperature and presence,/absence orskin and fat, whicn retard penetration. ,vhile hlchertemQerattu3es result in greater curing speed, temperatures above4-5-C (40VF) encourage the -rowth or^ s-oiaqe bactar:a and leadto 'souring.

->.2 -zm-" '_,rsdn --.z3 __p nl '' d '-v k_- ,- nz-.:t -:ne meat _n 5-'iav =nsrva_s -as Lanl zs 7 t ^e

amounts appliled depend upon the desired finai concencration.' -hecuring mix ussallv zonsists of salt, sugar, and nitrate; t.ecuring temperature ranges from 2-4 C (36-40 F). The process tscommleta when the ingredient_s have thoroughly nenetrated themeat. At this point, large pieces of meat, e.g., hams arerefrigerated for an additional thirty days to equalize the saltconcentrations. This process is followed by smoking and aging.

In nicklinc, the curing ingredients are contained _n solution orfluid suspension and are injected or soaked into the meat. 3rinesoaking requires immersion of the meat ina brine solution for aperiod sufficient to allow -for thorough penetration. In larcepieces of meat, spoilage may develop due to the relatively slowrate of penetration. Hience, brine soak-ing is used zommerciallyonly for small items, such as tongues and corned beef. The orineshould not be recycled because, once used, its strength isreduced, it is diluted with meat -uices, and it may becontaminated with bacteria.

The curing solution can also be injected into the meat. Thereare three basic methods of injection:

(1) Artery Pumping. This involves the injection of the picklethrough the arteries in order to penetrate the meat throughnatural blood vessels and capillaries. The solution shouldremain in the system for 24 hours, and five to seven daysshould be allowed to ensure the uniformity of distribution.This method permits accurate control of the curingingredients. It does, however, require a large labor inputand an artery system which is intact.

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' ~ St Lon r nrav ?ljmmina. 7or z:rtain :utZ m, e.q, g! e oin-iAere one aroar'T oetnca vcuicd e -:o ,iow _r mpracm-.z-o ,ingredients are forced under orassure :-.o An ,nen7ngmeat. Needles with a number of -.oles a1ong -heir -engtn areused for in3ec-ion.

(3) Machine Pimping. This method is similar to spray pumping,except that there are hundreds of injection points. Acontinuous brine injection machine 4s used to ensurerelatively uniform brine distributi2n =hroughout the meat.Overpumping is not advised, since the brine vi.1 formzocke-ts n the seams eoetWeen -uscle areas. "his resultsthe formation of open seams n- _he ^fnished oroducos.

Drying

Drying is one of the oldest methods of meat preservation. Modernvariations of dried meazs include 3iltong, Pemmican, and jerkedbeef. Most lean, fresh meats are composed of 75% water and 25%solids. Hence, in addition to serving as a method ofpreservation, drying substantially reduces weight and volume.Allowing for wrapping and containers, dried meat occupies about0.5 cubic meters/ton while frozen carcass meat requires six timesthis volume.

Air-drying requires that the meat be cut into narrow stri s andthen dried in the sun. Normally the meat is also salted topreserve its quality. Sun-drying needs facilities which keepinsects and flies away from the meat. In a vagiation of thIsmethod, the temperature is controlled at 13-21 C (55-70 ) f

the temperature is .oo high, heat damage, result-ng .n toughness,grittiness, and a burnt flavor, may occur. The humidity must alsobe controlled to avoid over-drying and surface hardening which inturn prevent uniform drying. The surface evaporation rate shouldbe no faster than that at which the moisture can migrate from theinterior of the product.

Accelerated freeze drying (AFD) is another method of moistureremoval. mThis process involves lightly heating frozen meat in ahigh vacuum. The heat thus supplied provides energy for thesublimation of the ice to water vapor. This occurs withoutraising the temperature of the meat to a level which would resultin thawing. Furthermore, rapid sublimation produces a coolingeffect sufficient to prevent thawing. The meat which results isvery porous in sstructure and simple to rehydrate. This method

20

ioes, however. require aia -7h i-ial Inestment and ~.esei_- _--zabi.: _:, z -..e zeat _, __ae. _. d _n. -:aeauiimen- _s dif fIcult o handle, and t..e orocass consumes :ighamounts of enerav. Freeze-dried meat is ma2nnly ased by -hemilitary and zor special purposes, such as food for!Iback.-ackersI.

Freezing

Freez ng involves reduction of meat temperature to the level atwhich the water contained therein is unavailable to bacteria andmicro-or anisms. -t is the most w1dely used method of meatpreservat-on, since prompt rerfrigeration or meat can reduce.zrmz'a~ Z_- -,r_e__ratn .nd zaac-t_zns ;mnz. :ause zerr:_ nand spoilage.

Meat to be frozen is placed in chambers or on stainless steelbands nassing through freezing-tunnels maintained at minimumtemperatureg. Normally the temperature is between -25 and -40'C(-13 to -40 F). The air flow ls increased by large fans in orderto increase the heat transfer from the meat. If the mus Sleisfrozen very rapidly and stored at temperatures below -20 C (4 F),small ice crystals form within the muscle substance, but not inthe areas between the muscle fibers. As a result,. there will belittle drip when thawing; the extent of drip is directlyassociatied with the amount of muscle damage caused by freezina.Storing the meat below -18 C (0.4 F) also retards enzymaticprocesses, and the meat can be stored for six to twelve monthswithout significant losses of quality.

Problems of toughness, which may arise when carcasses or bonelessmeat are rapidly frozen, can be overcome either by delayingfreezing until the onset of rigor mortis or by electricallystimulating the carcass immediately after death in order toaccelerate the onset of rigor mortis. During long-term frozenstorage of meat, the meat should be adequately protected againstsurface drying. If not, apart from losing weight, the surfacelayers become unacceptable, and rancidity is promoted, especiallyin the case of cured meat. Cured meats should be protected,preferably by vacuum packing in an oxygen-impermeable film.

In order to accelerate the rate of freezing, cryogenic freezingmethods have been introduced whereby the material is exposed toliquid nitrogen, or other suitable gases, injected in a tunnel.The surface of the amterial or product is exposed to temperaturesbelow -100 C. Freezing in this way is more expensive thanconventional methods and is normally only used where liquid

21

^.wcaen _r =tar zr-oaanic matarials are avaiabie.

Smoking

The objectives of smling are threefold: to c-re; to color; and -cflavor meats.

Conventional smoke generators burn dry or dampened nardwood in arestirlcted oxygen atmosphere to produce smoke aerosols. -iquidsmokes can provide the same qualities and flavors. They areapclied in the form of a water solution of smoke that is atcmize-into the a4r or regenerated into smoke after being dropped onzo asea-cad sur-ace.

Smokehouse parameters which affect the rate and amount of smokedeposition includ (Considine, 1982):

- relative humidiity;- temperature;- time;- smoke concentration;- vapor velocity in the smokehouse;- product composition;- method of smoke production; and- smoke composition.

In commercial operations these are ussually controlled bysophisticated instumentation.

MARKETING ASPECTS

Quality/Grade

Factors which influence carcass qualtiy are presented in Chart 2.Principal categories include antemortem considerations, such asbreed, age, sex, and nutrition; slaughter techniques; and storageconditions, i.e., temperature , humidity, and contaminationlevels.

22

Cihart 2: Some Tac'zr. 7nfluencna f-aroass ua --y-_ oQurC_: ;drr_ard _

ANTORI PCSMMC

Breed (or crcss) Slaughter StoraaeAge TechniaueSex j Temperature/ Conruam tnz_-,n.nvir-:nment H iidit-dNutr_icn Stt.nning'isease 3leedain . . . f a -re7esis-zancs :ressIn.

to Stress ContaminationFatigue Rate of 3acteriaiPre-Slaughter Care Rigor Spoilage

Maturina Miouid Grcw-nWeight Loss RancidityBloom andCslor

Commercial Storage L_fe

Meat grading is based on :..ree factors 'ev-e, _

(1) Conformation, or the shape and form of the carcass. This srelated to breeding, and is more of interest to -he packerand butcher than to the consumer since it gives anindication of the proportion of high-value joints andlow-value bone obtainable.

(2) Finish, which is defined as the quality and distribution ofsurface fats. Surface fats should be smooth and creamywhite in color; those which are tainted with red or yelloware of inferior grade. For cattle, the fat covering shouldnot exceed 1 cm (3/8 inch) in thickness over the ribs orloin; for sheep, the corresponding figure is 5 mm (3/16inch). Excessive amounts of fat imply that the per unitcosts of lean meat rise; they are therefore down-graded.

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' '2ua '~-=J. -fhich -s -etermined b a 2t f,cc-rs:

Aae ̂ r 7 nimal, si 7our;h _s ass_cialed li-4Ltsenderness.

- Texture, which depends cn the size of t_.e musclebundles, the quantity of connect_ve tissue, and =-efineness of muscle grain.

- Color, which ranges from _ight c.erry 'which isassociated with youth) to deen red for ca-tle. Forcork, the ribs should be pinksih In color, with :nuc.7 ±esurfaces showina a bluish -_nae.

- sIr' l e s.s 7-l22. _ ' arnei, .- -e I __n r he a -naamount of feea received. -or Zeedlot zatz-le, a ioncerperiod in the feedlot' general>y results in a firmermuscle structure.

- Marbling, refers to the presence of minute stireaks oLffat in the meat which contribute flavor, tenderness,and juices during the cooking process.

Characteristics'of the Market

Worldwide meat and poultry producticn in 1982, estimaced to beabout 144,615 thousand metric tons, can be broken down asfollows: (FAO Production Yearbook - 1982)

Meat '000 MT % of total

Beef 45,646 (32%)Pork 55,878 (39%)P'oultry 29,810 (21%)Mutton and Lamb 6,244 ( 4%)

Goat meat, buffalo, and horsemeat make up the majority ofthe remainder.

Leading world producers of meats include the United States(16.9%), China (16.9%), the USSR (10.6%), West Germany (3.5%),France (3.8%), Argentina (2.3%), and Brazil (3.4%). (Figures inparentheses reflect share of world production.) (Ibid)

Between 1980 and 1983, world trade in fresh, chilled and frozenmeat rose an average three percent per annum. Major importers of

24

meat ('-$sh, zhi.led, and frozen) 4n 1982 were, ranked acccrc-n._ w_znnage:

West Germanv 3921, 7MTiSSR 354,767 MT:taiv 345,382 MTTUSA 765,616 MTFrance 593,816 MTapan 593,816 MT

Total world imports ln 1982 were estimated to be 8,704,715 XT.

(FAO Trade yearbook - 1982)

4a-or ax=orr-rarrs .meat - 982 -were:

Netherlands 1,015,859 MTAustralia 750,234 MTNew Zealand 736,080 MTFrance 700,947 MTUSA 674,309 MTDenmark 520,955 MT

Total world exports in 1982 were estimated to be 8,637,725 MIT,valued at US$16,609 million. Export prices averagedapproximately US$1.9 per kilo.

The international market for fresh, chilled, and frozen meat,including poultry is relatively narrow; total exports averagedonly six percent of total production in 1982 (Ibid). This marketis characterized by substantial regulation and restrictions, -withimportant trade-diverting and price-depressing effects indevelopina country markets. Amona the pr-ncipal tradeconstraints for developing country exporters are (i) diseasecontrol regulations; and (ii) import restraints in the EC. Whiledeveloping country imports of beef and veal increased by anaverage of 8.1% p.a. during 1961-77, corresponding exports roseby only 0.1%. Growth in meat imports was especially pronouncedin the Middle East, Southern Europe, and in some Asian countries,such as South Korea. (World Bank, 1981)

Livestock and meat production cyclical in nature, due to the slowrate of biological reproduction. when meat prices rise, there isa gradual increase in herd size in response. At the same time,animals are withheld from slaughter. This constriction of supplyleads to further price increases, which, in turn, encouragefurhter increases in future supplie. When livestock herds reachmaturity, the slaughter rate rises; as meat supplies flood the

25

market, prices begin to fall.

The beef cycle -Ias seen -nserved :o last about seven ,rears _nLatin America and Oceania; seven to eqicht zears in rhe vC: andten vears in North America (Ibld.. Serious problems result wqhencycle peaks occur simuitaneousLr, as in the 7974-75 oeriod. 3eefprices, until that time, followed a fluctuating upward trend,both in real and nominal terms. During the boom of 1973, theyreached record highs, only to fall lramatically by 2975. Pr-cesduring the remainder of the 1970s experienced substantialfluctuation.

Market prices outised the EC are dcminated by beef sales fromAust-rala a nd 'Tew 'eaiand to the USA. 3ecause of the low ratio,f Imtorts zo -roduc-zin. 3mai]. :.anae4s n r-cduction andconsumpzion in major imporzting ccuntries cause subszanz alfluctuations in international trade volumes and pr-ces.

there ls a high degree of substitutability among red and whitemeats, except where restricted by religious customs.

Demand for poultry meat experienced the highest growth rate inthe 1970s, averaging six percent per annum (Ibid). (Thecorresponding figure for beef was two percent.) World trade inpoultry is also rapidly expanding. For sheep, the volume oftrade remained virtually unchanged during the 1970s; tradedistribution changed considerably, however, as the EC marketdeclined and the Middle East market grew. The two majorexporters, Australia and New Zealand, account for 80% of theworld's exports (Ibid).

Storage/Distribution/Transport

Fresh meat should be stored in chilled rooms, with a temperaturerange of 2-5 C, and with humidity levels between 85-95%, in orderto reduce weight losses from evaporation. The distribution chainshould also keep the same temperature to enable the meat productsto be purchased in good condition. Distribution vehicles shouldbe thermally insulated and have their own coooling system. Thevehicles should not be loaded with products having a hightemperature, since the refrigeration facilities in the trucksnormally do not have the capacity to cool down the meat, only tokeep temperature levels constant.

Frozen meat should be stored at temperatures no higher than -18to -20'C, and sitributed at the same temperatures. As described

26

above, ona-term storace of meat reau4res mhat mhe meat_ sur-acee covered. 7ha :-id 3_raae aci _`i-s sLhOuid ':ave ^rzoerac-s, _na on-ea meat carzasses shoula ze oia-c3a n ai s -zfaci .ta-ta ̀andlina. -. cludinga ranspor- areas. a cold sztraaesnou d ze able _o stzore zn averace one '-al -ton - meat carcass,_er scuare meter. 7ransnorm or _rozen meat as vei as c.ILl ade'should be done in insulated vehicles eauipped rw7ith _err-_gera-i1onunits. Trucks can normally carry six to ten metric -ons.Transport costs are normally about USSO.07 - ).39 perton/kilometer.

Overseas transport reau4res vessels with refriaeratl_onfacil ties. Sametimes _he meat is nandled in containers, wftich'have indenendentl-v oeratesc tr-gerat4on s ;stemms. anspor-_oszs Jwa Jv I985) are _aout J OS31 oer -on =r=m SOuIn .er-z _-

(Santos) to Europe (Roterdam).

Three fact ors contribute to a deterioration in qua_zIt over mimewhen meat is stored (Considine, 1982). These are:

(1) Putrefaction, or microbiological spoilage due to an excessgrowth of microorganisms. The result is bacterialdecomposition leading to a change in color (to aray, yellow,or green), softening of the tissue, and development of anobjectionable odor. Microbiological spoilage is the primaryfactor limiting the shelf life of fresh and oreserved meats.

(2) Discoloration, due to excessive drying or storage for toclong a period in a chilled or frozen state. The result is aqualitative depreciation.

(3) Rancidity, or chemical changes in the meat's -at occurs whenit is stored for an excessively long period in a chilled orfrozen state. This is more of a problem with pork than witthother meats.

Shelf life is determined by:

-Maintenance of a low ambient temperature and the correcthumidity.

-The source and type of processing of the meat.

-Physical condition of the animal prior to slaughter.

-Skill and care taken in the slaughtering and dressingoperations.

27

-'he .;vga-snic ccndiz__n -.rugnouz -,s _,au~n_sr anadress-ng orocsss.

-=roteczion of the _arcass f2rom micr_obia7 zoncamination.

Aging of meat, esmecially beef, has been a :rade pracice formany years, and is carried out main.iy to increase tenderness.Pork and lamb are ususally too young to hLave a significanttoughness problem. Aging is normalliv oracticed in ccnjunc_ionwith vacuum packs or first grade cuts of _eef, since the meat canbe st-red for several weeks under chilled condit-ions.

Tehnderness -an iiso 'e `-mroved ''J n,~ e z f 3ai t and- ciyincos2nazas, and t-enerz.J.na qIzv mec.anica_ ' Leans Sucn asmassaging.

28

=HME. 7:ACTOPRS

Location

The main factors in determining slaughterhouse locat_on are :headvantages and disadvantages of transporting meat relative tothose of moving 'ive animals. In developing countries, a trendhas been established towards slaughter in the consuming areas .accordance with (I) the unavailability of adeauate refrigerationfacilities at distribution and retail points; and (2) consumerpreferences for 'hot' (as opposed to chilled) meat. Otherfactors reauirina consideration 4nclude transtrrt distance andmeans zr :nsporta __vesck. where h.e -ave i3staznc _a

great, che means of transporziation primitive, and ciJmatacconditions of transport difficult. the quality of 'he meat willbe adversely affected.

A second major consideration in determining plant location isavailability of water. Water needs - for animals awaitingslaughter; for scalding/dehairing/defeathering; for washinghides, skins, and carcasses; for transporting wastes; and forclean-up operations - are substantial. It is estimated that30-45 liters (8-12 gallons) are required for processing a singlechicken, and 750 liters (200 gallons) are required for an adultbovine. This water must be potable, to minimize the risk oftransmitting to humans such infections as typhoid, paratyphoid,and cholera.

In addition, slaughterhouses should not be located downwind fromfactories where airborne pollutants (dust, soot, toxic fumes) cancontaminate the meat, nor upwind from residential areas, wherethe inhabitants may protest objectionable odors.

Transport of animals to the slaughterhouse is a noisy andvoluminous activity. Therefore the slaughterhouses should belocated, (if located close to the city) on the outskirts of thepopulated areas. This may be a significant factor in consideringwhether to rehabilitate or relocate slaughterhouses located withmunicipalities.

Health and Environmental Concerns

Disposal of effluents from a slaughterhouse is a problem,especially in the tropics, where they present an immediate hazardto the health of the human population due to the risks of rat-,

29

f'y-, or mosquito-borne diseases. The volume and character of:he effluents depends -n the hrcuahpuc. -:he amount :f -raatrased, and zrimarv and econdarv 2f- uent : racarent. :Tec3ssarycrimary zreatments include:

(:, separation of t_he biod;

(2) screening of solids, such as skin, meat, bone,feathers, and hair. This should be begun near theoperational point before decomposition, mechanicaldisintegration, or leaching can begin; and

.(3) trapping of arease, from fatty tissue, washing hides,and melted fat in warm water used for washing hands,utansi!., and -acuizment.

Secondary treatments of effluents include use of biologicaltreatment, aeration, soakage pits, and possibly irrigation, uslngthe heated waste water.

The World Bank (Projects Policy Department) has issuedregulations stipulating the maximum pollution'allowable in wastewater from slaughterhouses to be financed by the Bank. Projectsto be implemented should include sufficient waste water treatmentunits to fulfill the Bank requirements.

Rodent action represents an economic loss in any climate, but inthe tropics, it can, in addition, spread diseases such as theplague, jaundice, and typhus fever to humans by contaminatingmeat. Several precautionary measures are recommended to preventrodent proliferation:

- slaughterhouse construction should be of cement, metal, orstone, rather than wood;

- drains and pipes should be sealed, ill-fitting doors shouldbe replaced or adjusted, hollow walls should be filled,etc.; and

- all garbage should be properly disposed of.

Insects must be controlled since they, too, can spread disease bycontaminating meat. It is therefore necessary to protect meatsurfaces, eliminate breeding places, and destroy insects at allstages. A daily cleaning routine and health standards forworkers who come into contact with the meat is essential.

30

3uLd_-.c .Reaulat_ons

NTormal.y each countr '-.as _ts own buildin :,odes whlc., -esu az;the construc-con OL a siaughterhouse. f zarzasses r .eaz _reto be exnorted, the _mport-ng country -lso imposes reauiremen7tsfor the sanitary and haygienic level of tihe siauantertcuse.

The most strict regulations are issued by the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture (USDA) and also bv -he EC. The USDAregulations are quite specific and precise. The EC regulationsare usually more in z1he form of recommendations. .Aftr zheslaughterhouse has been constructed the faclit:es are 1nspecteaand, if approved, r2ceive termission to expor- to the aniror:-a

-.ar:et _other :-_nc__ons area -so 'uea-) :or a zr-a:-perioa.The t-wo main publications listing tihe US requirements are 'I. 5

Inspected Meat and Poultry Packing Plants,-A Guide toConstruction and Layouts, 1984", and "Code for Federal Regu-lations, Animal and Animal Products, Revised January 1, 1984".

Since tihe rules and regulations both for the USA and EC aredifficult to apply, iz is recommended that a weli-experiencedconsultant firm be hired to review the layouts and otherdrawings/machine specifications before the implementation of theproject.

By-Products

7n recent years, development in the slaughterhcuse sector hasconcentrated on increased utii zation of slaughter oy-products.Trends, not always positive to the final consumer, are to usemore and more by-products in minced and ground products such assausages, ground meat, and processed meat products. Equinmenthas been developed to extract more meat and "meat.products" fromthe bones in the slaughterhouse cutting and deboning section, aswell as increased by-products from the rendering of edible fat.

In a number of countries, price controls apply to fresh meat butnot processed meat products. This has led many slaughterhousesto convert large parts of their meat into processed meatproducts, which provide greater value added.

Human consumption of edible offals varies from culture toculture. Principal among edible offals are the tongue, brains,heart, liver, tail, kidneys, blood, stomach, feet, fats, and

31

udder.

'Tcn-'daie a,-fis ars iiractza 7: 7:wo -ia.n tar.rs. animaal --Tedand 7nedibie :at. he nedible fat zan ze fur--er -rocessed2 ntzscap and -att_ acids. 'att acids zan se used as -aw matr a_.sfor paints. -olishes, ubricants,. z-smet-cs and for zertai.n _vpesof plastic.

Non-edible by-products from a slaughterhouse are processed intomeal and inedible fat by a process called rendering, which _sbasically a process in which the meat, bones and other inedibleproducts, as well as whole condemned animals, are ground, cookedand then separated, either in a screw2ress or in a centri_fualdecanter. The fat-water zhase is further seinarated in azentr:-_qal 3enarator

Blood from the slaughter floor, which is not used for humanconsumption, can either be processed separately into a croteinrich bloodmeal or together with the other non-edible by-products.The blood-water mixture coming from the slaughter fEloor can beheated bv direct steam to coagulate the blood, wh.ich can then beseparated in a centrifugal decanter.

Feathers from a poultry slaughterhouse are normally a pollutionproblem. To be used as a feedproduct the feathers have to be"hydrolyzed", that is, steam cooked at high pressures beforebeing dried and ground into feather-meal.

Rendering processes have sophisticated operating requirements;obtaining reasonable yields and efficiency requires relativelylarge-scale facilities. Plants for inedible renderina ofslaughterhouse by-products normally handle two to three metrictons of raw material per hour and normally operate two to threeshifts per day. This means that very often a central renderingplant is sufficient to handle the by-products from severalslaughterhouses. The location of a rendering plant should bechosen carefully because smell and sometimes waste- water can bea problem.

Cattle, sheep, and pig offals are described in Charts 3, 4, and5, respectively on the following pages.

32

Chart 3: Offals of CazleSourca: &tarrard :_7

Animal Parts UsesOx cheek and aead trimmings Stewing, -rawn, andi sausageTongue Salting and boilinaBrains Boiling, sauce, and sausaaeSweetbreads (a) Thymus

(b) Pancreas' Frying or boilingHeart 3aking, boiling, or sausageLiver FryingSkirt StewingSpleen ?ies and 4a'avori.a scurps-ai_ .ou- -nd ewlnaKidneys Stewing, soup, and fryingBlood 31ack puddings, blood and

barley loaf, blood flourBlcod plasma As a binder in sausageStomach (a) Rumen Cleaned and boiled for tripe

(b) Reticulum Cleaned and boiled for tripe(c) Abomasum Cleaned and boiled for red or

black tripeFeet Cleaned and boiled for cow heelFats (a) Suet Pudding paste, mincemeat, etc.

(b) Fat Dripping(c) Oleo stock Oleo-margarine and confectionery(d) Oleo stearine Lard compounds

Bones Soup and gelatineLungs Animal feedUdder Boiled or salted, smoked

and fried

INEDIBLE

Hide,cured LeatherCollagen Sausage casingsBody hair Felting and plaster retardantTail hair Upholstery, brushes, plaster

retardant, felting-. Ear hair Artists' brushes

Trimmings Glue, fat for tallow, fertilizer

* ~FatSoap tallow Soaps and glycerolTallow oil Lubricants, leather dressing

textile finishing

33

Offals of Cattle (cont'd)-NEDI13L-

Tallow staar ne 3oap, leather dressing, _.ceroCraclklings Mfeat scrapTankage Animal feed and fer_Ilizer

BonesInedible tallow Soap, lubricating oil,

candles, blycerolGlue Furniture making, etc.Bone meal Sugar refining, case-hardening

metals, animal feed, andfertilizer

Long bones Tallow, glue, knife hnandles,butt:ns, -tc.

HornsPith GlueShell Buttons, combs, fertilizer, etc.

Feet Foot oil, tallow and bone mealSinews and dew claws Glue, tallow,- and fertilizerHooves Combs, buttons, etc., fertilizer

Blood Animal feed and fertilizerBlood albumen Textile sizing and weatherproof

glueIntestinesSmall (runners) Sausage containers, gole-beatersLarge (middles and bung) skin, sealing parchments, etc.

Esophagus Sausage containersBladder Putty containersox gall Paints and setting dyesGall stones Ornaments

Meat scrap Animal feed

Cattle Parts Used for Pharmaceutical Purposes

Pituitary PinealThymus SpleenThyroid SuprarenalOvaries Corpus luteumPancreatin Red-bone marrowThromboplastin,lecithin Liver extract

kephalin (from brain) Ox gallParathyroid Testes

34

Charm 4: Offals of Sheen30urca: a r r a 27~

--3IBLE :NEDIBLE ?-ARMACTJr-ThCLHead Wool :, teszines c! -azures,Tonaue Skin SuprarenaiBrain Guts ThyroidHead meat Blood Pancreas

Pluck Feet ProstateLiver Condemned parts ThymusHear_ Lungs Lanolin ' feece)Lungs TracheaScleen Horns

7weeT:rsadsa~uncn Ieat s craiosHoneycomb (portions of stomach)FatsBloodrLamb fries

Chart-5: Of.als of the PigSource: Gerrard (1977)

EDIBLE INEDIBLE PHARMACEUTTCAL

Head Hair PancreasTongue Casings OvariesBrain Blood ThymusEars Bone ThyroidLips Hooves (glue) Stomach lining nepsnSnout Condemned parts SpleenMeat Skins (leather)

Pluck Fat (grease)Liver Meat scrapsHeart LungsLungs TracheaWeasand meat Bladder

Spleen . GallIntestines (chitterlings)StomachFeetTailFatsKidneySkin (gelatineBloodLard dregs (greaves)

35

Economies of Scale

zSauantarhouses wia-i zcoi-ng -cl_l'tes. c-idszoraae, bcninq,meat processsna and yv-orcduct renderina reiresent sargenveszmenzs. 'See f-nanciai models in... Annex _.) he sc_nomv o..scale is Lmnortant; re-fraerat-on and crocassina fac47it-es arecanital-intensive; Estimates of the raw materiai base forprojected slaughterhouses are often overly opttmiszi ; cattle aremoved around and often slaughtered on the ^arm. As a result-newly constructed slaughterhouses are sometimes not able toutilize their full capacity and prove to be not `inanciall viable. Domestic proce regulations on fresh meat are Jmposed inmany countries. Large investments in meat prccessing -acli~t_es,particular> those designed rfor export markets, can be especia-_-

-_ hose zcuntr7es. -nce±i a n -r ~ne -aculaIc ns :_nlncrease _ne cst -f o -he fzssn meat -sed -n -rocasss-mg andthereby increase the price and lessen the marketability of thefinal product.

Before new construction is undertaken, the aiternative ofincreasing the capacity of existing facilities should beevaluated. A "least-cost-solution" should be made, comparing thetransport cost of animals and finished croducts to the cost of anew facility.

Distinction should be made between slaughterhouses directed forexport and slaughterhouses designed for the domestic market. 'Theregulations for approval by the USA and the EC are complicated;slaughterhouses constructed in simpler ways can be hygienic andefficient. Constructing a slaughterhouse for domesticconsumption according to USDA regulations can demand unnecessarycost increases and be prohibitively expensive.

A line system with on-the-rail flaying allows major economies ofscale in slaughterhouse operations accruing from the division oflabor, the specialization of tasks, and the full use of powertools. It does, however, require a throughput large enough tojustify the extra investment and specialization. The minimumthroughput for cattle is 6-8 head/hr emploving four men; for pigs60-80 head/hr employing six men; and for sneep 60-75 head/hremploying 6 men (Fenn, 1977).

36

ReiJ.g5ous Considerations

Manv religions, inclTudna Isiam, HiTnduism, and J'udaism, recrespecial considerations in the slaugh-erina -rocesses. PossIbleproblems should be anticipated and arrangements should be workedout in advance of construction.

For more information on religious requirements andconsiderations, see Mann (1960).

37

01. ;,merican 'eat _Thstituta 'Center czr Conr_nua nc ;uca-con)Meat Plant Sani_ation, 1972, and 3eef Onerat-cns n -noMeat Industry, 1966.

02. Campbel1, A.G. '1970) New Zealand 3eef: Production,Processina, and Harketing.New Zealand: Sigma Print, L_d, Petone.

03. Ceres, .nternational (1978) Benin 3eef Easinl tv ,tudy.New ,lr: eCares ta er-nat I^nai.

34. Cleland, A.C. and Earle, M.D. (1980) Energy Jse _n -he -am,3acon, and Meat Smallacods industrv7.Auckland: New Zealand Energy Research and DevelopmentCommittee.

05. Cleland, A.C. and Earle, M.D. (1980) Energy rJse in thePoultry Processing Industry.Auckland: New Zealand Energy Research and DevelopmentCommittee.

06. Considine, D.M., Editor (1982) Foods and Food ProductionEncyclonedia.New York: V7an Nostrand Reinhold Co.

07. Crawford, L.L. (1980) Nigeria: Abattoir, Slauch_erhouse.and Meat handling Improvement Programme. Rome: FAO.

08. Devendra, C. and G.B. McLeroy (1982) Goat and SheenProduction in the Tropics.London: Longman.

09. Divakaran, S. (1982) Animal Blood Processing andUtilization,Rome: FAO.

10. Edwards, D., D.A. Hector, G.A. Norman, and D. Silverside(1979) Slauahter Facilities for Tropical Conditions: AGuide to the Selection and Costing of Approlriate Svstems.London: Tropical Products Institute.

11. Ensminger, M.E. (1980-2nd Edition) Poultry Science.Danville: The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc.

38

'Z. ~usebio. ...i. 1980C ?ia ?rUC-' o n ?ic rr-izs.._ondcn: crgnman.

,Z. Experienca, NC (1973) The TecHnica_-1concmlc asibiIi-of Eszab±2ishina Additional Meat ?rc-cssncr ac' __es _n3otswana.Minneapolis: Experience, Inc.

14. Fabricants, T. and Sultan, W.J. (1973) Pract cal MeatCutting and Merchandisina - 7ol. I - 3eef.Westport: The Avi Publishing Co., Inc.

15. FAQ Production Yearbook, 1932.o.ome: TAO.

16. FAO Trade Yearbook, 1982.Rome: FAO.

I.7. Fenn, M.G. (1977 - 2nd Edition) Marketing riiestoc, andMeat.Rome: FAO.

18. Filstrup, P. (1974) Processina of 3v-Products in ModernSlauchterhouses.Casablanca: UNIDO.

19. GATT (1983) The World Market for 3ovine Meat.Geneva: GATT.

20. Gerrard, F. (1977-5th Edition) Meat Technoloav.London: Northwood Publications, LTD.

21. Gerrard, F. (1977). The Comnlete Book of Meat.London and Coulsdon: Virtue and Co. Ltd.

22. Holm, Arild (1974) Meat Processing in Africa: The Projectfrom Idea to Implementation: An Actual Case Story andPractical Guidelines.Casablanca: UNIDO.

23. Karmas, E. (1976) Processed Meat Technology.Park Ridge: Noyes Data Corporation.

24. KeKeocha, C.C. (1984) Pfizer Poultry Production Handbcok.Nairobi: Pfizer.

39

~5. _arzen. 7. a 74) Rezcr- -_ 7;.e -overnmenm - -soo nAban-zir ?eas~nib v _-- tudry .ase- a.

* ~~~Rome: FAC.

26. 'awrie, R.A. (1979-3rd Edition) MAeat Science.Oxford: Pergamon Press.

27. Lawrie, R.A. (1976) Developments in Meat Science - 1,Applied Science Publisher, Ltd. 1SBN 0-85334-366-9.

28. Levie, A. (1979-4th Edition) Meat Handbook.Westport: Avi Publishing Co., Inc.

-9. M,Iann, -a n. 1an0 Mer i. l --n -zunnr -es .Rome: FAO.

30. Meat and Livestock Commission. (Technical Builetins)Cutt_nq and Preparinc Beef 1974 and Cutting and ?rsrarinaLamb and Pork 1976.

31. Mitchell, J.R. (1980-2nd Edition) Guide to Meat insPectionin the Tropics.Farnham Royal: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.

32. Payne, W.J.A. (1970) Cattle Production in the Troiocs.London: Longman.

33. Pyke, Magnus (1981-4th Edition) Food Science and Technoloay.London: John Murray Ltd.

34. Rust, R.E. (1976) Sausage and Processed Meat Manufacturina(American Meat Institute).

35. Simpson, J.R. and Farris, D.E. (1982) The World's BeefBusiness.Ames: Iowa State University Press.

36. Stewart, G.F. and Abbott, J.C. (1961) Marketing Eggs andPoultry.Rome: FAO.

37. USDA (1979) Conversion Factors and Weights and Measures.Washington: USDA.

40

38. USDA (1984) tJ.S. :nspectad Meat and Poultr'y Packjing Plants:.A u:Uide 4 -o c_nszz-uC-;_n and lavoutc.Wvashingtcon: :JSDA.

.9. USDA (1975) Composition of rocds, Raw. Processed, ?reoared.Washington: USDA, Agriculture Handbook No. S.

40. US Government Printing Office (1984) Code of FederaiRegulations, Animals and Animal Products.

41. Wernberg, N.E. (1974) Site Selection, Plant Lavout and Con-struction of Industrial Meat Processing Plants.Casablanca: UNIDO.

-. ii7l amson, ;. nd 7.J.:. Pavne 980) -namal Husbandr='the Trooics.London: Longman

43. Wilson, N.R.P. (editor) (1981) Meat and Meat Products,(Applied Science Publisher) ISBN 0-85334-951-7.

44. Wolff, I.A., Editor (1982) Handbook of Processing andUtilization in Agriculture.Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc.

45. World Bank, Commodities and Export Projection Division(1981) Beef Handbook.Washington: World Bank.

46. World Bank, EMENA Projects Department (1978) Staff ApnraisalReport on Bosanska Kralina Agriculture and AgroindustriesProiect: Yugoslavia.Washington: World Bank.

47. World Bank, EMENA Project Department (1979) Staff AnnraisalReport on the Meat Industry (ONAB) Prolect: Yugoslavia.Washington: World Bank.

48. World Bank, EMENA Projects Department (1973) Alpraisal of anAgricultural Industries Project - Macedonia.Washington: World Bank.

49. World Bank, EMENA Projects Department (1978) Prolect Imple-mentation File: Bosanska-Kralina Agriculture and Aaro-industries Project, Yugoslavia.Washington: World Bank.

41

0. -iorr'd Bank -echnical ?acer To. I -Iw98-l "n.enaer r Ises -'J ra--- a - i rSnual sr o- _

,nvesz=rs. _BN -33N 2-'DLB-?.,qasninatcn: ;Worri 3ank.

42

i

iii

i

I

i

Z7SC' Df)L EV'da CIN--, INZWiISLAKl aC So iaoW VX

: I XINNV

I

i

i

I

MEAT _?ROC:"SS:M'G_,2:'!~PLE -_

Rerresentat_-ve :-nvestment and 3cerartna :osts

POULTRY SLAUGHTERHOUSE______________________

Establishment of a slaughterhouse t-o process broilers andnens -^or sale in narts or whole. Capacitv is eszmat-ed at .mi"'on b-orders and ''0,000 'h.ens per annum.

.' : aOScvia 'r-an-'_-,a 3an-a 3u1t- SlauaTr-=ouse

Note: The data shown in this analysis are representat_veonly. They are unique to the t.me, circumszance, anacountry of the identified investment. Their annlica-bility to other circumstances may -vary considerablv.

Annual Full Development Production (in '000 kg):…__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

edible products/whole chickens 2_84.30packaged chicken pieces .513.30giblets & necks 584.104nedible products 2196.20

Capactvy Utilization at Full Development: 100.00%

-------- US$ '000-------mid 1980 prices

Locai Foreman ota 7T. Tnvestment Costs:____________________Civil Workssite preparation & yards 130.42 58.69 189.11drainage & water treatment works 212.28 95.53 307.81fencing 18.33 8.25 26.58processing building 630.56 283.75 914.31amenities & engine room 152.78 68.75 221.53other 102.22 46.00 148.22

Sub-Total Civil Works 1246.59 560.97 1807.56

MEAT ?R.OCESSINtG:xA14Pr'" -

?aae 2 ,fr

Renresentative :nvestment and Oneratina Coszz5

Note: The data shown in this analysis are -enresentativeonly. They are unique to :he t4me, c1rcumstance, andcountry or the -dentified investment. Their aasi:ca-bility to other circumstances may vary considerabiy.

…~~;SS '000iid 1980 -r.eas

-oca. oreicn ~O.r L

Utili-y Uparade -:nstallation 659.44 296.75 956.19Machinery & Ecu i-mentbird reception 'line 120.00 120.00slaughter/defeathering line 51.59 146.84 198.43evisceration process line 19.90 56.64 76.54cooling line 102.34 292.70 395.54cutting/packaging line 88.43 251.68 3 40.' pal7ets 36.34 104.34 141. _7laboratory 20.00 20.00 40.00other (incl. spare parts) 81.35 122.78 204.63

Sub-Total Machinery & Equipment 40i.4 5 1115. 4 7 15;6.92Engineering 84.225 7.265 91.5_17Equipment Installation 50.22 200.00 .260.222Customs/Impcrt Duties 160.93 160.93

Total :nvestment Costs 2552.56 1980. 45 5 3

_ _ ~ ~ ~- - - - - - - - - - - - -

MEAT 2RO. OCE::--H_I.i~_PT ,_7 _-

Sage _r _

Rerresentative :nvest_ent and Oteratina c-sts

Note: The data shown in this analysis are -epresentatcveonly. They are unique to the time, ;ircumstance, andcountry of the identified investment. Their arclica-bility to other circumstances may vary conslderablv.

uS 'G000mid 1230 p-zries

_:1. -levelctment -.nnua_ -pera-cna *_szs:Variable Costsraw materials (broiler/hen purchase) 3668.15packaging materials 189.35labor costs 432.00utilities (water, steam, electricity) 218.37vertinarv inspections - 30.48

Sub-Total Variable Costs - 95383.35

Fixed Costsrepairs & maintenance 129.67insurance 6.30management & overheads 208.35

Sub-Total Fixed Costs 44.32

Total Operating Costs 9883. 67

DATA SOURCE: Adapted from World Bank appraisal report for theMorava Regional Development II Project, Yugoslavia,Vol. IV, Project File, Working Paper 9.13.

NOTES:Exchange rate - Dinar 27 = US $ 1.00Appraisal costs initially were prepared using an exchange rate ofDinar 20 = US$ 1.00. Following appraisal the dinar was devaluedto Dinar 27 = USS 1.00. All costs in the appraisal report wererevised to reflect the impact of the devaluation. These revisedcosts have been adapted for this analysis, and all dinar costshave been converted to dollars using the new exchange rate.Foreign/Local cost breakdowns are based on those shown in theappraisal report.Full development is realized approximately six years afterproject start-up.Data are net of contingencies.

I

I

I

'I1T~r -4CCIS3-.TG

Renrasentat-&'e :nveszmenz and Dzerat-na .- _szs----------------------------------------------

SLAUGiHTEP§HCJUSE

Zstablishmeniz of a slauahoernouse :o process zaz-'e for '_eefand -rea'1), zigs, and 'ambs 'sheen).

"oaC: Data are nntanded as 4ndicative only and are uniaue _o7-e time, circumstance, and country or the ient'_eainvestment. Their anclicabilitv to other situations-may -vary considerably.

Annual Full Development Production (tons):------------------------------------------

carcass meat (calves, beef, lamb) 1265.30packaged meat and primai cuts '596. 5,0processed meat 2392.00edible offals & fats 7152.40

by-qroduct:s 137 ,.4 0

Caoacit-z Jtiization at Full Development: 100.00%

…SS I 00mid-IE80 orices

Local Foreign TotalI. Investment Costs:

Civil Workssite preparation & yards 314.02 89.92 403.94drains & wastewater treatment 344.21 116.17 460.33main building 953.17 428.93 1382.09fencing 29.33 13.20 42.53other 393.61 177.13 570.74

Sub-Total Civil Works 2034.34 825.34 2859.68Utility Installation & Upgrade 886.25 512.76 1399.01

(Continued on page 2)

Renresenative _nveszment and ,pera-tncar ostz

Note: Data are lintended as indicaz_-ie onlv and are uniaue -cthe time, cirunmstance, and oount=r rf :he LdentL-_edinvestment. Their aaolicabi1itr -o other s nuatlonsmay vary considerably.

z.la- 980 or-zesLocAL ?oresgn Total

Machinery & Eauipment_airage 2.30 1.52 4.42blood processing/storage 5.06 38.68 4_2.73cattle slaughter line 92.4 6 172.38 264.34pias/sheep slauahter line 74.30 32.52 157.42edible offals processing 4.60 22.00 26.9guts/casing processing 18.90 90.48 10g9.28processed meats l1ne 326.71 937.24 1263.95pac.kaging 2.91 388.77 331.68cold storage/chil7er eauipment 6 .76 5. 73 97.49fat processing/storage 32.54 85.27 117.31loading platform 12.13 7.02 19.15laboratory 43.20 49.58 92.38other 26.44 15.20 a'1.74

Sub-Total machinery & Equipment 704.31 1926.79 2631.09Transport/Installation 352.07 203.70 555.77Spare Parts 17.26 34.95 52.21Engineering & Overheads 598.92 51.61 650.53Import/Customs Duties 348.85 348.85

Total Investment Costs 4942.00 3555.15 8497.15

_ ... .. _- - - - - - - - - - - -

MEAT ?ROC7SS7i'ITG

?aace ^ O L

Representaz`tive _nvest-ment and Czerat_na Costs

Note: Data are intended as indicative oniy and are uniczue --the time, circumstance, and country of _he -dent-f`ealInvestment. Their applicabiliitv to other si=uaaionsmay vary considerably.

-JS $ '000mid-1980 po'-ces

:otal-.------Devel-met- --- nuai e----------- -s--

Variable Costsraw materials 14526.25packaging/cleaning materials 745.09directi labor costs 604.91utility costs 121.04veterinary station 122.33

Sub-Total Variable Costs 16120.12

Fixed Costsrepair & maintenance 235.18management & overheads 727.66insurance 1.392other 9.75

Sub-Total Fixed Costs 386.51

Total Operating Costs 16506.63

DATA SOURCE: Adapted from World Bank appraisal report for theMorava Regional Development II Project, Yugoslavia,Vol. IV, Project File, Working Paper 9.14.

NOTES:a. Exchange rate Dinar 27 = US $ 1.00b. Following appraisal, the dinar was devalued from Dinar 20

to US $ 1.00 = Dinar 27.00. All appraisal costs were.adjusted to account for the impact of the devaluation, andthese costs were then used for this analysis. All costs areconverted to dollars using the new exchange rate.

c. Full development Is approximately year seven after projectstart-up.

d. All foreign/local cost breakdowns are based on thoseshown in the appraisal report.

e. Data are net of contingencies.

i

I

I

-V-*E? --

Rerresentat:ie 27nvesnenim and Crat cos7z

-iUT2Y S¶AU(mI'ETOUSE

tSza_I-rment A_ ar touit= s1aughtenrtOusi e`aci_ .

MOTE: These data are -representative only, a.nd are miaue -O

hte -tme, zounrtz, and situatlon of the .dent.r:--d1.nvestmenz. Their aFplicability to other situationsmay vary znsideerably.

ANNUAL F.JUTL DEV=LOEENT PRODUCTION:

',000 metric tons of chicken meat

P CENT OF .7T3U CAPAC1TY TROUCIJON: 85.00%

US _ '000

Total(July, ;984 prices)

I. Anvest;e erit Costs

Land :8. 33uildings 54.39Machinery & Equipment 53.18Electric Equipmeant & TIstallation 6.04Structures 32.63Tools & Furniture 1.21Design Fees 1.21Pre-Investment Exenditures 4.32

Total Investment Costs 171.62

2AGE: -r. S t

Reoresentat-ve nvesineant and C-te-arz_ 3_szs

NOTE: These daca are representative only, and are anizue tothe time., ountcr, and sitaation of thte ident 4 __fedinves=enm. Their anioiicabilitv so 'te tisam ons-rnay vary zonsiderably.

lotal

,(uiiy, 1284 =r1zas;II. Annual Full Development Operating Costs

Fixed CostsA±nininstration 26. 59Depreciation 122.09Cther ;3.29

Sub-Tor7al Fixed Costs _51.37

Variable CostsLabor - 2. 09General :4anufacturing 316.65

Su.b-Torai Variable Costs 328.7 4

Total Operating Costs 380.71

NOTES:1. Exchange rate - Korean Won 827.4 = US$ 1.00.

IFl International Financial Statistics, May, 1985.2. Full development is Year 3 after project start-up.3. Detailed breakdcwn between foreign and local costs

is not available.4. Data are net of contingencies.

'XEIT ?ROCEESSITG

?IGE JF 2

Remresentatz_e :nvestment ,nd a lerazina Costs

SLAUGHTERHOUSE______________

Construction of a slaughterhouse fcility or 'arge stiock,small cal-res, pigs and sheep.

2CUNT2Y :avp t

NOTE: These data are intanded as rerresentati-re only, and areuniaue to the time, circumszance, and ccuntrv of theidentified investment. Their applicabilitv to othersituations may vary considerably.

ANNUAL FULL DEVELOPMENT PRODUCITON:

35,000 cattle, 20,000 calves, 7,000 pigs, and 38,000 sheep

PER CENT OF FULL CAPACITY UTILIZATION: not available

…- US$ '000-------Tocal Foreign Total

(1980 prices)I. Investment Costs____________________Site Improvements 126.00 14.00 140.00Civil Works 1552.50 172.50 1725.00Equipment & Machinery 456.00 4104.00 4560.00Electrical Equipment & Installation 265.50 2389.50 2655.00Miscellaneous Equipment 10.00 90.00 100.00Freight & Insurance 48.00 432.00 480.00Engineering Fees 192.00 768.00 960.00Overhead & Start-Up 192.00 768.00 960.00

Total Investment Costs 2842.00 8738.00 11580.00

MEAT PRCCESSN;;G-'to wMpT XZ -?AGE 2 -F 2

Representative :nvestment and Operacing Costs------------------------------ ______-_-------NOTE: These data are intended as reprasentative oniy, and are

unique to the time, circumstance, and zountry of tihe_dentiflad investmenz. Their appl_ability to othersituations may vary considerably7.

US$ '000-1 9 8 0 cricss,

::. Full Devielcpment Operating Costs(excluding raw materials)

------------------------------------

Fixed CostsAdministration 14.08Depreciation 394.37Miscellaneocs .304

Sub-Total Fixed Costs 4'5.49

Variable CostsLabor 56.34Veterinary 14.08Utilities 28.12Repairs & Maintenance 70.42

Sub-Total Variable Costs 169.01

Total Operating Costs 584.51

NOTES:1. Exchange rate Egyptian Pound 0.71 = US$ 1.00.

IMF International Financial Statistics, May, 1985.2. Data are-net of contingencies.3. Full development is year 4 of operations.4. Detailed foreign/local cost breakdown for operating costs

is not available.

'1EAT ?vOC2SS7,G

3AGE 7 '.

Rewresentatc-ve ~vestnent and Dera3s -zsts---------------------------------------------

CATTLZ AND PIG SLAUGHTERUOUSE_____________________________

Construct-on of a siaugncerftouse facilitJ to pr^duce zut zee:and cut pork products.

COUNTRY: :ora-

JOT2; Chase .atca r m Ina =.cue -_-_:me, countrv, ana circumstance or t.e -denc_ iedInveszmenz. :heir applilcablitV __ other si-uaazonsmay vary considerabvy.

ANNUAL FULL DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION:

4,660 mezric _o_ns of cut beef2,225 metric _ons of cut pork

PER CENT OF FULL CAPACITY UTILIZAATON: 2.00.0%

UJS . '000Total

:'382 pr-css)I. Investment Costs

-and _8.60Building 1561.038Structure 489.29Machinery & Equipment 1390.93.Electrical Upgrade 313.50Tools & Furniture 127.96Design Fee 45.54Pre-Operating Expenses 89.48

Total Investment Costs 4556.38

HEAT ?RCCES_7NG

-AGE

Reiresenma-_ve :nves.ment and :nerat7na ists

NOTE: These data are --snresenzat-ve and unique _o -hei,me, country, and circumstance of the iaent~:.ed,nvestrnent. Their appl-cabi1t tz ,o other s-=uatlonsmay vary considerably.

'S ' 000

::. Ful' Development Annual Oerati_ng Coszs

Fixed CostsAdministrative Staff 380.6iDenreciation 427.35Other 544.20

Sub-Total Fixed Costs _52. 6

Variable CoszsLabor 1300.75Other manufacturina 2471.36Packaaing 7

Sub-Total Var able Costs 4006.41

Total Operating Costs 5353.57

NOTES:1. Exchange rate - Korean Won 748.8 = US$ 1.00.

IMF International Financial Statistics, May, 1985.2. Detailed breakdown between foreign/local costs

is not available.3. Data are net of contingencies.4. Full development is year 4 after project start-up.

)

ANNEX I I:

C-ZNVERSION 7ABLES

I.

II

WEIGHTS '-ND MEASURES

avoi -auco 1S

:on: snor- :o.n _J nor u nunarewe.cnr.- :00 zcuncs;'.907 me_;o :zns;

ona ton ^0 Iona hundredwei cnc, :240 :ounds!' .2Olo etr_c :ons.

Hundredweicht cwt;short hundredweight _00 pounds, 3.05 snor. tons; 43.339

Tk;;_ograms;lona hundred weicht 112 pounds, 0.05 lona tons; 50.302

ki-locrams.

iound 2 _'J - l I --16 ounces, 7000 qraIns; J 453 <.ocrams.

Ounce oz or oz av;16 drams, 437.5 arains; 28.249 crams.

Dram dr or dr av;27.343 grains, 0.0625 ounces; 1.771 grams.

Grain gr;0.036 drams, 0.002285 ounces; 0.0648 grams.

Trov

Pound lb t;12 ounces, 240 pennyweight, 5760 grains; 0.373%ilocrams.

Ounce oz t;20 pennyweight, 480 grains; 31.103 grams.

Pennyweight dwt also pwt;24 grains, 0.05 ounces; 1.555 grams.

Grain gr;0.042 pennyweight, 0.002083 ounces; 0.0648 grams.

?_E TRIC CST!

Sauare •iometer :a 9m or '<;m1,OOO,OO scuare -ezers:

72 361 7auare - _

.Sec-are a'0,000 scuare rieters:.4< acres.

Hectcliter inl

lO0 liters; 3.53 cubic -2eet; Z.34 bushe2s;

Liter 1;1 liter; 5J1.32 cubic inches; 0.308 quar=(dry); 1.J57 :uart-z 'l'auid).

'ec - - ,r 7.J.io liters; S.1 CuoiLc incns; 3.38 cint(dry); 0.21. :int ('Zuid)

Centiliter rl:0.01 liters; 0.6 cubic inch; 3.238fluidounce.

Metric ton MT or t;I1,000,O00 arams; 1.1 US tons.

Quintal q;100,O00 grams; 20.46 US pounds.

Kilogram a;1,000 grams; 2.2046 US pounds.

Gram g or am;1 gram; 0.035 ounce.

J.

I

1 |usu

I