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cPannlng,

andRenearchWORKINGPAPERSEducationandEmploymentPopulationaEndHuman


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ResourcesDepartmentTheWorldBankJuly1988WPS24VWorldBankInvestmentinVocationalEducatiornandTrainingJohnMiddletonandTerriDemskyThechallenge

facingfutureWorldBankinvestmentinvoca-tionaleducationandtrainingisto

bringpastsuccessesinmiddle-incomecountriestothelowerincomecountries.Strategies

naturallywillhavetovarygreatlyfromcountrytocountry.


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ThePolicy.Planning,andResearchCatplexdistnhutesPPRWorkingPaperstodisseminthefindingsofworkinprogrssandtoencouxagetheexchangeof

ideasamongBankstaffandallothersinterestedindevelopmnentissues.ThesepaperS

carrythenamesoftheauthors,rflectonlytheirviews,andshouldbe

usedandcitedaccordingly.Tbefindings.intAepretions,andconclusionsare


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theauthors'own.TheyshouldnotbeattributedtotheWorldBank,itsBoardofDixcrors,itsmamgement,oranyofitsnembercountries.Public Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure Authorized

Table18:IncidenceofArticulationArrangements,By37CountryLevel:SampleofCompleted

IndustryVETComponentTable19:PercentageofLinkedComponentsWithA38Given

LinkageType,ByMode:SampleofCompletedVETIndustryComponents


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Table20:IncidenceofProvisionofTrainingServices39toEnterprises,ByRegionandTimePeriodTable21:SupportforTestingandCertification42

System,SampleCountries,ByIncomeLevelTable22:FactorsinInstructionalStaffDevelopment,

44ByCountryTable23:ProjectInvestmentEmphasisonDeveloping51InstitutionalPlanning,

ManagementandCurriculumDevelopmentCapacity.Table24:TheDevelopmentof


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NationalTrainingSystems53Table25:ComponentManagementEffectiveness59andAdequacyofFinancing,ByRegion,IncomeLevelandModeTable26:UnitRecurrent

Costs66Table27:EvidenceonOutcomes,ByRegion,67CompletedProjectsTable

28:ProportionsofEnrollmentTargetsAchiev.'68atCompletionByModeandIncome

Le,CompletedIndustryVETProjectsTable29:AverageComponentPerformance,


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ByModew.,!69andIncomeLevel,CompletedProjectsTable30:AverageComponentPerformance,ByModeand70Region,CompletedProjectsEXECUTIVESUMMARYi.

ThenatureofWorldBank-assistedinvestmentinvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)for

industrialemploymenthasevolvedsubstantiallyoverthepasttwenty-three*ears.Theshareof

educationsectorlendingforVEThasdeclinedasinvestmentin


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primaryeducationhasincreased.Absoluteinvestmentreachedapeakof$845millioninFY80,andhasfluctuatedannuallysincethenaroundanaverageof

$500million.WithinVET,therehasbeenasignificantshiftawayfrominvestments

insecondarydiversifiedandvocationalschoolstowardsnonformaltrainingcentersanduniversity-levelprograms.

InvestmentsinVETforindustryhaveincreased,whilethosefor


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agriculturaleducationandtraininghavedecreasedsubstantially.Theseshiftsreflectlessonslearnedthroughexperienceabouttherelativeeffectivenessofdifferentmodesoftraining.ii.

Moststrikinghasbeenthedevelopmentinthelastdecadeofnationaltraining

systemsbuiltaroundnonformaltrainingcentersandpost-secondarytechnicaleducationinstitutions,primarilyin

middleincomecountries.Thesehavebeendevelopedthroughsequencesof


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projectinvestmer.tsthatemphasizedthedevelopmentofinstitutionalcapacityandlinkagesbetweentrainingandemploymena.Thesystems,andtheprojectcomponentsthatsupportedthem,

haveperformedwellonimplementationcriteria,andtheevidencesuggestsareasonablelevel

oftrainingeffectivenessaswell.Ithasbeenpossibletoestablishallmodes

oftraining--secondary,nonformal,post-secondary,andVETteachertraining


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--inmiddleincomecountries.iii.Ivcontrast,investmentsandinstitutionsinlowincomecountries,.peciallythoseinSub-SaharanAfrica,havebeencomparatively

lesssuccessful.Implementationweaknessesandstagnatingeconomieshavemadeitdifficulttoestablish

anymodeoftraining,andtheevidencesuggestslowutilizationandefficiency.Investment

inthedevelopmentofnationalsystemshasonlyjustbegun


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inthesecountries,withuncertainoutcomesduetocontinuingeconomicandimplementationconstraints.iv.Overall,thesepatternssuggestthatthelevelofeconomicdevelopment,

andtheconsequentsizeanddynamismofindustrialemployment,exertspowerfulinfluenceon

thesuccessofinvestmentsinvocationaleducationandtraining.Futureinvestmentstrategiesshould

thusdiffersubstantiallyacrosscountriesatdifferentlevelsofindustrialization.


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v.Inmiddleincomecountries,investmentsinexistingnationalsystemsarelikelytoemphasizerehabilitation,qualityimprovement,andcontinuedinstitutionaldevelopmenttowardsimprovedefficiency.

Insomecasesbuildingthecapacityofnationalsystemstoassumenewroles

intechnologyadaptationandproductivityimprovementwillbeimportant.-ii-vi.Anumber

oflower-middleincome(andsomelargerlow-income)countriesareat


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anearlierstageofsystemsdevelopment.Theexperiencesofmoreadvancedcountrieswillbeusefultocontinuinginvestments;thesewillincludesupportforpolicy

andinstitutionaldevelopment.Keypolicyissueswillbeclearstructuralseparationoftraining

fromgeneraleducationandthedevelopmentofalternativestodiLectgovernmentfinancing.vii.

Insmalllowincomecountries,recentBankinvestmentexperiencesuggests


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strategiesthatconcentrateresources,andthatemphasizenonformaltrainingcenters,trainingquality,developmentofmanagementcapacitybothintraininginstitutionsandinenterprises,and

aggressivemarketingoftrainingopportunitiesandservices.Regionalprofessionalsupportinstitutionsmeritconsideration.

viii.ForinvestmentssupportedbytheWorldBank,atleast,thevocationalsecondary

schoolhasbecomealessattractivemodeoftraining.Vocational


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secondaryschoolscanbeeffectiveinmiddleincomecountrieswhentheyacquirethecharacteristicsofeffectivenonformalcenters--stronglinkageswithenterprises,and

theabilitytorespondklexiblytochanginglabormarketsandtooffersalaries

andincentivessufficienttoattractandretainqualifiedinstructors.Inlowincomecountries,

weakimplementationcapacityandthenascentstageofenterprisedevelopment,


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coupledwiththecurriculumandstaffingrigiditiesandrecurrentcostconstraintscharacteristicofMinistryofEducationoperations,havemadeitdifficulttoadaptthe

secondarymodeleffectivelyinthesedirections.ix.Atthesametime,strongsecondary

educationisimportanttotrainability,eitherafteremploymentinenterprispiorbeforein

nonformalcenters.Inthiscontext,thedeclineofBankinvestment


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ingeneralsecondaryeducationoverthepastdecadeneedsre-examination.Anewconceptofsecondaryeducationinthelowincomecountriesisneeded.x.

ThustheBankfacesbothanopportunityandachallengeinprQvidingsupport

forvocationaleducationandtrainingoverthebalanceofthecentury.Theopportunity

istocapitalizeon--andtoextend--;he


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generallysuccessfulpatternoftrainingsystemsdevelopmentinmiddleincomecountries.Thechallengeisposedbytheproblemsofdevelopingcost-effectivetrainingsystemsin

smalllow-incomecountries,notablyinSub-SaharanAfrica.Successfulinvestmentwillrequireavery

highlevelofpolicyandinstitutionaldevelopmentcontent;ofspecialimportancewillbe

continueddevelopmentofalternativefinancingarrangemenus.xi.Theseconclusionsemerge


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fromananalysisofWorldBankinvestmentsinvocationally-specificeducationandtrainingforindus-trialemploymentintheperiodFY63-86.TherevieLisbased

ona-i$i-asampleof121ofthe213industryVETcomponents

inthe320educationsectorprojectsfinancedintheperiodFY63-86.Thesample

wasdrawntoberepresentativeacrosstrainingmodes,regions,and


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countryincomelevels.Itemphasizesmorerecentinvestmentsandcounttieswhereasequenceofprojectinvestmentshasbeenmade.Thesamplerepresents60%of

thetotalprojectcostsoftheuniverse.xii.Theanalysisaddressesf-u-questions.

Whatarethecharacteristicsofinvestmentsin-intermsofsizeand

typeofinvestment,costsandoverallinpl~ntationperformance?What


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weretheelementsofinvestmentdesign?;hatstrategieshavebee-,employedindevelopingnationaltrainingsystems?Whatwastherecordofperformanceofcomponents

andinstitutinns;whatfactorscontributedtoorinhibitedsuccess?Themainfindingsunder

eachquestionaresummarizedbe'ow.MAINFINDINGSCharacteristicsoftheInvestmentsxiii.The

sizeoftheprojectsfinanced,andofoftheVET


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componentswithinthem,varieddirectlywiththeincomelevelofthecountry.ThesmallestprojectsandcomponentswereinAfrica,thelatteraveragingabout

US$7million;thelargestprojectswereinAsia.VETcomponentsinAsia,

LACandEMENAweresimilarinsize,averagingaboutfourtimesthecost

ofcomponentsinAfrica.xiv.Projectperformance,asmeasuredby


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timeoverrunsandinstitutionalperformance,variedrelativelylittle,andthenmorebyregionthanbycountryincomelevel.Byregion,thebestperformancewas

achievedinAsiaandEMENA,followedbyLAC.Overall,therewasaslight

projectcostunderrun.Oncompletiondelaystheseinvestmentsperformedaswellasprimary

educationprojectsfinancedduringtheperiod(average31months);on


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institutionalperformancetheycomparefavorablytoalleducationsectorprojectscompletedinFY84andFY85.xv.Theinstitutionssupportedweresmallestintermsof

placesinEMENAandinlowincomecountries.Totalinvestmentcostsperplace

createdweresignificantlyhigherinAfricaandinlowincomecountries.Thesecosts

varyconsiderablyacrossmodes,incomelevelsandregions;thedata


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indicate,however,thattheinvestmentscostsassociatedwithproducingaskilledworkerareroughlyequivalentforsecondaryandnonformalinstitutions.Teachertrainingplaceshave

beenmostcostlyoverall.Costdifferencescanbeexplainedbyeconomiesofscale

onlyforsecondaryinstitutionsacrossincomelevels.xvi.Theseinvestmentshaveprovidedincreasing

supportovertimeforfurnitureandequipment,andfortechnical


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assistance,consistentwithlateremphasisonrehabilitationandinstitutionaldevelopment.-iv-InvestmentDesignxvii.Theeconomicjustificationsofthesamplecomponentsrarelyaddressedshort

andmedium-tervlabormarketdemandfactors,relyinginsteadongeneralmanpowerrequirementsforecasts

basedonassumptionsregardingeconomicgrowth.Wheresuchgrowthdidnotmaterialize(as

wasthacaseinmostlowincomecountries),theseforecasts


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havebeengenerallyinaccurate.MostweredonebyBankstafforUNESCOconsultants.Itisreasonabletoassume,givenaparallellackofattention

toshorter-termplanning,thatmanpowerforecastingdivertedattentionfromtheestablishmentofmore

flexibleandresponsiveplanningmechanisms.Labormarketfactorshavereceivedmoreattentionin

laterinvestmentsinmiddleincomecountries,mostofwhichhave


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sapportedthedevelopmentofnationalsystemsbasedonnonformaltrainingcenters.xviii.Relativelylittlehasbeendoneinthesecomponentstoaddresstrainingopportunities

forwomen,althoughageneralthreadofconcernforbetteraccessofdisadvantaged

groupsrunsthroughmostoftheinvestments.Improvingtheincomeofdisadvantagedgroups

requiresmorethantrnining.Attentiontoemploymentcodesandpractices,


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andmanagementattitudesandnacity,isalsoneeded.Thereisnoevidencethattheseissueswereaddressedinthecomponentssampled.xix.Sectoranalysis

hasbeenimportant,generallyleadingtosignificantinvestmentsininstitutionaldevelopment.Sectorwork

inAfricaisbeginningtocontributetopolicyandinstitutionaldevelopment,althoughthe

frequencyandpolicyrelevanceofsectoranalysisintheregion


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havelaggedbehindthatinotherregions.DevelopmentofNationalTrainingSystemsxx.Aclearpatternofsuccessemergesfromtheanalysisofinvestment

strategies.Increasingemphasisinmiddleincomecountrieshasbeengiventothecreation

ofnationaltrainingsystems.Thesearelargelybasedonnonformalmodes,arewell

linkedwithemployers,generallyseektodevelopalternativefinancingschemes,


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andincorporateprofessionalsupportinstitutionsthatestablishthepermanentcapacityforcurriculumdevelopmentandteachertraining.Testingandcertificationsystemsprovidefeedbacktosystem

managersandtoemployersonperformance.Curriculumdevelopmentisoftenbasedonoccupational

analysis,providinganotherpracticallinkbetweentrainingandemployment.Thesesystemsalsoincorporate

post-secondarytechnicaleducationandtraininginstitutions.xxi.Managementofthe


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nonformalsystemismostoftenbasedinautonomousorquasi-autonomoustrainingagencies,orinunitsoftheMinistryofLabor.Thereisaclear

administrativeseparationofvocationaltrainingandtechnicianeducationatthepost-secondarylevel,with

thelattermanagedbyMinistriesofEducation.Manyofthenationaltrainingsystems

employasignificantdegreeofdecentralizationinordertostrengthen


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trainingcenterresponsivenesstolocalindustryneeds.Decentralizationstrategies,however,haveencounteredimplementationdifficultieswhereadequatepreparationofdecentralizedunitshasnotbeenundertaken.

xxii.Suchsystemsmaybeunderdevelopmentincurrentprojectsinalimited

numberofcountriesinSub-SaharanAfrica.However,mostoftheearlyinvestmentsin

thesecountrieshavebeensmallprojectssupportingafewvocational


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schools;inlateryearsthesehavesupportednonformaltrainingcenters.Sustainedinvestmentinsystemsdevelopmenthassofarbeencomparativelyrare.Performancexxiii.Data

oneconomicoutcomesoftrainingareabsentfromprojectevaluations.Reliableunitrecurrent

costdataisalmostentirelylacking,althoughthedatathatareavailableconfirm

thatsecondaryvocationalschoolsaremoreexpensivethangeneralsecondary


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schools.Thusassessmentofinvestmentperformanceislargelylimitedtocriteriaofimplementationsuccess.xxiv.TheexceptionisfoundfortheinvestmentsinAsia.

Thereinformationongraduationrates,placementratesandemployersatisfactionwasavailablefor

asufficientproportionofthecomponentstojustifyinferences.Onallthreecriteria,

theinstitutionssupportedinthesecomponentsperformedverywell.These


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includedallmodesoftraining.-xv.Onthecriterionofproportionofenrollmenttargetsachievedatcompletion,performancevarieddirectlywiththeincomelevel

ofthecountry.About40%oftargetswereachievedinlowincomecountries;

90%inlower-middleincomecountries,and109%inupper-middleincomecountries.Overall,there

waslittlevarlitionacrossmodes.However,secondaryvocationalschoolsperformed


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bestoverall,andslightlybetteracrossincomelevelsthanthemorecomplexnonformalinstitutions.Thedataindicatethatitisdifficulttoestablishany

institutionalmodeinlowincomecountries(includingsecondaryvocationalschools),withweakimplementation

capacityandfinancialconstraints.Theoppositeistrueformiddleincomecountries.xxvi.

Thiscriterion,ofcourse,doesnotcapturetheeventualenrollment


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performanceofprojectinstitutions,manywhichsufferedfromsignificantdelaysincompletion.Butitcanbetakenasanindicatorofthedifficultiesencountered

inestablishingagivenmodeoftraining.xxvii.Thesefindingsaremirroredin

ratingsofinstitutionalperformanceofVETcomponents.Onaregionalbasis,componentsin

Africaperformedatasignificantlylowerlevelthanthosein


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theotherthreeregions.-vi-xxviii.SecondaryvocationalschoolshaveperformedwellonimplementationcriteriaInpartduetotherelativesimplicityandfamiliarity

ofinstitutionaldebLgn.Inlowincomecountries,endinAfrica,whilethesehave

performedbetterthanmorecomplexandlessfamiliarnonformalinstitutions,theabsolutelevel

ofperformancehasbeenverylow.Theseinstitutionshavealso


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encounteredsignificantproblemsineffectiveness.Manyappearunderutilized.Theyhavehadmuchlesssuccessinestablishinglinkageswithemploymentthannonformalandpost-secondaryinstitutions.

MinistryofEducationteachersalaryscaleshavemadeitdifficulttopaywages

adequatetoattractqualifiedstaff,contributinginmanyAfricancountriestocontinuingreliance

onexpatriateteachers.xxix.Preferencefornonformaltrainingcentersunder


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thesecircumstancesrestsonsuccessfulexperienceinmiddleincomecoG:ntries,andonthegreaterinherentpotentialforflexibilityeffilencythatnonformaltrainingprovides.

Whetherindeedthispotentialcanberealizedinlowincomesettingsremainsan

openquestion.xxx.Successfulinvestmentprogramsinmiddleincomecountrieshadincommon

ninecharacteristics:a.LongTimePerspectiveWithMultipleInvestmentsb.


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ExpandingIndustrialEmploymentc.SmallBeginningsinFormalInstitutions,andIncrementalExpansiond.PlanningThatRespondedtoLaborMarketDemande.EarlyandSustained

InvolvementofEnterprisesf.EvolutionofPolicyandManagementCapacitytoMatchSystem

Complexityg.IncreasingAttentiontoAlternativestoDirectGovernmentFinancingh.Investmentsin

TrainingQuality:PermanentCurriculumandStaffTrainingCapacity,Testing,Attractive


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SalariesforStaff;IncentivestoAttractGoodStudentsi.FlexibilityofCurri.lumandInstitutionalDesignxxxi.Lesssuccessfulinvestmentswereweakonmost,if

notallofthesecharacteristics.-vii-xxxii.Thereareindicationsthatsomeof

theselessonsarebeingappliedincArrentinvestmentsinlowincomecountriesin

Sub-SaharanAfrica.Institutionalcapacityisbeingstrengthenedinfivecountries;


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insevenotherssupportisbeinggiventodevelopingnonformaltrainingcenters.SinceFY80onlyoneinvestmentinSub-SaharanAfricahassupportedavocational

secondaryschool.I.Introduction1.01Investmentinvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)has

beenthecornerstoneofWorllBankeducationsectorlendingsincethefirsteducation

loaninFY63.Theinvestmentshavesupportedarangeof


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institutions!arrangementsforthedeliveryoftrainingatskilledwtrker,technicianandprofessional/manageriallevels,includingsecondaryvocationalschools,center-basednonformaltrainingandapprenticeship,polytechnics

andoccupationally-specificuniversitydepartmentsandprograms,andteachertrainingforbothVETand

generaleducation.Alsoincludedhavebeen"diversified"secondaryschoolsthataddsomevocational

contenttogeneraleducation.Theinvestmentshaveprovidedtrainingin


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supportofemploymentinindustry,agricultureandcommerce/services.1.02MorethanhalfofthetotalcostofprojectssupportedbyWorldBankeducationsector

lendingintheperiodFY63-86wasdevotedtoVET.IntheperiodFY63-7f

investmentsinallformsofVETrepresented62%oftotalprojcosts.Annual

lendingvolumeforVETgrewtrom$6.6millioninFY63


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co$160millioninFY76,withanaverageannualvalueof$150million.Aslendingforprimaryeducationexpandedfromthelate1970s

onward,theshareofWorldBankeducationsectorlendingdevotedtoVETdeclined

proportionallyto51%.However,absolutelendingvolumeincreased,reachingapeakof

$845millionin1980,andfluctuatingthereafteraroundanaverage


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of$500millionperyear.1/1.03Theshapeofthisinvestmentprogramhaschangedsubstantiallyoverthepasttwenty-fiveyears.Lendingincreasedfor

industryVET,anddecreasedforagriculture.WithinindustryVET,investmentsincenter-basednonformal

trainingadministeredoutsideministriesofeducationandinuniversity-levelprcgramshasincreasedrelative

toothermodes.Investmentindiversifiedsecondaryschoolshasdeclined


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sharply.1.04Inrecentyearsincreasinglyconstrainededucationbudgets,thecomparativelyhighcostsofVETandconcernsregardingtheexternalefficiencyofsomeVET

institutionshaveraisedquestionsastothecost-effectivenessofalternativeinvestmentsintraining.

Anumberof1/AcomprehensiveanalysisofpatternsofWorldBankinvestments

inVETmaybefoundinAntoinaSchwartz.Profileof


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WorldBankFinancedInvestmentsinVocationalEducationandTraining.PopulationandHumanResourcesDepartment,WorldBank(1988,forthcoming).-2-internationalagencies,includingtheWorld

Bank,CIDAandtheGTZ(Germany)arecarryingoutbroadly-basedpolicyanalysesand

reviews.ThisstudyofWorldBankexperiencewitinvestmentsintrainingfor

industrialemploymenthasbeenundertakenaspartoftheBank's


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broaderpolicyanalysis.SCOPEANDLIMITATIONSOFTHEREVIEW1.05ThepurposeofthisreviewistoidentifylessonsfromBankexperiencewithinvestments

invocationaleducationandtraining(VET)toinformfutureinvestment.Thestudyis

limitedtotrainingformodernsectorindustrialemployment,andfurthertofourtraining

modes:secondary,post-secondary,nonformalandvocationalteachertraining.Notincluded


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areuniversity-levelVETinvestments,diversifiedsecondaryschoolsandgeneralteachertraining.1/1.06Likealloperationalreviews,thestudyisconcernedbothwithinvestment

projectsandtheinstitutionsthatthesesupport.Therearefiveprincipalquestions,each

treatedinaseparatesectionofthereview:(a)Whatarethecharacteristics

oftheseinvestmentsintermsofsizeandtypeof


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investment,costsandoverallimplementationperformance?(b)Whatweretheelementsofinvestmentdesign?Howweretheseinvestmentsjustifiedandplanned?(c)Towhat

extenthaveeffectivetrainingsystemsbeendeveloped?Whatinvestmentstrategieswereemployed?(d)

Whatwastherecordofperformanceofprojectcomponentsandinstitutions,inimplementation

andintermsofeducationaloutcomes?Whatfactorscontributedto


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orinhibitedsuccess?(e)WhatlessonscanbedrawnforfutureVETinvestment?1/Trainingforemploymentinagriculture,andinservices/commerce,isbeing

analyzedinseparatereviews.University-levelinvestmentswillalsobetreatedseparately;teachertraining

anddiversifiedsecondaryschoolshavebeenanalyzedpreviously(seeHaddad,1985;Haddadand

Conly,1987;PsacharopoulosandLoxley,1985).-3-1.07


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ThescopeofthereviewandtheanswerstothesequestionsarenecessarilylimitedtotheexperienceoftheBankanditsBorrowerswith

trainingformodernindustrialsectoremployment,andwiththefourmodesoftraining

aelected.WhiletheBankhasbeenthesinglelargestinvestorineducationin

developingcountries,1/itsexperienceisnotnecessarilyrepresentativeof


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allVETinvestment.1.08ThereviewdoesnotaddressthesubstantialinvestmentsmadebytheBankinprojectrelatedtraining,orineducationcomponents

inprojectsinothersectors,withtheexceptionofalimitednumberof

"freestandingtrainingprojects."2/1.09However,thereviewdoescovertheemployment

sector--industry--receivinggreatestemphasisintrainingnvestment


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(80%oftotalVETinvestmentinFY77-86).Thefourmodesstudiedaccountedforsomewhatmorethanhalfofthisinvestment(withthebalancecoming

largelyinuniversity-levelprojects).1.10Finally,theretrospectivenatureofthereviewfocuses

attentiononwhathasbeendoneinthepast,andtoalesser

extentonthenatureofcurrentinvestments.Therearesignificant


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issuesinVET--forexample,thecontributionoftrainingtoinformalsectoremployment--thatfalllargelyoutsideofWorldBankexperience,however

importanttheymightbeforthefuture.DEFINITIONSANDCONCEPTS1.11Thefield

ofvocationaleducationandtrainingisbesetbydefinitionalproblems.Inhisreview

oftheliteratureonthecost-effectivenessoftraining,Doughertynotes


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that"...muchofthecontroversyintheliteratureappearstobeattributabletoantagonistsunwittinglyfocussingontwodifferentpointsinwhatis

ineffectacontinuousspectrumandthenarguingatcrosspurposes.u(1988,forthcoming).

1/TheBankprovided14-20%ofexternalaidtoeducationannuallybetween1980

and1986.SeeProgramforAcceleratedEducationalDevelopment.Populationand


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HumanResourcesDepartment,WorldBank.April,1988.2/PRTinvestmentshavebeenrecentlyanalyzedin:AnnualOperationalReviewFY87:EducationandTraining.Populationand

HumanResourcesDepartment,WorldBank,March,1988.H.W.Barker.GeneralOperationalReviewof

theTreatmentofManpowerandTrainingIssuesinSectorWork.PopulationandHuman

ResourcesDepartment,WorldBank(1988forthcoming).-4-1.12


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Clarityisneededalonigtwodimensions.Oneisessentiallystatic.Thisisthedefinitionofwhatisbeingstudied,requiringtheutilizationofa

taxonomythatmakesitpossibletodistinguishamongthevariouspurposesandinstitutional

arrangementsthatcharacterizethe"continuousspectrum"oftrainingprovision.Thesecondisdynamic.

Aconceptualmodelisneededinordertoidentify,a


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priori,thebasicelementsoftrainingsystemsthat,takentogether,determinecost-effectiveness.Theseelements,inturn,canserveasthecommontemplateforthe

evaluationofvaryingkindsoftraininginvestments.ATaxonomyofTraining1.13A

fundamentalpremiseofthisreviewisthatthenatureandeffectivenessofvarious

trainingsystemsdependsonthedegreetowhichtheyfit


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theneedsofeconomiesatdifferentlevelsofdevelopment.Trainingsystemsinlowincomecountrieswilladdressdifferenttrainingneeds,andencounterdifferinginstitutional

constraints,thanthoseinmiddleincomeordevelopedcountries.Thusanimportantdimension

ofanytaxonomywillbesomeproxymeasureforthelevelofeconomic

development.1.14Asecondkeydimensionisthesectorof


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employment.Labormarketdemand,andskillneeds,differacrossthesectors.Moreover,trainingsystemsareoftenorganizedandadministeredseparately,especiallythoseforagriculture.

1.15Themodeoftrainingisanimportantthirddimension.Trainingisorganized

inagreatmanyways,andasnotedearlier,thereisconsiderableuncertainty

astohowthesemodesshouldbecategorized.Underany


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svstem,agivenlabel--suchas"vocationalsecondaryschool"--willmaskconsiderablevarietyinthewayinwhichtrainingisorganizedand

delivered.Nevertheless,somecategorizationisneeded,especiallyonewhichidentifiesmodeswiththe

skilllevelforwhichtrainingisprovided.Hereagainweencounteracontinuum

ratherthanclearlydistinguishablecategories,butitisreasonableto


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usethethreelevelsmostcommonlyreferredtoinboththeliteratureandinvestmentdocuments:craftorskilledworker;technician;andprofessional.1.16A

matrixtaxonomyofVETusingthesethreedimensionsispresentedinFigure1.

Countryincomelevel,asreportedintheWorlddevelopmentreport,isusedas

aproxyforlevelofeconomicdevelopment.Thethreeprincipal


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sectorsofemploymentformtheseconddimension.1.17Seveninstitutionalmodesforvocationally-specificeducationandtrainingareidentified:university,teachertrainingforgeneraleducation,

diversifiedsecondary,post-secondary,secondaryandnonformal.Takentogether,thesemodesdefinetheuniverse

oftypesofvocationaleducationandtraininginwhichtheWorldBankhas

invested.Thescopeofthepresentreviewisindicatedin


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