Work, work-life balance, gender equality and well-beingTIMES OF DAILY LIFE Work, work-life balance, gender equality and well-being This e-book deals with a multiplicity of themes of

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TIMES OF DAILY LIFE

Work, work-life balance, gender equality and well-being

This e-book deals with a multiplicity of themes of major importance for public policies, on which the Time Use Survey (Tus) can shed light.

In the first part, the main theme is working time: for the first time the economic value of unpaid work produced in Italy is estimated (Chapter 1) and the gender differences in the total workloads are analyzed for all different family organizational models present in the country (Chapter 2).

The second part analyses the link between well-being and life time: the negotiation of the balance between the different dimensions of life (work-life balance) and the overlap between different times (multitasking) (Chapter 3); the time dedicated to social life and leisure time activities (Chapter 4); the timing of different lifestyles and their impact on health - sleep, travel patterns, sedentary activities (Chapter 5).

The e-book gives particular importance to the international comparisons, thanks to the recent publication by Eurostat of the tables related to the second edition of the Harmonized European Time Use Surveys (Hetus).

PART I

THE NEW BORDERS OF WORKING TIMES: AN ECONOMIC AND A GENDER EQUALITY ISSUE

CHAPTER 1

UNPAID WORK AND THE VALUE OF HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION Not only the employed persons work

Official statistics overlap the concept of work with that of paid work (employment). As of consequence, the economic situation of countries is assessed by accounting in the System of National Accounts (Sna) almost exclusively the value of goods and services produced on the trade market, excluding from the calculation of national production the value of services produced by households for their own use. In 2013, the ILO adopted a new and broader definition of work. The aim is to guide a redefinition of official statistics on labor and to grant a role to all forms of work

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that contribute to the well-being of a nation. The Time Use Survey is indicated as the main source of data on unpaid household service work and on volunteer work, which together contribute to household production.

Time devoted to unpaid work: Italy is the country with highest gender differences in Europe

In comparison with the other European countries that conducted the survey during the second edition of the Harmonized European Time Use Survey (Hetus 2010), Italy is the fifth country in time dedicated to unpaid work (household and volunteer work). Italians between 20 and 74 years of age dedicate to unpaid work 3h30' a day; 3h46' if we consider the whole population aged 15 and over.

Italian women, along with the Romanians, have the primacy of the amount of time spent in these activities (5h02'), while Italian men, together with the Greeks – the only ones to do less than two hours a day of unpaid work – are the last in the ranking.

Italy is therefore the country with the highest gender differences over time dedicated to unpaid work (+ 3h08' a day for women compared to men).

Figure 1 - Time spent on unpaid work by the population of 20-74 years in some European countries (a) by gender - several years (b) (average time in hours and minutes)

Source: Eurostat, Hetus 2010 - released in 2018

The Time Use Survey is conducted on a voluntary basis and is therefore only available for some EU countries. Moreover, the difference with the national estimate, obtained following the UNECE guidelines, is mainly due to the absence in the estimates disseminated by Eurostat of the travel time functional to carrying out the activities.

Estonia, Spain, France, Hungary, Finland 2009-2010; Romania, Norway, Serbia 2010-2011; the Netherlands, Greece 2011-2012; Belgium, Germany, Poland 2012-2013; United Kingdom, Luxemburg 2014-2015. For Italy in the Eurostat database there are data from the 2008-2009 edition, updated here with the data of the last edition 2013-2014.

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Total Male Female

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Women burdened by domestic work, for men greater variability of choices

The type of activities carried out differentiate by gender. Women aged 15 and over dedicate a larger share of their unpaid working time (5h09' a day) to household activities than men (78.3% vs. 65.6%). Men - in their 2h16' of unpaid work - expand the share dedicated to care work (12.8% vs. 10.0%), travel/accompaniment activities (14.1% vs. 7.8%), as well as to the volunteer work (7.5% vs. 3.9%).

Figure 2 – Composition and average time of unpaid work carried out on an average day by people aged 15 and over by type of activity and gender - Years 2013-2014 (percentage values and average time in hours and minutes)

Source: Time Use Survey

In 2014, 71.364 billion hours of unpaid work were produced with a value equal to 34% of GDP

The amount of annual hours of unpaid work carried out in 2014 by the population of 15 years and over resident in Italy, reaches 71 billion and 364 million hours, with an annual value of household production of around 557 billion euros: 34% of the Italian GDP1.

Women generated 71.0% of household production (about 50.7 billion hours) compared to 29.0% produced by men.

The economic impact of these data can be easily evaluated if we consider that in 2014 the hours of paid work produced by the market were 41billion and 794 million hours, less than what was produced only by women in unpaid services for their own family or the community.

1 The value is calculated on the basis of the recommendations of the Guide on Valuing Unpaid Household Service Work:

following the input approach and the method of replacement of the market cost, i.e. by valuing household working time with the gross salary of a generic worker UNECE, 2017.

Male

Female

Domestic work Care work Volunteer work Travel

0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00

Male

Female

Domestic work Care work Volunteer work Travel

https://www.unece.org/index.php?id=47511

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Figure 3 – Amount of annual working hours (paid and unpaid) - Years 2013-2014 and 2014 (in millions of hours)

Sources: (a) Time Use Survey; (b) National Accounts

Elderly anything but inactive

It is mainly elderly people who contribute to household production: 29.2% of household production in 2014 was generated by people aged 65 and over, representing 24.6% of the population considered. Their contribution is huge in all types of activities. In particular, the elderly generate 38.4% of the value of the aid to other families produced in Italy.

How much is worth taking care of others?

The care of cohabiting family members Investigating into the value of work produced by the household sector in the various activities

that are embraced by the accounting functions linked to care work is of essential importance for a country like Italy, characterized by a "sub-protective" welfare system. In such "familistic" welfare, the care of the most fragile subjects (children, the elderly, the sick and the marginalized people) is almost completely left to families and volunteers.

Figure 4 - Amount of annual hours devoted to care of cohabiting family members - Years 2002-2003, 2008-2009, 2013-2014 (in billions of hours)

Sources: Time Use Survey

20.667

50.697

71.364

41.794

Male Female Total

Hours of unpaid work (a)

Hours of paid work (b)

4.9 5.1 5.7

0.9 0.90.8

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

2002 2008 2014

Total annual ammount of hour by survey edition(in billion)

Childcare Adult care

29.242.6

70.857.4

0

20

40

60

80

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Childcare Adult care

Composition of hours by gender - Year 2014%

Male Female

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During 2014 the hours allocated by families to childcare were 5.7 billion, for a value of 44.1 billion euros; of these, 29.2% were produced by men and 70.8% by women. In the same period, 815 million hours - for a value of 6.4 billion euros - are allocated to assisting cohabiting adults and/or people with disabilities. In adult care, gender differences are less evident, with 57.4% of production done by women and the remaining 42.6% generated by men.

Volunteer work and informal help for non-cohabiting family members With regard to voluntary activities, it is possible to estimate the amount of hours provided by

volunteers (organization-based and direct): in 2014 it amounted to 1 billion and 579 million, equivalent to 12.3 billion euro. 53.0% of these are produced in the context of organized voluntary work (837 million hours). The remaining 47% is generated in the context of informal help that excludes the family network (743 million hours). By completing the picture with hours of informal help to non-cohabitating relatives (equal to 1 billion and 947 million hours), the estimate reaches 3.5 billion hours of family production.

Figure 5 - Amount of annual hours devoted to volunteer work and to helping others - Years 2002-2003, 2008-2009, 2013-2014 (in billions of hours)


In summary, in 2014 families and volunteers generated almost 10 billion hours dedicated to the care of the most fragile subjects in Italy. Women produced 64.4% of unpaid care work.

CHAPTER 2

THE DIFFICULT WAY TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY IN WORKING TIMES

“Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. Providing women and girls with equal access to education, health care, decent work, and representation in political and economic decision-

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2002 2008 2014

Total annual ammount of hour by survey edition(in billion)

Total informal help to othersHelp to non cohabitant family memberDirect volunteer (Ilo)Organization-based volunteer

59,052,4

34,6

41,047,6

65,4

0

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Organization-basedvolunteer

Direct volunteer (Ilo) Help to non cohabitantfamily member

Composition of hours by gender - Year 2014%

Male Female

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making processes will fuel sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large” (UN SDGs - Goal 5).

The data collected through the Time Use Surveys are the only one able to provide detailed empirical evidence on the disparities in the sharing of domestic and care work within households and on the possible barriers to women's participation in the labor market due to care responsibilities. In fact, they constitute the information base of one of the SDGs indicators to monitor the achievement of gender equality in working time.

Italy is among the worst in Europe in the gender gap in total working time

In 2014, women aged 15 and over worked 1h09' a day longer than men (6h20' against 5h11' a day). These marked differences place Italy in the third place in gender difference in total working time among European countries that have conducted the Time Use Survey, followed only by Greece and Romania.

Figure 6 - Time spent on total work (paid and unpaid) by the population of 20-74 years in some European countries by gender - several years (a) (average time in hours and minutes)


(a) Estonia, Spain, France, Hungary, Finland 2009-2010; Romania, Norway, Serbia 2010-2011; the Netherlands, Greece 2011-2012; Belgium, Germany, Poland 2012-2013; United Kingdom, Luxemburg 2014-2015. For Italy in the Eurostat database there are data from the 2008-2009 edition, updated here with the data of the last edition 2013-2014.

The "double presence" of employed women: unpaid work remains a predominantly female responsibility

By restricting the analysis to the employed persons and by keeping the hourly regime of work under control, the articulation of paid and unpaid work times shows that Italy is still far from the dual-earner/dual-carer model. While for a man working full time, 80.2% of the total work is absorbed by the paid work, on equal terms for a woman this share falls to 60.0%.

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Total Male Female

https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality

https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality

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Figure 7 - Total working hours and composition of paid and unpaid working time by gender and condition - Years 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes and percentage composition)


Adding up paid work and family work, women's workweek is 6 hours longer than men's

Half of the employed women are overworked: 54.7% work for over sixty hours a week between paid and unpaid work commitments. This indicator falls to 47.3% among employed men. In other words, the employed men add to the working week - estimated at 41h41' - up to 10h41' of unpaid work, reaching an average of 52h21' of total work per week. Employed women add to 32h03' of paid work up to 26h18' of unpaid work, reaching an average of 58h21' of total work per week, 6 hours more than men.

How do Italian couples share their total work?

Time, like income, is a shared resource among households members, and it is therefore within the household context that decisions are made about how to redistribute total workloads. The choices range from the net division according to traditional gender roles (paid work to men, household work to women) to the shared management of both types of work of double income couples.

In 2014, dual earner couples in which both partners have a full-time job are 20.4%. An almost equal share of couples follow the traditional model in which the man works and the woman is a housewife (20.8%). Still a minority, but a growing share of couples (9.5%) follows the model in which he works full time and she works part time, a model that characterizes mainly the countries of Northern Europe. Finally, the couples in which the woman is the only who works, or where the woman works full time and the man works part-time, reach only 7.3% of the total, although also this model shows an increase compared to the past.

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Figure 8 - Composition of couples by type of family model and geographical area - Years 2013-2014 (percentage composition)


In the Center-North the shared working time models prevail, while in the South the traditional model prevails

There are very strong territorial differences in the composition of couples by type of family model. In the South, the male breadwinner couples are still the majority (29.7%). By contrast, in the North, the couples of full time workers represent 24.5% of the total, plus 12.8% of couples in which he works full time and she works part time, for a total of dual earner couples of 37.3% (almost twenty percentage points higher than in the South). Couples who follow the traditional model in the North are only 16.0%. The Center almost reaches the North in the share of couples with both partners working full-time (23.7%), while couples with the man as full-time worker and the woman as part-time worker are less frequent (9.5%), therefore 33.2% are dual earner couples, while only 17.2% of couples opt for the traditional model.

The traditional model: parity in workloads but total economic dependence for women

The reason why for a large part of Italian couples is so difficult to leave the traditional model based on the traditional gender role division is evident from the analysis of the total workloads. In fact, at present, this model is the only one that leads to substantial parity in the workloads.

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Italy

Male breadwinner/female caregiver couples Male breadwinner/female part time earner couples

Dual earner couples Female breadwinner couples

Unemployed elderly couples Other couples

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Figure 9 – Total workload by gender and type of family model – Years 2002-2003, 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


When she works, the imbalance in workloads increases

When women take on the burden of contributing to family income, imbalances, more or less strong, are generated.

The increase in male involvement in household work is a long on-going process, involving a cultural redefinition of gender roles, which is why it has a slow evolution. At the rates recorded in the last five years observed, to achieve time-parity of the household work in couples in which both partners work full time would still take another 38 years.

How gender roles are internalized by women themselves, emerges from the analysis of their opinions regarding the management of domestic work in the couple. Although 73.2% of women living in a couple realize that they are contributing much more than their partner to this type of work, only 45.3% report to speak often with the partner on how to manage it. Only 24.4% report to ask often for a greater commitment of the partner. In fact, 70.3% say they are satisfied or very satisfied with the division of domestic work in the couple.

Less differences between men and women when they don’t live with a partner

Gender differences are reduced only among singles and single parents: with the same condition and time schedule, the time dedicated to paid work is very similar between employed men and employed women living alone (5h39' respect 6h01'). Also with regard to household work, the gender difference between singles is the lowest: about three quarters of an hour more for single women than for single men, regardless of being employed full time, part time or unoccupied elderly. The elderly women who live alone are the only ones that really retire. Living-alone elderly women dedicate to household work 3h49' against 6h09' of the elderly who live in couple and 4h30' of single mothers with adult sons still at home.

10

Figure 10 – Time devoted to paid work and household work by full time workers by gender and role in the household. Years 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


Sons do little at home and reproduce gender differences of their parents

The participation of sons in household work activities is very small: their contribution goes from a minimum of 53' for those living with both parents, to 1h20' for those living with only one parent.

Up to 10 years, domestic chores are carried out more or less in the same way by girls and boys, but from 11 years on the behavior changes. Already in the 11-13 age class there is about a quarter of an hour more per day for girls and 19 percentage points of difference in their participation rate.

Figure 11 – Household work carried out by sons by gender, age group and type of household. Years 2013-2014 (participation rate in percentage and average time in hours and minutes)


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Among children, less gender differences if the mother has a degree

Having a mother with a higher educational level reduces the time sons are involved in housework, but in particular significantly reduces the time spent by daughters, increasing the participation rates of sons. With respect to the models followed by the parents, the division of roles tends to reproduce itself and this fact does not allow large-scale changes to be expected in the short term.

Figure 12 – Household work carried out by sons by gender and mother’s educational level. Years 2013-2014 (participation rate in percentage and average time in hours and minutes)


Opinions on gender roles: women "overloaded and satisfied"

In Italy, a little more than one man out of two very much or quite agree with the male breadwinner model (54.1%). The same proportion of men think they are not able to perform domestic work as well as women (53.7%). About one out of three (31.9%) believes it is not fair to divide the housework equally between the partners, even if both work full time. Almost one in four thinks that if the parents are both employed and the child is ill, it is not fair to do the shifts to assist him (23.1%). About three out of seven (43.2%) think that the father is less capable than the mother in taking care of young children.

The spread of such opinions on gender roles reaches only slightly lower levels among women for all indicators, except for the lack of trust in male skills to perform domestic activities, on which women's opinions are even worse: almost 6 out of 10 women consider men less able to perform domestic work (58.8%).

All these stereotypes increase going from the North to the South of Italy.

41.4 39.8 37.150.8 57.1 59.8

Tertiary Upper and postsecondary

Up to lower secondaryschool certificate

Sons daughters

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Tertiary Upper and postsecondary

Up to lower secondaryschool certificate

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Figure 13 – People aged 15 and over who very much or quite agree with some stereotypes about gender roles by geographical area. Years 2013-2014 (in percentage)


Stereotypes on gender roles decrease as the level of education increases

All stereotypes literally plunge as the level of education increases: among graduates, those who favor the traditional model fall to 38.7% of men and 25.8% of women. In parallel, those who favor the dual-earner/dual-carers model reach 76.4% among men and 82.4% among women. 82.8% of men and 85.6% of women agree to take turns to stay home from work in case of illness of the child and 64.7% of men and 68.3% of women agree in considering the father as equally capable of the mother in physical care activities aimed at young children. Among people with tertiary level education, also the last taboo falls, the one regarding the supposed inability of men to be inferior to women in performing housework chores: 52.9% of men believe that they can be as good as women, against 35.8% of women with at least the lower secondary school certificate.

The couples who have overcome gender roles in the management of time

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Better if the man works andthe woman takes care of the

family

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Mothers most capable offathers in care work

Men's opinions

North Center South Italy

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Better if the man works andthe woman takes care of the

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works full-time

If parents both work and childgets sick better mom to stay

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Women perform betterhousework

Mothers most capable offathers in care work

Women's opinions

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However, also in Italy there are some avant-gardes: couples who have deconstructed gender roles in the everyday time-management. Couples in which women perform more hours of paid work than their partner are 8.4%, going from 9.7% of those resident in the North to 6% of the residents in the South. This percentage rises to almost 15% in couples where the woman is a graduate.

In 11.3% of couples, the man does more household work than the woman: ranging from 13.5% of those residing in the North to 7.4% of those in the South. When the woman is a university graduate, the rate reaches 17.5% of couples.

Figure 14 – Couples with daily behavior that do not conform to traditional gender roles by type of couple - Year 2013-2014 (in percentage)


In conclusion, the data show how the change in the Italian society, necessary to reduce gender differences in working time, is largely achieved through the growth of level of education, which has big impact on both employment rates and on the behavior in relation to lifetimes.

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Total Dual earner Male breadwinner/female part time earner

Male breadwinner/female caregivers

Female breadwinner Unemployed elderlycouples

Couples where men contribute more then women of total work

Couples where women contribute more then men of paid work

Couples where men contribute more then women of household work

14

SECOND PART

THE DIMENSIONS OF WELL-BEING LINKED TO THE LIFE TIMES

CHAPTER 3

WORK-LIFE BALANCE

Termed as “conciliation” of life times in the Italian language, the balance between work, family life, social activities and personal needs, acts directly on the determination of individual well-being and on the quality of life of the employed and their families.

The time budgets are obtained by dividing the daily time between the different activities carried out by the population and allow to measure how the different dimensions vary over time, allowing for comparisons between countries. Italy, with 22.4% of the day dedicated to paid work, is slightly above the average of European countries, but is in the last places, together with Spain and Greece, for the availability of free time and time dedicated to housework and among the first places regarding the time for travel and personal care.

Figure 15 - Time budget of the employed population of 20-74 years in some European countries - several years (a) (24-hour percentage composition)


(a) Estonia, Spain, France, Hungary, Finland 2009-2010; Romania, Norway, Serbia 2010-2011; the Netherlands, Greece 2011-2012; Belgium, Germany, Poland 2012-2013; United Kingdom, Luxemburg 2014-2015. For Italy in the Eurostat database there are data from the 2008-2009 edition, updated here with the data of the last edition 2013-2014.

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Greece

Austria

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Poland

Italy

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Hungary

Finland

France

United Kingdom

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Germany

Netherlands

Paid work Unpaid work Study Travel Free time Personal care

15

Time devoted to paid work changes, depending on the different time schedules to which workers are bound. Among those working in standard hours (from Monday to Friday between 8.00 am and 6.00 pm), the duration of the activity is shorter than that of those working in non-standard hours (from Monday to Friday between 6.00 pm and 8.00 am): 7h26 'against 8h20'. Instead, those who work on Saturday or on Sunday have shorter working hours (respectively 6h44' and 6h12').

Figure 16 – Time budget of a working day of the population aged 15 and over who has worked during the day by type of working time and type of working day - Years 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)

Sources: Time Use survey

The articulation of working time is different by type of the day

Standard time schedule workers register a maximum in the participation rate in the central hours of the morning (reaching about 95 percent), a drop in the hours approaching lunch and a more moderate recovery in the afternoon hours. This trend is also common to non-standard time schedule workers, but the difference between those who work in the morning and those who work in the afternoon is more contained and the drop in correspondence of the lunch break is much less pronounced.

On weekends, the working day begins on average a little later and ends later: the levels of participation in the working activity on Saturdays and Sundays, which are always lower than standard time schedule workers, after 6.00 pm are higher than those recorded on weekdays. On Sundays in particular, as a result of the incidence of employees in the food and entertainment services, over 17% of the employed work even after 9.00 pm, a percentage that for standard workers is only 2.3%.

Non-standard workers include those who work in the evening and at night, in fact, 16.0% of the employed work at 9:00 pm and a similar share at 6:00 am.

7:33 6:44 6:127:26 8:20

1:461:53

1:48

1:491:36

1:321:34

1:24

1:361:24

2:52 3:223:38

2:482:45

10:14 10:24 10:54 10:19 9:52

Total (a) Saturday workers Sunday workers Standard time scheduleworkers

Non standard time scheduleworkers

Paid work Unpaid work Study Travel Free time Personal care

16

Figure 17 – Frequency of employed persons engaged in work activities by unit of time and type of working time - Year 2013-2014 (in percentage)


Less time with family members for those who work at atypical times2

On a weekday the employees who work with an atypical time schedule spend 4h18' with their family against 4h37' of the employed with standard time schedule. The work done in the evening or at night exerts strong pressure on the family and social life of the individuals involved, who find themselves working while the majority of the population is dedicated to leisure time and/or their families.

The diversification of schedules and the duration of work activities affects the management of the life time of the employed and of their families: for parents working in the evening or at weekends, it means giving up a part of the time to spend with their children and makes work-life balance more complicated.

During the weekend, the employed persons spend more time with their family, due to the greater availability of time by their children and their families, free from their usual workday study or work commitments. Sunday workers spend approximately 6 hours with the family during the weekend, Saturday workers a little less (5h30').

2 Types of jobs involving evening work (from 8 pm to 11 pm), night work (after 11 pm), shift work, Saturday work or

Sunday work.

0

20

40

60

80

100

4:0

0 A

M

4:3

0 A

M

5:0

0 A

M

5:3

0 A

M

6:0

0 A

M

6:3

0 A

M

7:0

0 A

M

7:3

0 A

M

8:0

0 A

M

8:3

0 A

M

9:0

0 A

M

9:3

0 A

M

10

:00 A

M

10

:30 A

M

11

:00 A

M

11

:30 A

M

12

:00 P

M

12

:30 P

M

1:0

0 P

M

1:3

0 P

M

2:0

0 P

M

2:3

0 P

M

3:0

0 P

M

3:3

0 P

M

4:0

0 P

M

4:3

0 P

M

5:0

0 P

M

5:3

0 P

M

6:0

0 P

M

6:3

0 P

M

7:0

0 P

M

7:3

0 P

M

8:0

0 P

M

8:3

0 P

M

9:0

0 P

M

9:3

0 P

M

10

:00 P

M

10

:30 P

M

11

:00 P

M

11

:30 P

M

12

:00 A

M

12

:30 A

M

1:0

0 A

M

1:3

0 A

M

2:0

0 A

M

2:3

0 A

M

3:0

0 A

M

3:3

0 A

M

Weekday standard time schedule workers Weekday non standard time schedule workersSaturday workers Sunday workers

17

Figure 18 - Time spent with family members by people aged 15 and over who do not live alone by condition and time schedule - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


From the work-life balance to the work-life blending concept

A shift can be observed from clear separation between working and non-working time towards a constant overlapping between work and leisure time activities and personal practices during working hours. 21.1% of the employed declare that they work outside of the working hours or places (on average for 1h35'). Above all, they are professionals and employers, people with a high degree of intellectual activity that can be easily carried out outside their own office.

Figure 19 – Employed persons who declare to work outside the working hours- Year 2013-2014 (in percentage)


04:18 05:30 06:05

06:48

07:4408:06

04:37

00:00

01:00

02:00

03:00

04:00

05:00

06:00

07:00

08:00

09:00

Week day Saturday Sunday

Non standard time schedule workers Not employed Standard time schedule workers

21,6 20,3

8,3

20,323,1 21,8

16,3

27,9

12,4

39,4

53,1

24,722,5

9,8

42,7

18,7

10,2

21,1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Male

Fem

ale

15

-24

25

-44

45

-64

65

and

ove

r

Em

plo

yee

Co

ord

ina

ted

and

Co

ntin

uo

us C

olla

bora

tio

n

Occasio

na

l w

ork

er

Em

plo

yer

Pro

fessio

nal

Self e

mplo

yed

Fam

ily w

ork

er

Mem

be

rs o

f co

op

era

tive

s

Tert

iary

Up

pe

r a

nd

po

st se

con

da

ry

Up

to lo

we

r se

co

nda

rysch

oo

l ce

rtific

ate

Total

18

The day of the employed is the most fragmented and dense3

Their 24 episodes4 on average per day (26.4 of women versus 22.2 of men) indicate a particularly hectic pace of life for people in employment. Higher the number of episodes daily, the more changes in activity or interruptions occur; this involves more activities but less time spent in each.

On average, the employed have about 5 episodes a day in which they declare to carry out several activities at the same time. Women are more likely to have a more dense day, that is to do more things in less time (multitasking): 31.8% of episodes compared to 29.8% of men.

Figure 20 - Time dedicated to carrying out several activities at the same time by the employed by gender and age group - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


Employed persons: satisfied, but stressed

The employed are the most satisfied with life in general (with a score of 7.1), although 78.5% of them say they feel stressed (compared to 58.3% of students and 65.5% of housewives). Work commitments make work life balance more difficult: the management of daily life is the main source of stress for 16.4% of the employed, an increase compared to the past. Although in decline (38.0% in 2013 against 49.4% in 2002), the most frequent source of stress, however, remains work.

3 The time density is here indicated by the average number of daily episodes in which several activities are carried out

at the same time. 4 Time interval where there is no change in activities (main and contemporary) and location described in the diary.

2:50 3:11 2:39 3:04 2:55 2:36

2:59

0:00

1:00

2:00

3:00

4:00

Male Female 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 and over

Time devoted to multitasking Total

19

Figure 21 - People aged 15 and over who feel stressed and life satisfaction expressed by condition – Years 2013-2014 (rate in percentage and judgment on a 0-10 scale)


Employed persons and leisure time: less quantity, higher quality

Employed persons, despite having little free time, consider it more satisfying. In general, they attribute a mean score of 1.49 to the whole day5: the lowest compared to the rest of the population. Considering only the moments dedicated to leisure activities, the situation turns upside-down, the score goes up to 2.10, second only to that expressed by the students.

Figure 22 - Enjoyment expressed (affect) on the moments of the day by people aged 15 and over by condition – Years 2013-2014 (mean score on a scale from -3 to +3)


5 The enjoyment is measured on a scale from -3 to +3, where -3 means "very unpleasant " and +3 "very pleasant".

78.5

58.362.5

65.5

58.355.9

7.1 7.4 6.1 6.8 6.9 6.1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0

20

40

60

80

100

Employed person Student Person looking for ajob

Housewife Retired In other condition

Stress Satisfaction

1,49 1,69 1,56 1,60 1,59 1,602,10 1,99 1,96 2,26 1,86 1,83

Employed person Unemplyed Housewife Student Retired In other condition

Affect expressed on the overall day Affect expressed on free time moments

20

CHAPTER 4

FREE TIME AND SOCIAL RELATIONS. ESSENTIAL TIMES FOR SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING Having free time and social relations is essential for people's well-being. Free time is the part of the day characterized by individual choices, what remains after necessary time (personal care), contracted time (paid work and study) and committed time (unpaid work). Free time cannot be considered a priori as an element of personal well-being, if we do not consider its quality, quantity and allocation during the day and the week.

Finland is the European country with most free time

On an average day the Finns have available 5h50' of free time; on the opposite side of the ranking is Romania with 4h23’. Italy - with 4h53’ - is at the fifth position from the bottom. During the last decade, the free time available to the Italian population has grown by 15'.

Figure 23 - Time spent on free time by people aged 15 and over in some European countries (a) by gender - several years (b) (average time in hours and minutes)


The Time Use Survey is conducted on a voluntary basis and is therefore only available for some EU countries.


Less free time for employed persons and housewives

Employed persons and housewives are those with the least free time available: this is respectively 3h43' and 4h40' per day, against the 5h14' of the students and the 6h30' of the retired from work.

0:00

1:00

2:00

3:00

4:00

5:00

6:00

7:00

Ro

ma

nia

Lu

xe

mb

ou

rg

Hu

ng

ary

Pola

nd

Ita

ly

Fra

nce

Austr

ia

Spa

in

Un

ited

Kin

gdo

m

Esto

nia

Ne

the

rla

nds

Serb

ia

Belg

ium

Ge

rman

y

Gre

ece

No

rwa

y

Fin

lan

d

Total Male Female

21

The amount of free time available varies greatly between the days of the week: it goes from 4h33’ on the weekday to 5h18’ on Saturday until it reaches 6h09’ on Sunday.

Figure 24 - Free time available to the people aged 15 and over for the main individual characteristics - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


The peak of free time is in the evening hours

On an average day, the greatest number of people (57.0%) perform free time activities between 9.00 pm and 10.00 pm.

Figure 25 – Frequency of people aged 15 and over engaged in free time activities by class age and unit of time - Year 2013-2014 (in percentage)


4:53

5:22

4:27

5:25

3:56

4:30

6:22

3:43

5:50

4:40

5:14

6:30

6:57

Total

Male

Female

15-24

25-44

45-64

65 and over

Employed persons

Person looking for a job

Housewife

Student

Retired

In other condition

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

4:0

0 A

M

5:0

0 A

M

6:0

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M

7:0

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M

8:0

0 A

M

9:0

0 A

M

10

:00 A

M

11

:00 A

M

12

:00 P

M

1:0

0 P

M

2:0

0 P

M

3:0

0 P

M

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0 P

M

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0 P

M

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0 P

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M

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M

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:00 P

M

11

:00 P

M

12

:00 A

M

1:0

0 A

M

2:0

0 A

M

3:0

0 A

M

Total 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 and over

22

The time of the day in which people have free time is conditioned by the phases of the life cycle and the commitments that characterize them. 35% of young people register free time between 11pm and midnight and 16.8% between 12pm and 1am, sacrificing hours of sleep. More than half of the people aged 65 and over are engaged in free time activities between 14:00 and 18:00.

Watching TV or video is still the first leisure activity in Europe

TV and video are the top leisure activity both for shares of people who do it and for the amount of time they dedicate to it, followed almost everywhere by the time dedicated to social life. Starting from the third position there is a greater heterogeneity.

Figure 26 - Composition of free time of population aged 15 and over in some European countries by type of activity – several years (a) (percentage composition)



51.3

45.1

50.3

44.2

39.1

42.4

40.7

46.3

46.6

43.1

37.7

49.7

44.1

37.1

44.8

35.6

38.3

12.9

12.3

12.4

15.4

18.0

15.2

21.9

13.7

15.7

11.5

18.9

17.3

15.3

17.8

17.8

23.5

14.0

4.2

13.1

4.1

8.2

10.9

9.1

11.1

15.0

6.2

8.9

7.2

7.9

6.6

8.3

7.4

9.1

10.0

4.2

7.1

7.2

7.2

5.8

6.1

8.1

5.0

6.2

8.9

9.1

5.0

6.3

9.8

4.7

9.4

12.6

0.8

4.5

1.7

0.7

1.4

1.7

2.7

2.0

2.6

2.2

3.5

0.3

4.2

4.2

1.2

3.2

1.7

6.8

10.4

6.9

9.2

5.8

9.1

5.4

7.3

9.8

11.8

11.6

4.4

9.3

9.2

10.7

10.0

10.3

1.1

3.4

3.1

2.4

2.7

3.7

3.7

3.0

3.3

2.2

5.7

1.6

4.8

4.2

2.4

2.9

4.0

13.3

1.1

12.4

6.5

13.6

9.8

4.0

5.3

6.2

9.3

4.4

11.0

7.8

6.5

7.1

3.5

4.9

5.3

3.0

1.7

6.2

2.7

3.0

2.4

2.3

3.3

1.9

1.9

2.8

1.5

3.0

3.9

2.6

4.3

Romania

Luxembourg

Hungary

Poland

Italy

France

Austria

Spain

United Kingdom

Estonia

Netherlands

Serbia

Belgium

Germany

Greece

Norway

Finland

TV Social life Sport and outdoor activities

Reading Entertainement and culture Pc and Internet (b)

Other hobbies and games Resting - time out Other

23

The composition of free time in Italy

Watching television is the main activity of free time6 (1h55' per day, equivalent to 39.2% of free time available). It is followed by social life activities (53' per day, 18.1%); resting time (40' per day, 13.7%); sports and outdoor activities such as walks (32' per day, 10.9%); reading (17' per day, 5.8%); the use of PC and internet (16' per day, 5.5%). Finally, cultural activities such as visiting a museum, going to the cinema, etc. occupy only 1.4% of free time.

As the age increases, the time spent on the TV and on the resting time increases. The youngest (15-24 years) and students in general devote more of their free time, compared to the rest of the population, to social life, the use of Pc and of the internet and on the sports activities. Those with a university degree more often addresses spend their free time in reading and cultural activities.

Figure 27 – Main leisure activities carried out by people aged 15 and over - Year 2013-2014 (composition of free time in percentage, minimum and maximum value for some individual characteristics)


Everyone watches TV, but with little satisfaction

Watching TV, even though it is the most popular activity, is however the least pleasant (1.83). On the contrary, cultural activities, carried out only by a minority of people, are the most enjoyable ones (2.51).

The moments spent practicing sports (2.25) and social life (2.15) obtain a score higher than the average of leisure activities (2.02).

The difference between the score accorded to moments of offline social life compared to that assigned to moments spent online (2.15 versus 1.86) makes us understand the importance of

6 The differences between Italian and Eurostat data on free time are due to the exclusion in Italian data of hunting and

fishing activities from the indicators proposed by the Unece guidelines, which include such activities in household work as productive activities.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Tv Social life Resting - time out Sport Reading Pc and internet Cultural activities

Total 15-24 25-44 65 and over Housewife Student Tertiary educationa level

24

relations with others for the subjective well-being. Even for young people, the online activity is less pleasant than the direct relationships (2.35 versus 2.09).

Figure 28 - Time spent and mean score assigned to the main leisure activities carried out on an average day by people aged 15 and over - Year 2013-2014 (time in hours and minutes and mean score on a scale from -3 to +3)


Free time is not all the same

From the time use diaries it is possible to distinguish between various ways of spending the free time, distinguishing between pure, active and passive leisure time7:

a. Pure: when the primary activity is a leisure activity and the secondary activity is also leisure (not paid work, home production or personal care related) or there is no secondary activity;

b. Active: when the primary activity is a leisure activity but the secondary activity could be childcare, paid work, personal care etc.;

c. Passive: when the primary activity is an activity not considered to be leisure, but there is a secondary activity that is (e.g. cleaning while listening to music).

7 Unece, 2013

1:55 0:53 0:40 0:32 0:17 0:16 0:04

1.83

2.151.97

2.25

1.991.86

2.51

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

0:00

1:00

2:00

3:00

Tv Social life Resting Sport Reading Pc and internet Culturalactivities

25

Figure 29 – Pure, active and passive free time carried out by people aged 15 and over by gender - Years 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes and participation rate in percentage)


Women are the champions of multitasking

Passive free time characterizes strongly women’s daily life (2h30' against 1h49' for men). Women manage to recover time for leisure activities only by superimposing them on other – non-leisure - activities. This means that the gender gap in the total time dedicated to leisure activities is significantly reduced, going from the 55’ analysed in the case of pure and/or active leisure to just 15’ (6h57’ against 7h12’). But, this certainly does not mean having the same amount and quality of free time between women and men.

Social life, TV and Radio: accompanying activities

Socializing and the use of TV and radio are the leisure activities that are mostly carried out as an activity of "accompaniment" to something else. By adding the times of the secondary activity, social life increases from 53' to 2h16' and the radio from just 2' to 30' a day, demonstrating how these activities are carried out more as secondary than as main activities. For television, the case is slightly different: although the time of use increases by about an hour if it is considered also simultaneously (2h49’), its use is still considered predominantly as a main activity (1h55').

Figure 30 – Total time devoted by people aged 15 and over to some free time activities by type of activity - Years 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


26

Socializing is an activity that accompanies meals

If the secondary activity is considered in addition to the main one, it is possible to include in the analysis the moments of sociality linked to the main meals. In countries like Italy, meal times, especially dinner, are still characterized by the coexistence (in the sense of sharing the same time, space and activity) of all family members. This therefore has a great importance for the study of well-being linked to family relationships.

Figure 31 – Frequency of people aged 15 and over engaged in social life activities by type of activity and unit of time - Year 2013-2014 (in percentage)


Social relationships characterize the times of everyday life

On an average day, people aged 15 and over spend about 60% of their waking time in presence of a person they know (9h14’). The time spent in the presence of other people decreases with advancing age.

Women spend more time alone than men (5h32' against 4h58'), however this difference is evident especially in the more advanced age classes, while the differences are minimal among the young and in the age class 25-44 years where, on the other hand, women spend less time alone (4h20’), particularly when they are mothers (3h31’).

For people aged 65 and over, who live apart from their families, the lack of relationships with others often becomes isolation. The elderly remain alone for as much as 70% of their waking time (10h17’).

27

Figure 32 – Time spent alone by people aged 15 and over by class age and gender - Years 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


CHAPTER 5

LIFE TIMES AND HEALTH: SLEEP, TRAVEL AND SEDENTARY ACTIVITIES Balancing sleep, sedentary behavior and physical activity (light, moderate or vigorous) has positive effects on the state of health. Data on the use of time give an integrated view of the day, fundamental for the measurement of well-being.

Sleeping time

Nighttime sleep in Italy amounts on average to 7h54'. Compared to the recommended nighttime sleeping hours8, 10.5% of young people aged 15-17 and 6.7% of 18-25 year olds sleep too little; while 54.8% of people aged 65 and over sleep too much.

8 National Sleep Foundation (2015).

5:16 4:24 4:28 5:29 6:23

Total 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 and over

Total Male Female

https://www.sleepfoundation.org/articles/teens-and-sleep?page=0

28

Figure 33 - People aged 15 and over by type of night sleep (a) and age group – Years 2013-2014 (in percentage)

Sources: NSF; Time Use Survey

(a) Sleep between 10.00 pm and 8.00 am

Social jet lag

The displacement of the rhythm of sleep between weekdays and holidays is called "social jet lag". Work, school and the presence of children in the family play a key role in the time when people go to sleep and when they wake up: a continuous test of strength between solar time and social time.

On weekdays and on Sundays, one in two people go to bed by 11.00 pm; on Saturdays, half an hour later. The alarm clock on a weekday sounds at 7.00 for 47.5% of people; it gets moved forward by half an hour on Saturday and by one hour on Sunday.

10,56,7 5,7 4,7

22,7

9,5 12,3

5,4

10,7

42,7

44,3

52,8

15,4

42,4

11,0

29,9

16,3

23,8

19,2

13,09,6

12,9

54,8

22,9

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

15-17 18-25 26-64 65 and over Total

Not recommended (too little) May be appropriate (too little) Recommended

May be appropriate (too much) Not recommended (too much)

29

Figure 34 - Frequency of people aged 15 and over who sleep during night hours (10.00 pm -8.00 am) by type of day and unit of time - Year 2013-2014 (percentage values)


What do people do at night, when they don’t sleep?

Of the approximately two nighttime hours when people are not sleeping, almost half is dedicated to leisure, spent mostly watching TV (56.4%), socializing (18.2%), reading (7.3%) or browsing the Internet (3.6%). For young people - aged 15-24 - being online takes up 6.7% of nighttime free time.

Figure 35 - Night time in which people aged 15 and over do not sleep by type of activity carried out and gender - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


Travel time

During an average day, people spend 1 hour and 16 minutes to reach their destinations. The elderly are those who move less (71.6%) and for less time (47’), the employed move the most (95.1%), students spend most time on travel (1h39’).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

:00 P

M

10

:20 P

M

10

:40 P

M

11

:00 P

M

11

:20 P

M

11

:40 P

M

12

:00 A

M

12

:20 A

M

12

:40 A

M

1:0

0 A

M

1:2

0 A

M

1:4

0 A

M

2:0

0 A

M

2:2

0 A

M

2:4

0 A

M

3:0

0 A

M

3:2

0 A

M

3:4

0 A

M

4:0

0 A

M

4:2

0 A

M

4:4

0 A

M

5:0

0 A

M

5:2

0 A

M

5:4

0 A

M

6:0

0 A

M

6:2

0 A

M

6:4

0 A

M

7:0

0 A

M

7:2

0 A

M

7:4

0 A

M

8:0

0 A

M

Weekday Saturday Sunday

0:00

0:30

1:00

Free time Other personal care Household work Travel Eating Paid work Study

Total Male Female

30

Figure 36 - Time spent on travel by people aged 15 and over by some individual characteristics - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes and participation rate in percentage)


Why and when do people move?

One third of the time spent on travel has the purpose of carrying out leisure activities, 28.9% activities related to household work and 26.3% are home-work commutes.

Peaks of travel occur between 7:40 and 8:00 and between 17:50 and 19:00.

Figure 37 – Cumulative frequency of people aged 15 and over who travel by purpose and unit of time - Year 2013-2014 (percentage values)


91.6 82.7 92.6 93.4 90.3 71.6 95.1 90.6 77.6 91.8 76.6

1:26

1:07

1:351:30

1:19

0:47

1:321:26

0:51

1:39

0:55

0:00

0:14

0:28

0:43

0:57

1:12

1:26

1:40

1:55

Male

Fe

ma

le

15

-24

25

-44

45

-64

65

and

ove

r

Em

plo

yed

pe

rson

Un

em

plo

yed

Ho

use

wife

Stu

de

nt

Re

tire

d

0

20

40

60

80

100

Participation rate Average time

0

2

4

6

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10

12

14

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M

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M

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M

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M

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M

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M

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M

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M

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M

2:0

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M

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0 A

M

3:0

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M

3:3

0 A

M

Paid work Study Household work Personal care Social Life Other free time

31

What means of transport do people use?

The most used means of transport are private vehicles - car or motorcycle (57.7%), on which people travel on average for 44'. Cars and motorcycles are more used by men (65.4%) and younger people (70.0% in 25-44 class age); women go more often on foot (48.1% compared to 47.0% of men). Active travel modes, on foot or by bike, are chosen more often in the South of Italy (53.9%).

Figure 38 – Means of transport used by people aged 15 and over on an average day - Year 2013-2014 (participation rate in percentage and average time in hours and minutes)


The mean score assigned to travel is 1.46 (on a scale of -3 to +3); the less pleasant journeys are those made by public transport (0.99) while journeys on foot or by bike (1.54) are considered more pleasant. The journeys with others are considered more pleasant (1.75) than those made alone (1.21).

Figure 39 – Mean score assigned to traveling by means of transport used by people aged 15 and over - Year 2013-2014 (mean score on a scale from -3 to +3)


47.603.60

57.70 8.00 8.80

0:19

00:02

0:44

0:080:04

0:00

0:07

0:14

0:21

0:28

0:36

0:43

0:50

0

20

40

60

80

On foot Bicycle Private transport Public transport Other

Participation rate Average time

1.41 1.540.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

Passive transport Active transport

Travel score Public transport Car Mean score for the day Mean score for travel

32

24 hours of physical activity and sedentary behavior

Daily physical activity is more than just doing sports. People aged 15 and over spend around 36% of their day on sleeping, 29% in sedentary behaviour and 34% in doing some kind of physical activity (light 6h07’, moderate 1h59' and vigorous only 6').

Figure 40 - Time spent in sleep (Sle), sedentary behavior (Sb) and physical activity by type of intensity: light (Lpa), moderate (Mpa) and vigorous (Vpa) - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes and percentage composition over 24 hours)


Young people are sedentary

Taking into account all of the daily activities, not just sports, young people aged 15-24 devote more time to sedentary behaviours (7h12') than the following two age groups, +41' compared to the 25-44 class age and +25' compared to 45-64 class age.

Employed persons and housewives spend less time in a day on sedentary activities (respectively 6h29' and 6h37'), while if physical activity is defined considering only sports, walking and active travel (on foot or by bicycle), these two categories would be the most sedentary people.

36%

29%

34%

1%

8:30

7:01

6:07

1:59

0:06

0:17

Sle

Sb

Lpa

Mpa

Vpa

No Met

24hPhisical Activity

&Sedentary Behavior

33

Figure 41 - Time spent in sleep (Sle), sedentary behavior (Sb) and physical activity by type of intensity: light (Lpa), moderate (Mpa) and vigorous (Vpa) by class age - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


Figure 42 - Time spent in sleep (Sle), sedentary behavior (Sb) and physical activity by type of intensity: light (Lpa), moderate (Mpa) and vigorous (Vpa) by employment status - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


08:37

07:12

06:43

01:04

00:1101:15

15-24

No Met Sle Sb Lpa Mpa Vpa

08:16

06:31

06:40

02:03

00:0602:09

25-44


08:08

06:47

06:24

02:14

00:0602:20

45-64


09:14

07:5304:45

02:00

00:0402:04

65 and over


6:29

7:33

6:37

6:58

7:55

8:38

6:57

4:53

6:07

7:21

4:45

4:08

2:08

2:01

2:26

1:03

2:14

1:39

8:01

8:44

8:47

8:31

9:01

9:19

Employedpersons

Unemployed

Housewife

Student

Retired

In other condition

Sb Lpa Mvpa Sle No Met

34

Physical activities during leisure time

During leisure time there are more men, young people aged 15-24 and elderly people aged 65 and over who are engaged in physical exercise. The least active are employed and housewives, among whom on an average day 41.3 and 39.9 per cent respectively do not perform any of the activities considered: they do not play sports, do not go out for a walk and do not make any movement on foot or by bicycle.

Figure 43 - Time spent doing sport, walking and active travel by people aged 15 and over by some individual characteristics - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


Screen time: the most common sedentary activity during leisure time

On an average day people spend 3h10' in front of a screen; less time for young people (2h48’) compared to the elderly (4h16’), but the type of screen used is marked by the digital divide: Internet for young people, TV for the elderly.

Figure 44 – Screen time for people aged 15 and over by some individual characteristics - Year 2013-2014 (average time in hours and minutes)


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Documents

Work, work-life balance, gender equality and well-beingTIMES OF DAILY LIFE Work, work-life balance, gender equality and well-being This e-book deals with a multiplicity of themes of