Workshop Description

Response to Intervention

www.interventioncentral.org

Workshop Description

1



RTI at Middle and High Schools: Behavioral Interventions for Groups and Individual Students

Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org



Workshop Agenda

Big Ideas in Student Behavior

Classroom Management Strategies

Defining Behavior Problems: Guidelines

Ideas for Working with Non-Compliant, Inattentive, and Overactive Students

Web Resources to Support Behavioral Interventions and Progress-Monitoring



Workshop Materials Available at:• http://www.interventioncentral.org/bctc.php

4


www.interventioncentral.org 5

RTI ‘Pyramid of Interventions’

Tier 1

Tier 2

Tier 3

Tier 1: Universal interventions. Available to all students in a classroom or school. Can consist of whole-group or individual strategies or supports.

Tier 2 Individualized interventions. Subset of students receive interventions targeting specific needs.

Tier 3: Intensive interventions. Students who are ‘non-responders’ to Tiers I & II may be eligible for special education services, intensive interventions.



‘Big Ideas’ in Student Behavior Management



Big Ideas: Similar Behaviors May Stem from Very Different ‘Root’ Causes

(Kratochwill, Elliott, & Carrington Rotto, 1990)

• Behavior is not random but follows purposeful patterns.

Students who present with the same apparent ‘surface’ behaviors may have very different ‘drivers’ (underlying reasons) that explain why those behaviors occur.

A student’s problem behaviors must be carefully identified and analyzed to determine the drivers that support them.

Source: Kratochwill, T. R., Elliott, S. N., & Carrington Rotto, P. (1990). Best practices in behavioral consultation. In A. Thomas and J. Grimes (Eds.). Best practices in school psychology-II (pp. 147=169). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of School Psychologists..



Common ‘Root Causes’ or ‘Drivers’ for Behaviors Include…

• Power/Control• Protection/Escape/Avoidance• Attention• Acceptance/Affiliation• Expression of Self• Gratification• Justice/Revenge

Source: Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., & Moell, G. (2000). Functional assessments: A step-by-step guide to solving academic and behavior problems. Longmont, CO: Sopris West..pp. 3-4.



“Showed disrespect towards me when she yelled inappropriately regarding an instruction sheet. I then asked her to leave the room. She also showed disrespect when I called her twice earlier in the class to see her report card grade.”

Teacher Referral Example…



“I gave out a test. After a few minutes, he crunched it and threw it on the floor. If he were not prepared, he could have talked to me and I would have allowed him to take it on a different date, as I usually do.”

Teacher Referral Example…



Big Ideas: Attend to the Triggers and Consequences of Problem Behaviors (Martens & Meller,

1990)• Intervening before a student misbehaves or when the

misbehavior has not yet escalated increases the likelihood of keeping the student on task and engaged in learning. Consequences of behaviors that are reinforcing to the student will increase the occurrence of that behavior.

Source: Martens, B.K., & Meller, P.J. (1990). The application of behavioral principles to educational settings. In T.B. Gutkin & C.R.Reynolds (Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 612-634). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

ABC Timeline

A CB



ABC Timeline: Example

12



Student Motivation Levels Are Strongly Influenced by the Instructional Setting (Lentz & Shapiro, 1986)

• Students with learning or motivation problems do not exist in isolation. Rather, their instructional environment plays an enormously important role in these students’ degree of academic engagement.

Source: Lentz, F. E. & Shapiro, E. S. (1986). Functional assessment of the academic environment. School Psychology Review, 15, 346-57.



• Individuals are always performing SOME type of behavior: watching the instructor, sleeping, talking to a neighbor, completing a worksheet (‘behavior stream’).

• When students are fully engaged in academic behaviors, they are less likely to get off-task and display problem behaviors.

• Academic tasks that are clearly understood, elicit student interest, provide a high rate of student success, and include teacher encouragement and feedback are most likely to effectively ‘capture’ the student’s ‘behavior stream’.

Big Ideas: Behavior is a Continuous ‘Stream’ (Schoenfeld & Farmer, 1970)

Source: Schoenfeld, W. N., & Farmer, J. (1970). Reinforcement schedules and the ‘‘behavior stream.’’ In W. N. Schoenfeld (Ed.), The theory of reinforcement schedules (pp. 215–245). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.



Student academic problems cause many school behavior problems.

“Whether [a student’s] problem is a behavior problem or an academic one, we recommend starting with a functional academic assessment, since often behavior problems occur when students cannot or will not do required academic work.”

Big Ideas: Academic Delays Can Be a Potent Cause of Behavior

Problems (Witt, Daly, & Noell, 2000)

Source: Witt, J. C., Daly, E. M., & Noell, G. (2000). Functional assessments: A step-by-step guide to solving academic and behavior problems. Longmont, CO: Sopris West, p. 13



Unmotivated Students: What Works

The relationship between the two factors is multiplicative. If EITHER of these factors (the student’s expectation of success on the task OR the student’s valuing of that success) is zero, then the ‘motivation’ product will also be zero.

1. the student’s expectation of success on the task

2. the value that the student places on achieving success on that learning task

Motivation can be thought of as having two dimensions:

Multiplied by

Source: Sprick, R. S., Borgmeier, C., & Nolet, V. (2002). Prevention and management of behavior problems in secondary schools. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp.373-401). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

………………10X 0...…………

0

……………… 0X 10...…………

0

………………10X 10...…………

100



Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

“An intrinsically motivated behavior [is defined as] one for which there exists no recognizable reward except the activity itself (e.g., reading). That is, behavior that cannot be attributed to external controls is usually attributed to intrinsic motivation.”“…an extrinsically motivated behavior refers to behavior controlled by stimuli external to the task.” p. 345

Source: Akin-Little, K. A., Eckert, T. L., Lovett, B. J., & Little, S. G. (2004). Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or best practice. School Psychology Review, 33, 344-362.



Intrinsic Motivation: Is This Construct Useful?

By definition, intrinsic motivation is supported by the reinforcing quality of the activity alone.

As a construct, ‘intrinsic motivation’ may be untestable, because the reinforcer cannot be directly observed or experimentally manipulated.

In other words, whether or not it is theoretical possible for a task to be intrinsically motivating, schools should always consider factors in the instructional environment that can be altered to increase the reinforcing qualities of the learning task.

Source: Akin-Little, K. A., Eckert, T. L., Lovett, B. J., & Little, S. G. (2004). Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or best practice. School Psychology Review, 33, 344-362.



Childhood and Beyond Longitudinal Project

• 3 cohorts of children (about 250 children per cohort) were followed across elementary, middle and high school. (Children were recruited from 4 middle-class school districts in the midwest.)

• In the subject areas of math, language arts, and sports, students were asked each year to rate their competence in the subject and their valuing of it.

Source: Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.



Childhood and Beyond Longitudinal Project: Some Findings

• Ratings of both competence and value declined for all 3 subject areas (math, language arts, and sports) for boys and girls as they grew older.

• Girls rated themselves lower in competence in math throughout school—until grade 12, when boys and girls converged in their ratings (because boys’ ratings declined faster than did girls’ ratings).

• Across all grade levels, boys rated themselves significantly less competent than did girls in language arts.

• Not surprisingly, boys’ and girls’ valuing (enjoyment, liking) of a subject area correlated with perceived ability. Generally, boys and girls who rated themselves as lowest in ability also rated their valuing of the subject area as lowest.

Source: Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.



Our Working Definition of ‘School Motivation’ For This Workshop

The student is engaged in ‘active accurate academic responding’.



Applying ‘RTI Logic’ to Better Understand Behavior Problems



‘Special Education is Magic’: A Barrier to Interventions in the General-Education Setting

“…some teachers view students with handicaps as being qualitatively different from normal achievers and believe that only special teachers can teach these special students. At the very least, this kind of magical thinking reduces teachers’ expectations for student progress, and we know that ambitious goals increase achievement. At its worst, believing that special education is magic leads teachers to actively resist accommodating students with special needs in their classrooms through behavioral or instructional consultation.”

Source: Martens, B. K. (1993). A case against magical thinking in school-based intervention. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 4(2), 185-189.



Factors Influencing the Decision to Classify as BD (Gresham, 1992)

Four factors strongly influence the likelihood that a student will be classified as Behaviorally Disordered:

• Severity: Frequency and intensity of the problem behavior(s).

• Chronicity: Length of time that the problem behavior(s) have been displayed.

• Generalization: Degree to which the student displays the problem behavior(s) across settings or situations.

• Tolerance: Degree to which the student’s problem behavior(s) are accepted in that student’s current social setting.

Source: Gresham, F. M. (1992). Conceptualizing behavior disorders in terms of resistance to intervention. School Psychology Review, 20, 23-37.



“ ”I call the range of students whom [teachers] come to view as adequately responsive – i.e., teachable – as the tolerance; those who are perceived to be outside the tolerance are those for whom teachers seek additional resources. The term “tolerance” is used to indicate that teachers form a permissible boundary on their measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a confidence interval. In this case, the teacher actively measures the distribution of responsiveness in her class by processing information from a series of teaching trials and perceives some range of students as within the tolerance. (Gerber, 2002)

Source: Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still the test: Limitations of response to instruction strategies for identifying children with learning disabilities. Paper presented at the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas City, MO.



Inference: Moving Beyond the Margins of the ‘Known’

“An inference is a tentative conclusion without direct or conclusive support from available data. All hypotheses are, by definition, inferences. It is critical that problem analysts make distinctions between what is known and what is inferred or hypothesized….Low-level inferences should be exhausted prior to the use of high-level inferences.” p. 161

Source: Christ, T. (2008). Best practices in problem analysis. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 159-176).



Examples of High vs. Low Inference Hypotheses

High-Inference Hypothesis. The student is ‘just lazy’ and would do better if he would only apply himself.

Known

Unknown

Low-Inference Hypothesis. The student has gaps in academic skills that require (a) mapping out those skill gaps, and (b) providing the student with remedial instruction as needed.

Known

Unknown

An 11th-grade student does poorly on tests and quizzes in math. Homework is often incomplete. He frequently shows up late for class and does not readily participate in group discussions.



Tier 3 Targets: Focus on School Factors Over Which We Have Influence

“The hypothesis and intervention [for struggling students] should focus on those variables that are alterable within the school setting. These alterable variables include learning goals and objectives (what is to be learned), materials, time, student-to-teacher ratio, activities, and motivational strategies.” p. 95

Source: Burns, M. K., & Gibbons, K. A. (2008). Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and secondary schools. Routledge: New York.



The Problem-Solving Model & Multi-Disciplinary Teams

A school consultative process (‘the problem-solving model’) with roots in applied behavior analysis was developed (e.g., Bergan, 1995) that includes 4 steps: – Problem Identification– Problem Analysis– Plan Implementation– Problem EvaluationOriginally designed for individual consultation with teachers,

the problem-solving model was later adapted in various forms to multi-disciplinary team settings.

Source: Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2), 111-123.



Academic or Behavioral Targets Are Stated as ‘Replacement Behaviors’

“The implementation of successful interventions begins with accurate problem identification. Traditionally, the student problem was stated as a broad, general concern (e.g., impulsive, aggressive, reading below grade level) that a teacher identified. In a competency-based approach, however, the problem identification is stated in terms of the desired replacement behaviors that will increase the student’s probability of successful adaptation to the task demands of the academic setting.” p. 178

Source: Batsche, G. M., Castillo, J. M., Dixon, D. N., & Forde, S. (2008). Best practices in problem analysis. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp. 177-193).



Common Reasons Why Behavior Plans Fail



Common Reasons Why Behavior Plans Fail1. Student problems are defined in vague rather than

specific terms, making it more difficult to select the right intervention(s) to support the student.

When student concerns are stated in vague terms (e.g., “The student is disruptive” or “The student has an attitude”, they lack details about the setting(s) in which behavior problems typically occur, a specific description of the problem behavior, and information about its severity.

32



Common Reasons Why Behavior Plans Fail2. The problem behavior is viewed as residing primarily

within the student.

This focus on the student alone can cause schools to overlook the important positive impact that instructional staff can have on students by changing instruction, work (curriculum) demands, and the learning environment.

33



Common Reasons Why Behavior Plans Fail3. The school selects an incorrect hypothesis about what

is supporting the student’s problem behavior, so the strategies to promote the positive, replacement behavior don’t work.

For example, the school may incorrectly hypothesize that a student is misbehaving to win attention from peers when in fact that student is acting out to escape classwork.

34



Common Reasons Why Behavior Plans Fail4. The ‘replacement’ behavior does not take hold because it is

not being adequately reinforced.

If the replacement behavior was not a part of the student’s repertoire before the intervention plan began, that replacement behavior simply fails to take hold in the absence of reinforcement.

If the replacement behavior does appear intermittently (e.g., student occasionally complies with adult requests), these ‘flickers’ of positive behavior may be extinguished completely because of lack of reinforcement.

35



Common Reasons Why Behavior Plans Fail5. The student’s problem behavior continues, even after

the replacement behavior has been taught.

The reason that the problem behavior persists is that antecedents (triggers) and / or consequences supporting the negative behavior still remain in place.

36



Team Activity: Select a Behaviorally Challenging Student…

: • At your table:

– Discuss students in your classrooms or school who present challenging behaviors.

– Of the students discussed, select one student that your team will use in an exercise of defining student problem behaviors.

– Write a brief statement defining that student’s problem behavior(s).



Defining Student Problem Behaviors: A Key to Identifying Effective Interventions Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org



Interventions: Potential ‘Fatal Flaws’Any intervention must include 4 essential elements. The absence of any one of the elements would be considered a ‘fatal flaw’ (Witt, VanDerHeyden & Gilbertson, 2004) that blocks the school from drawing meaningful conclusions from the student’s response to the intervention:

1. Clearly defined problem. The student’s target concern is stated in specific, observable, measureable terms. This ‘problem identification statement’ is the most important step of the problem-solving model (Bergan, 1995), as a clearly defined problem allows the teacher or RTI Team to select a well-matched intervention to address it.

2. Baseline data. The teacher or RTI Team measures the student’s academic skills in the target concern (e.g., reading fluency, math computation) prior to beginning the intervention. Baseline data becomes the point of comparison throughout the intervention to help the school to determine whether that intervention is effective.

3. Performance goal. The teacher or RTI Team sets a specific, data-based goal for student improvement during the intervention and a checkpoint date by which the goal should be attained.

4. Progress-monitoring plan. The teacher or RTI Team collects student data regularly to determine whether the student is on-track to reach the performance goal.

Source: Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Gilbertson, D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral interventions. A systematic process for finding and eliminating problems. School Psychology Review, 33, 363-383.



Defining Problem Student Behaviors…1. Define the problem behavior in clear, observable, measurable

terms (Batsche et al., 2008; Upah, 2008). Write a clear description of the problem behavior. Avoid vague problem identification statements such as “The student is disruptive.”

A well-written problem definition should include three parts:– Conditions. The condition(s) under which the problem is likely to

occur– Problem Description. A specific description of the problem behavior– Contextual information. Information about the frequency, intensity,

duration, or other dimension(s) of the behavior that provide a context for estimating the degree to which the behavior presents a problem in the setting(s) in which it occurs.





Defining Student Problem Behaviors: Team Activity

Using the student selected by your team:

• Step 1: Define the problem behavior in clear, observable, measurable terms.

Five Steps in Understanding & Addressing Problem Behaviors:1. Define the problem behavior in

clear, observable, measurable terms.

2. Develop examples and non-examples of the problem behavior.

3. Write a behavior hypothesis statement.

4. Select a replacement behavior.5. Write a prediction statement.



Defining Problem Student Behaviors…2. Develop examples and non-examples of the

problem behavior (Upah, 2008). Writing both examples and non-examples of the problem behavior helps to resolve uncertainty about when the student’s conduct should be classified as a problem behavior. Examples should include the most frequent or typical instances of the student problem behavior. Non-examples should include any behaviors that are acceptable conduct but might possibly be confused with the problem behavior.







• Step 2: Develop examples and non-examples of the problem behavior.








Defining Problem Student Behaviors…3. Write a behavior hypothesis statement (Batsche et al.,

2008; Upah, 2008). The next step in problem-solving is to develop a hypothesis about why the student is engaging in an undesirable behavior or not engaging in a desired behavior. Teachers can gain information to develop a hypothesis through direct observation, student interview, review of student work products, and other sources. The behavior hypothesis statement is important because (a) it can be tested, and (b) it provides guidance on the type(s) of interventions that might benefit the student.







• Step 3: Write a behavior hypothesis statement.








Defining Problem Student Behaviors…4. Select a replacement behavior (Batsche et al.,

2008). Behavioral interventions should be focused on increasing student skills and capacities, not simply on suppressing problem behaviors. By selecting a positive behavioral goal that is an appropriate replacement for the student’s original problem behavior, the teacher reframes the student concern in a manner that allows for more effective intervention planning.







• Step 4: Select a replacement behavior.








Defining Problem Student Behaviors…5. Write a prediction statement (Batsche et al., 2008;

Upah, 2008). The prediction statement proposes a strategy (intervention) that is predicted to improve the problem behavior. The importance of the prediction statement is that it spells out specifically the expected outcome if the strategy is successful. The formula for writing a prediction statement is to state that if the proposed strategy (‘Specific Action’) is adopted, then the rate of problem behavior is expected to decrease or increase in the desired direction.







• Step 5: Write a prediction statement.










The ‘Alpha’ Command: Structuring Verbal Teacher Directives to Maximize Their Impact

(Walker & Walker, 1991)



The Importance of Teacher Commands• Teacher commands are a necessary classroom

management tool, required to start and stop student behaviors.

• However, teacher commands can lose their force if overused.

• In one observational study in an elementary school, for example, researchers found that teachers in that school varied in their use of verbal commands, with rates ranging from 60 per day to 600 per day.



Ineffective (‘Beta’) Teacher Commands Are Often:

• Presented as questions or “Let’s” statements• Stated in vague terms• Have overly long justifications or explanations

tacked on



Effective (‘Alpha’) Teacher Commands:

• Are brief• Are delivered one task or objective at a time• Are given in a matter-of-fact, businesslike tone• Are stated as directives rather than as questions• Avoid long explanations or justifications (and

puts them at the BEGINNING of the directive if needed)

• Give the student a reasonable amount of time to comply



Ideas to Reduce Teacher Use of Commands

• Be reflective; analyze when commands are being overused and why: find other solutions

• Train students in common routines (e.g., getting help when stuck on independent seatwork)

• Use classroom “memory aids” (e.g., posting of steps of multi-step assignment, daily schedule, etc.)

• Give periodic rules review• Use routine prompt signals (e.g., music or chimes

to signal transitions)



“Anna, I want you to be sure to go straight home from school today! Yesterday afternoon after school dismissal, I was in my car and noticed that you and your friends were utilizing the snowbanks along Henry Street, where there is a lot of traffic. I want you to go straight home today and not dawdle!”

Effective ‘Alpha’ Teacher Commands …

•Are brief

•Are delivered one task or objective at a time

•Are given in a matter-of-fact, businesslike tone

•Are stated as directives rather than as questions

•Avoid long explanations or justifications

•Give the student a short but reasonable amount of time to comply





“Thaddeus, I know that you finished the quiz early, but it is important that you not distract the other students while they are trying to work. You wouldn’t want them to do poorly on the quiz, would you?”


•Are brief










“OK, class. Pull out the writing assignment that you had for homework last night. Pair off with a neighbor. Each one of you should read the others’ assignment. Then you should edit your partner’s work, using our peer-editing worksheet. Finally, review your editing comments with your partner. You have 20 minutes. Begin!“


•Are brief










Classroom Management Strategies That Promote Improved Behaviors and Academic Success




RTI: Listening to the ‘Teacher’s Voice’…



Be sure that assigned work is not too easy and not too difficult

Offer frequent opportunities for choice

Select high-interest or functional learning activities

Instruct students at a brisk pace

Structure lessons to require active student involvement

Incorporate cooperative-learning opportunities into instruction

Give frequent teacher feedback and encouragement

Provide correct models during independent work

Be consistent in managing the academic setting

Target interventions to coincide closely with ‘point of performance’

Reducing Problem Behaviors Through Good Academic Management: 10 Strategies p. 10



Reducing Problem Behaviors Through Good Academic Management: 10 Strategies

• Be sure that assigned work is not too easy and not too difficult. It is surprising how often classroom behavior problems occur simply because students find the assigned work too difficult or too easy (Gettinger & Seibert, 2002). As a significant mismatch between the assignment and the student’s abilities can trigger misbehavior, teachers should inventory each student’s academic skills and adjust assignments as needed to ensure that the student is appropriately challenged but not overwhelmed by the work.

11




Offer frequent opportunities for choice. Teachers who allow students a degree of choice in structuring their learning activities typically have fewer behavior problems in their classrooms than teachers who do not. (Kern et al., 2002). One efficient way to promote choice in the classroom is for the teacher to create a master menu of options that students can select from in various learning situations. For example, during independent assignment, students might be allowed to (1) choose from at least 2 assignment options, (2) sit where they want in the classroom, and (3) select a peer-buddy to check their work. Student choice then becomes integrated seamlessly into the classroom routine. 22




Select high-interest or functional learning activities. Kids are more motivated to learn when their instructional activities are linked to a topic of high interest (Kern et al., 2002). A teacher who discovers that her math group of 7th-graders loves NASCAR racing, for example, may be able to create engaging math problems based on car-racing statistics. Students may also be energized to participate in academic activities if they believe that these activities will give them functional skills that they value (Miller et al., 2003). 33




Instruct students at a brisk pace. A myth of remedial education is that special-needs students must be taught at a slower, less demanding pace than their general-education peers (Heward, 2003). In fact, a slow pace of instruction can actually cause significant behavior problems, because students become bored and distracted. Teacher-led instruction should be delivered at a sufficiently brisk pace to hold student attention. An important additional benefit of a brisk instructional pace is that students cover more academic material more quickly, accelerating their learning (Heward, 2003). 44




Structure lessons to require active student involvement. When teachers require that students participate in lessons rather than sit as passive listeners, they increase the odds that students will become caught up in the flow of the activity and not drift off into misbehavior (Heward, 2003). Students can be encouraged to be active learning participants in many ways. For example, a teacher might:

– call out questions and has the class give the answer in unison (‘choral responding’)– pose a question– give the class ‘think time’, and then draw a name from a hat to select a student to give

the answer; or – direct students working independently on a practice problem to ‘think aloud’ as they

work through the steps of the problem.

Students who have lots of opportunities to actively respond and receive teacher feedback also demonstrate substantial learning gains (Heward, 1994). 55




Incorporate cooperative-learning opportunities into instruction. Traditional teacher lecture is frequently associated with high rates of student misbehavior. There is evidence, though, that when students are given well-structured assignments and placed into work-pairs or cooperative learning groups, behavior problems typically diminish (Beyda et al., 2002).

Even positive teacher practices can be more effective when used in cooperative-learning settings. If students are working in pairs or small groups, teacher feedback given to one group or individual does not interrupt learning for the other groups.

66




Give frequent teacher feedback and encouragement. Praise and other positive interactions between teacher and student serve an important instructional function, because these exchanges regularly remind the student of the classroom behavioral and academic expectations and give the student clear evidence that he or she is capable of achieving those expectations (Mayer, 2000).

77




Provide correct models during independent work. In virtually every classroom, students are expected to work independently on assignments. Independent seatwork can be a prime trigger, though, for serious student misbehavior (DuPaul & Stoner, 2002). One modest instructional adjustment that can significantly reduce problem behaviors is to supply students with several correctly completed models (work examples) to use as a reference (Miller et al., 2003). A math instructor teaching quadratic equations, for example, might provide 4 models in which all steps in solving the equation are solved.

88




Be consistent in managing the academic setting. Teachers can hold down the level of problem behaviors by teaching clear expectations (classroom routines) for academic behaviors and then consistently following through in enforcing those expectations (Sprick et al., 2002). Classrooms run more smoothly when students are first taught routines for common learning activities--such as participating in class discussion, turning in homework, and handing out work materials—and then the teacher consistently enforces those same routines by praising students who follow them, reviewing those routines periodically, and reteaching them as needed. Having similar behavioral expectations across classrooms can also help students to show positive behaviors. 99




Target interventions to coincide closely with ‘point of performance’. Skilled teachers employ many strategies to shape or manage challenging student behaviors. It is generally a good idea for teachers who work with a challenging students to target their behavioral and academic intervention strategies to coincide as closely as possible with that student’s ‘point of performance’ (the time that the student engages in the behavior that the teacher is attempting to influence) (DuPaul & Stoner, 2002). For example, a student reward will have a greater impact if it is given near the time in which it was earned than if it is awarded after a one-week delay.

1010



References• Beyda, S.D., Zentall, S.S., & Ferko, D.J.K. (2002). The relationship between teacher practices and

the task-appropriate and social behavior of students with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 236-255.

• DuPaul, G.J., & Stoner, G. (2002). Interventions for attention problems. In M. Shinn, H.M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.) Interventions for academic and behavioral problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 913-938). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

• Gettinger, M., & Seibert, J.K. (2002). Best practices in increasing academic learning time. In A. Thomas (Ed.), Best practices in school psychology IV: Volume I (4th ed., pp. 773-787). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

• Heward, W.L. (1994). Three ‘low-tech’ strategies for increasing the frequency of active student response during group instruction. In R.Gardner III, D.M.Sainato, J.O.Cooper, T.E.Heron, W.L.Heward, J. Eshleman, & T.A.Grossi (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 283-320). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

• Heward, W.L. (2003). Ten faulty notions about teaching and learning that hinder the effectiveness of special education. Journal of Special Education, 36, 186-205. Kern, L., Bambara, L., & Fogt, J. (2002). Class-wide curricular modifications to improve the behavior of students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 317-326.

• Mayer, G.R. (2000). Classroom management: A California resource guide. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles County Office of Education and California Department of Education.

• Miller, K.A., Gunter, P.L., Venn, M.J., Hummel, J., & Wiley, L.P. (2003). Effects of curricular and materials modifications on academic performance and task engagement of three students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorder, 28, 130-149.

• Sprick, R.S., Borgmeier, C., & Nolet, V. (2002). Prevention and management of behavior problems in secondary schools. In M. Shinn, H.M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.) Interventions for academic and behavioral problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 373-401). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.



Be sure that assigned work is not too easy and not too difficult

Offer frequent opportunities for choice

Select high-interest or functional learning activities

Instruct students at a brisk pace

Structure lessons to require active student involvement

Incorporate cooperative-learning opportunities into instruction

Give frequent teacher feedback and encouragement

Provide correct models during independent work

Be consistent in managing the academic setting

Target interventions to coincide closely with ‘point of performance’

Reducing Problem Behaviors Through Good Academic Management: 10 Strategies p. 19



Group Activity: Offer Advice to a Troubled Classroom

At your tables:• View the video clip of a high school

classroom.• Discuss possible classroom

instructional or management concerns that might be linked to poor student academic performance and/or challenging behaviors.

• Devise a list of 2-3 TOP suggestions that you might offer to this teacher to address those concerns.



Source: Internet Archive. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from http://www.archive.org/details/Maintain1947

Maintaining Classroom Discipline (1947): Pt. 1 of 3 (4:12)



RTI Problem-Solving Teams: Promoting Student InvolvementJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org



Intervention Responsibilities: Examples at Teacher, School-Wide, and Student Levels

• Signed agenda• ‘Attention’ prompts• Individual review with

students during free periods

• Lab services (math, reading, etc.)

• Remedial course• Homework club

Teacher School-Wide

• Take agenda to teacher to be reviewed and signed

• Seeking help from teachers during free periods

Student





RTI: Promoting Student Involvent• Schools should strongly consider having middle

and high school students attend and take part in their own RTI Problem-Solving Team meetings for two reasons. First, as students mature, their teachers expect that they will take responsibility in advocating for their own learning needs. Second, students are more likely to fully commit to RTI intervention plans if they attend the RTI Team meeting and have a voice in the creation of those plans.

88



RTI: Promoting Student Involvement• Before the RTI Team Meeting. The student should be

adequately prepared to attend the RTI Team meeting by first engaging in a ‘pre-meeting’ with a school staff member whom the student knows and trusts (e.g., school counselor, teacher, administrator). By connecting the student with a trusted mentor figure who can help that student to navigate the RTI process, the school improves the odds that the disengaged or unmotivated student will feel an increased sense of connection and commitment to their own school performance (Bridgeland, DiIulio, & Morison, 2006).

89



RTI: Promoting Student Involvement• A student RTI ‘pre-meeting’ can be quite brief, lasting perhaps 15-20

minutes. Here is a simple agenda for the meeting:• Share information about the student problem(s). • Describe the purpose and steps of the RTI Problem-Solving Team

meeting. • Stress the student’s importance in the intervention plan. • Have the student describe his or her learning needs. • Invite the student to attend the RTI Team meeting.

90





RTI: Promoting Student Involvement• During the RTI Team Meeting. If the student agrees to attend the RTI Team

meeting, he or she participates fully in the meeting. Teachers and other staff attending the meeting make an effort to keep the atmosphere positive and focused on finding solutions to the student’s presenting concern(s). As each intervention idea is discussed, the team checks in with the student to determine that the student (a) fully understands how to access or participate in the intervention element being proposed and (b) is willing to take part in that intervention element. If the student appears hesitant or resistant, the team should work with the student either to win the student over to the proposed intervention idea or to find an alternative intervention that will accomplish the same goal.

• At the end of the RTI Team meeting, each of the intervention ideas that is dependent on student participation for success is copied into the School Success Intervention Plan.

92





RTI: Promoting Student Involvement• After the RTI Team Meeting. If the school discovers that the student is

not carrying out his or her responsibilities as spelled out by the intervention plan, it is recommended that the staff member assigned as the RTI contact meet with the student and parent. At that meeting, the adult contact checks with the student to make sure that:

• the intervention plan continues to be relevant and appropriate for addressing the student’s academic or behavioral needs

• the student understands and call access all intervention elements outlined on the School Success Intervention Plan.

• adults participating in the intervention plan (e.g., classroom teachers) are carrying out their parts of the plan.

94



Starting RTI in Your Secondary School: Enlisting students in intervention plans

As a team:• Talk about strategies to

prepare students to be self-advocates in taking responsibility for their own learning.

• Discuss ways to motivate students to feel comfortable in accessing (and responsible FOR accessing) intervention resources in the school.



Selecting Rewards That Motivate:

Tips for Teachers



NYC Schools Pilots Pay for Student Performance

Source: Medina, J. (2008, March 15). Next question: Can students be paid to excel? The New York Times, pp. A1, A19.

•200 schools participating in pilot

•Reward system designed by Harvard economist Roland Fryer

•Program is funded through private grants

•Students are paid for high performance on NY State tests

•Teachers also receive ‘bonus’ pay for improved student performance. NOTE: Most schools elect to share ‘bonus’ monies across all staff.



Creating ‘Reward Deck’: Steps

1. Teacher selects acceptable, feasible rewards from larger list

2. Teacher lists choices on index cards—creating a master ‘deck’

3. Teacher selects subset of rewards from deck to match individual student cases



Creating ‘Reward Deck’: Steps(Cont.)

4. Teacher reviews pre-screened reward choices with child, who rates their appeal. (A reward menu is assembled from child’s choices.)

5. Periodically, the teacher ‘refreshes’ the child’s reward menu by repeating steps 1-4.



The Power of RTI [DVD Excerpt on Rewards]



Monitoring Student Academic Behaviors:Daily Behavior Report Cards



Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRCs) Are…

brief forms containing student behavior-rating items. The teacher typically rates the student daily (or even more frequently) on the DBRC. The results can be graphed to document student response to an intervention.



http://www.directbehaviorratings.com/



Daily Behavior Report Cards Can Monitor…

• Hyperactivity• On-Task Behavior (Attention)• Work Completion• Organization Skills• Compliance With Adult Requests• Ability to Interact Appropriately With Peers



Daily Behavior

Report Card: Daily

Version

Jim Blalock May 5Mrs. Williams Rm 108



Daily Behavior Report

Card: Weekly Version

40 0 60 60 50

Jim BlalockMrs. Williams Rm 108

05 05 07 05 06 07 05 07 07 05 08 07 05 09 07



Daily Behavior Report Card: Chart



Student Case Scenario: JimJim is a 10th-grade student who is failing his math course and in danger of failing English and science courses. Jim has been identified with ADHD. His instructional team meets with the RTI Team and list the following academic and behavioral concerns for Jim.

• Does not bring work materials to class• Fails to write down homework assignments• Sometimes does not turn in homework, even when completed• Can be non-compliant with teacher requests at times.






Building Positive Relationships With Students




Avoiding the ‘Reprimand Trap’When working with students who display challenging behaviors, instructors can easily fall into the ‘reprimand trap’. In this sequence:

1. The student misbehaves.2. The teacher approaches the student to reprimand and

redirect. (But the teacher tends not to give the student attention for positive behaviors, such as paying attention and doing school work.)

3. As the misbehave-reprimand pattern becomes ingrained, both student and teacher experience a strained relationship and negative feelings.



Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With Students: The Two-By-Ten Intervention (Mendler, 2000)

• Make a commitment to spend 2 minutes per day for 10 consecutive days in building a relationship with the student…by talking about topics of interest to the student.

Avoid discussing problems with the student’s behaviors or schoolwork during these times.

Source: Mendler, A. N. (2000). Motivating students who don’t care. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.



Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With Students: The Three-to-One Intervention

(Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002)

• Give positive attention or praise to problem students at least three times more frequently than you reprimand them. Give the student the attention or praise during moments when that student is acting appropriately. Keep track of how frequently you give positive attention and reprimands to the student.




Team Activity: The Defiant Student: Case StudyAt your table:

1. Based on the brief videotape clip, use the behavior intervention checklist to brainstorm possible ‘missing pieces’ that the teacher could include as Tier 1 supports in the future.

2. Be prepared to share your results!



Large-Group Discussion Activity: Using the RTI Behavior Intervention Checklist in the ClassroomAt your table:

1. Discuss ideas or questions that you may have about using the Behavior Intervention Checklist in your classrooms.

2. How would you share information from the checklist with the student’s teacher?



‘Extinguishing the Blaze’: Avoiding Power Struggles and Helping Students to Keep Their Cool




‘Extinguishing the Blaze’: Teacher Tips…

While you can never predict what behaviors your students might bring into your classroom, you will usually achieve the best outcomes by remaining calm, following pre-planned intervention strategies for misbehavior, and acting with consistency and fairness when intervening with or disciplining students.



‘Extinguishing the Blaze’: Selected Ideas…Allow the Student a 'Cool-Down' Break (Long, Morse, & Newman, 1980). Select a corner of the room (or area outside the classroom with adult supervision) where the target student can take a brief 'respite break' whenever he or she feels angry or upset. Be sure to make cool-down breaks available to all students in the classroom, to avoid singling out only those children with anger-control issues. Whenever a student becomes upset and defiant, offer to talk the situation over with that student once he or she has calmed down and then direct the student to the cool-down corner. (E.g., "Thomas, I want to talk with you about what is upsetting you, but first you need to calm down. Take five minutes in the cool-down corner and then come over to my desk so we can talk.")



‘Extinguishing the Blaze’: Selected Ideas…

Ask Open-Ended Questions (Lanceley, 2001). If a teacher who is faced with a confrontational student does not know what triggered that student’s defiant response, the instructor can ask neutral, open-ended questions to collect more information before responding. You can pose ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘when’, and ‘how’ questions to more fully understand the problem situation and identify possible solutions. Some sample questions are "What do you think made you angry when you were talking with Billy?" and "Where were you when you realized that you had misplaced your science book?" One caution: Avoid asking ‘why"’questions (e.g., "Why did you get into that fight with Jerry?") because they can imply that you are blaming the student.




Emphasize the Positive in Teacher Requests (Braithwaite, 2001). When an instructor's request has a positive 'spin', that teacher is less likely to trigger a power struggle and more likely to gain student compliance. Whenever possible, avoid using negative phrasing (e.g., "If you don't return to your seat, I can’t help you with your assignment"). Instead, restate requests in positive terms (e.g., "I will be over to help you on the assignment just as soon as you return to your seat").




Give Problem Students Frequent Positive Attention (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002). Teachers should make an effort to give positive attention or praise to problem students at least three times more frequently than they reprimand them. The teacher gives the student the attention or praise during moments when that student is acting appropriately--and keeps track of how frequently they give positive attention and reprimands to the student. This heavy dosing of positive attention and praise can greatly improve the teacher’s relationship with problem students.




Have the Student Participate in Creating a Behavior Plan (Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995). Students can feel a greater sense of ownership when they are invited to contribute to their behavior management plan. Students also tend to know better than anyone else what triggers will set off their problem behaviors and what strategies they find most effective in calming themselves and avoiding conflicts or other behavioral problems.




Keep Responses Calm, Brief, and Businesslike (Mayer, 2000; Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002). Because teacher sarcasm or lengthy negative reprimands can trigger defiant student behavior, instructors should respond to the student in a 'neutral', business-like, calm voice. Also, keep responses brief when addressing the non-compliant student. Short teacher responses give the defiant student less control over the interaction and can also prevent instructors from inadvertently 'rewarding' misbehaving students with lots of negative adult attention.




Listen Actively (Lanceley, 1999; Long, Morse, & Newman, 1980). The teacher demonstrates a sincere desire to understand a student’s concerns when he or she actively listens to and then summarizes those concerns--that is, summing up the crucial points of that concern (paraphrasing) in his or her own words. Examples of paraphrase comments include 'Let me be sure that I understand you correctly…', 'Are you telling me that…?', 'It sounds to me like these are your concerns:…' When teachers engage in 'active listening' by using paraphrasing, they demonstrate a respect for the student's point of view and can also improve their own understanding of the student's problem.



‘Extinguishing the Blaze’: Selected Ideas…Offer the Student a Face-Saving Out (Thompson & Jenkins, 1993). Try this face-saving de-escalation tactic: Ask the defiant student, "Is there anything that we can work out together so that you can stay in the classroom and be successful?" Such a statement treats the student with dignity, models negotiation as a positive means for resolving conflict, and demonstrates that the instructor wants to keep the student in the classroom.

NOTE: Be prepared for the possibility that the student will initially give a sarcastic or unrealistic response (e.g., "Yeah, you can leave me alone and stop trying to get me to do classwork!"). Ignore such attempts to hook you into a power struggle and simply repeat the question.



‘Extinguishing the Blaze’: Selected Ideas…Proactively Interrupt the Student’s Anger Early in the Escalation Cycle (Long, Morse, & Newman, 1980; Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995). The teacher may be able to ‘interrupt’ a student’s escalating behaviors by redirecting that student's attention or temporarily removing the student from the setting. For low-level defiant or non-compliant behaviors, you might try engaging the student in a high-interest activity such as playing play an educational computer game or acting as a classroom helper. Or you may want to briefly remove the student from the room ('antiseptic bounce') to calm the student. For example, you might send the student to the main office on an errand, with the expectation that-by the time the child returns to the classroom-he or she will have calmed down.




Relax Before Responding (Braithwaite, 2001). Educators can maintain self-control during a tense classroom situation by using a brief, simple stress-reduction technique before responding to a student’s provocative remark or behavior. When provoked, for example, take a deeper-than-normal breath and release it slowly, or mentally count to 10. As an added benefit, this strategy of conscious relaxation allows the educator an additional moment to think through an appropriate response--rather than simply reacting to the student's behavior.



Avoiding the ‘Reprimand Trap’When working with students who display challenging behaviors, instructors can easily fall into the ‘reprimand trap’. In this sequence:

1. The student misbehaves.2. The teacher approaches the student to reprimand and

redirect. (But the teacher tends not to give the student attention for positive behaviors, such as paying attention and doing school work.)

3. As the misbehave-reprimand pattern becomes ingrained, both student and teacher experience a strained relationship and negative feelings.



Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With Students: The Two-By-Ten Intervention (Mendler, 2000)

• Make a commitment to spend 2 minutes per day for 10 consecutive days in building a relationship with the student…by talking about topics of interest to the student.

Avoid discussing problems with the student’s behaviors or schoolwork during these times.

Source: Mendler, A. N. (2000). Motivating students who don’t care. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service.



Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With Students: The Three-to-One Intervention

(Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002)

• Give positive attention or praise to problem students at least three times more frequently than you reprimand them. Give the student the attention or praise during moments when that student is acting appropriately. Keep track of how frequently you give positive attention and reprimands to the student.






RTI: Behavior Interventions Checklist




General Teacher Tips for Working With Behaviorally Challenging Students

While you can never predict what behaviors your students might bring into your classroom, you will usually achieve the best outcomes by:

• remaining calm• following pre-planned intervention strategies for

misbehavior, and • acting with consistency and fairness when intervening with

or disciplining students.





Behavior Intervention Checklist: Whole-Group Strategies

Post Positive Class Rules. The classroom has a set of 3-8 rules or behavioral expectations posted. When possible, those rules are stated in positive terms as ‘goal’ behaviors (e.g. ‘Students participate in learning activities without distracting others from learning’) (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002).




Train Students in Basic Class Routines. The teacher has clearly established routines to deal with common classroom activities (Fairbanks, Sugai, Guardino, & Lathrop, 2007; Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003; Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002). These routines include but are not limited to:• Engaging students in meaningful academic activities at the start of class

(e.g., using bell-ringer activities)• Assigning and collecting homework and classwork• Transitioning students efficiently between activities• Independent seatwork and cooperative learning groups• Students leaving and reentering the classroom• Dismissing students at the end of the period




Scan the Class Frequently and Proactively Intervene When Needed. The teacher ‘scans’ the classroom frequently—during whole-group instruction, cooperative learning activities, and independent seatwork. The teacher strategically and proactively recognizes positive behaviors while redirecting students who are off-task (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002).




Use Brief Group Prompts. The teacher gives brief reminders of expected behaviors at the 'point of performance'—the time when students will most benefit from them (DuPaul & Stoner, 2002). To prevent student call-outs, for example, a teacher may use a structured prompt such as: "When I ask this question, I will give the class 10 seconds to think of your best answer. Then I will call on one student."



Behavior Intervention Checklist: Instructional Delivery

Avoid Instructional ‘Dead Time’. The teacher presents an organized lesson, with instruction moving briskly. There are no significant periods of ‘dead time’ (e.g., during roll-taking or transitioning between activities) when student misbehavior can start (Carnine, 1976; Gettinger & Ball, 2008).




Incorporate Effective Instructional Elements into All Lessons. The teacher’s lesson and instructional activities include these elements (Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Boice, 2008):• Instructional match. Students are placed in work that provides them with

an appropriate level of challenge (not too easy and not too difficult).• Explicit instruction. The teacher delivers instruction using modeling,

demonstration, supervised student practice, etc. • Active student engagement. There are sufficient opportunities during the

lesson for students to be actively engaged and ‘show what they know’. • Timely performance feedback. Students receive feedback about their

performance on independent seatwork, as well as whole-group and small-group activities.




Give Clear Directions. When delivering directions to the class, the teacher uses strategies that increase the likelihood that all students hear and clearly understand them (Ford, Olmi, Edwards, & Tingstrom, 2001). For large groups, such strategies might include using a general alerting cue (e.g., ‘Eyes and ears on me’) and ensuring general group focus before giving directions. Multi-step directions are posted for later student review. For individual students, the teacher may make eye contact with the student before giving directions and ask the student to repeat those directions before starting the assignment.



Behavior Intervention Checklist: Strategies for Working With Individual Students

Prepare a Range of Appropriate Classroom Consequences for Misbehavior. The teacher has a continuum of classroom-based consequences for misbehavior (e.g., redirect the student; have a brief private conference with the student; remove classroom privileges; send the student to another classroom for a brief timeout) that are used before the teacher considers administrative removal of the student from the classroom (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002).




Select Behavior Management Strategies Based on Student Need. The teacher is able flexibly to select different behavior management strategies for use with different students, demonstrating their understanding that one type of intervention strategy cannot be expected to work with all students (Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003).




Employ Proximity Control. The teacher circulates through the classroom periodically, using physical proximity to increase student attention to task and general compliance (Gettinger & Seibert, 2002; U.S. Department of Education, 2004).




Ask Open-Ended Questions. The teacher asks neutral, open-ended questions to collect more information before responding to a student who is upset or appears confrontational (Lanceley, 1999). The teacher can pose ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘when’, and ‘how’ questions to more fully understand the problem situation and identify possible solutions (e.g., "What do you think made you angry when you were talking with Billy?"). Teachers should avoid asking ‘why" questions because they can imply that the teacher is blaming the student.




Use Proactive ‘Soft Reprimands’. The teacher gives a brief, gentle signal to direct back to task any students who is just beginning to show signs of misbehavior or non-compliance (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002). These ‘soft’ reprimands can be verbal (a quiet word to the student) or non-verbal (a significant look). If a soft reprimand is not sufficient to curb the student’s behaviors, the teacher may pull the student aside for a private problem-solving conversation or implement appropriate disciplinary consequences.




Keep Responses Calm and Brief. The teacher responds to provocative or confrontational students in a 'neutral', business-like, calm voice and keeps responses brief (Sprick, Borgmeier, & Nolet, 2002; Walker & Walker, 1991). The teacher avoids getting 'hooked' into a discussion or argument with that student. Instead the teacher repeats the request calmly and—if necessary-- imposes a pre-determined consequence for noncompliance.




Emphasize the Positive in Teacher Requests. Whenever possible, the teacher states requests to individual students in positive terms (e.g., "I will be over to help you on the assignment just as soon as you return to your seat") rather than with a negative spin (e.g., "I won’t help you with your assignment until you return to your seat."). When an instructor's request has a positive 'spin', that teacher is less likely to trigger a power struggle and more likely to gain student compliance (Braithwaite, 2001).

Documents

Workshop Description