Work-Related Depression among Hotel Employees

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2009 50: 446 originally published online 2 September 2009Cornell Hospitality QuarterlyAmir Shani and Abraham Pizam

Work-Related Depression among Hotel Employees

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446 Cornell Hospitality Quarterly November 2009

Work-Related Depression among Hotel Employees

by AmIr SHANI and AbrAHAm PIZAm

2009 CorNeLL UNIverSITYDoI: 10.1177/1938965509344294

volume 50, Issue 4 446-459

Given the putative cost of work-related depression, this article reports the results of a pilot study con-ducted among hotel employees in Central Florida. The study finds an initial indication of a small but noteworthy incidence of depression among workers in the hospitality industry. The article explores the antecedents and possible origins of depression, as well as critical issues related to depression in the workplace, particularly its effects on organizations and employees. The findings indicate a need for greater organizational awareness of depression.

Keywords: depression; work-related depression; burnout; job stress; employees’ well-being

Growing evidence suggests that depression, already one of the most severe health prob-lems worldwide, will become the second

most common disease by 2020 (Murray and Lopez

1996). Marcotte, Wicox-Gök, and Redmon (1999) found that 15.7 percent of U.S. workers have experi-enced a major depressive disorder at least once in their lifetime, while 8.6 percent of employed indi-viduals suffered a major depression during the twelve months prior to being interviewed. Beyond the obvi-ous damage to the people’s quality of life, depres-sion reduces productivity, increases disability and absenteeism, and may also lead to premature early retirement (Blackmore et al. 2007). Nevertheless, employers still seem to be reluctant to deal with work-related depression, while employees are still con-cerned about the stigma associated with depression, which compounds the problem (Glozier 1998).

A recent survey conducted by the Office of Applied Studies (OAS; 2007) indicated that the phenomenon of work-related depression has special relevance for the hospitality industry. Combined data from 2004 to 2006 indicate that 10.3 percent of the employees in food preparation and serving-related occupations in

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November 2009 Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 447

WorK-reLATeD DePreSSIoN AmoNG HoTeL emPLoYeeS HUmAN reSoUrCeS

the United States suffered from at least one major depressive episode in the prior year, second only to workers in personal care and service occupations (10.8 per-cent). While “food-preparation and service-related workers” is a broad category that includes a variety of hospitality employees, such as chefs, cooks, servers, bartenders, hosts and hostesses, and dishwashers, other occupational categories mentioned in the OAS report are also relevant to the hospi-tality industry. The OAS report indicated that 8.1 percent of “office and administra-tive support” workers, which also includes hotel, motel, and resort desk clerks, suf-fered from a depressive episode in the prior year.

This article provides an extensive review of work and depression and assesses poten-tial factors that might lead to work-related depression in the industry. The article then reports on a pilot study on depression and its antecedents conducted among hospital-ity employees of central Florida.

Work and DepressionClinical depression is defined as a period

of intense, often continuous feelings of sadness and hopelessness accompanied by cognitive and somatic symptoms that can require treatment (Wells and Sturm 1995). The National Institute of Mental Health (2008, para. 1) states that depression “affects the way a person eats and sleeps, the way one feels about oneself, and the way one thinks about things.” Many people might experience some depressive symptoms with-out being officially diagnosed as having depression. According to Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus (1994, 424), the common symp-toms of depression include “depressed mood, lessened interest in one’s usual activities, significant weight change, sleep problems, psychomotor agitation, fatigue and loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, indeci-siveness, problems in concentrating, and

suicidal thoughts and attempts.” Depression is a more prevalent phenomenon than might be thought, given one study’s conclusion that the chances of having at least one psy-chiatric disorder during a lifetime stand at approximately 50 percent (Lauber et al. 2003). The chances of having depression are higher among women; persons who were divorced, separated, or widowed; and those who suffer from chronic health condi-tions (Gilmour and Patten 2007).

According to the American Psychiatric Association (2005), although depression can affect anyone, the following four major factors increase the chances of the out-break of depression: biochemistry (abnor-malities of certain chemicals or networks in the brain), genetics (depression might be hereditary), personality (certain personal characteristics such as low self-esteem, being easily stressed, or pessimism), and environ-mental factors (e.g., exposure to violence, neglect, and poverty). It is essential to note that through appropriate treatment, most episodes of depression can be cured or at least significantly reduced. Paul (2003) noted that while moderate and severe cases of depression will normally require a com-bination of psychotherapy and medication, mild cases may respond to psychotherapy alone.

Effects of Depression on the Workplace

Depression has also serious economic consequences. According to Riotto (2001), the total costs for depression in the United States, both direct and indirect, have risen to between $50 and $60 billion, with the average annual direct costs ranging from $1,000 to $2,500 per depressed employee (Luppa et al. 2007). In the United Kingdom, a recent survey estimated that mental ill health is costing the country’s economy more than £10 billion a year, with more



HUmAN reSoUrCeS WorK-reLATeD DePreSSIoN AmoNG HoTeL emPLoYeeS


than 10 million working days lost due to stress, depression, and anxiety (Paton 2007). The direct costs of depression include hos-pitalization, primary care, outpatient care, pharmaceuticals, and rehabilitation. How-ever, the major financial burden of depres-sion stems from indirect costs, which include lost productivity and missed workdays (Riotto 2001). The estimated annual costs for lost productivity and absenteeism range from $2,000 to $2,500 per depressed employee (Luppa et al. 2007). According to different estimates, in the United States more than 70 percent of people with depression are employed, and depression results in 400 million lost workdays per year (Sipkoff 2006). Kessler et al. (1999) found that depressed workers have between 1.5 and 3.2 more short-term disability days in a given 30-day period than other work-ers who do not suffer from depression. They calculated that these absence days cost between $182 and $395 in salary-equivalent work loss.

The negative effects of depression are not always directly observed. Many mod-ern organizations rely on a workforce that can be innovative and creative. Dunnagan, Peterson, and Haynes (2001, 1073) argued that this creativity “can be stymied if the individual’s mind is clouded with maladaptive stress, anger, and depression.” Depressed workers are also characterized as having difficulty in concentrating and focusing on tasks, thinking clearly, process-ing information well, managing time well, and contributing effectively in groups (Kline and Sussman 2000). Lerner et al. (2004), who aimed at assessing the work outcomes of employees with depression, concluded that employees with depression did signifi-cantly worse than other comparison groups. Similarly, a recent study conducted in Canada revealed that depressed employees are more likely to reduce and curtail work activities so that they can cope with their

mental health problems (Gilmour and Patten 2007).

Work-Related Depression

Paradoxically, the workplace itself can lead to the development of depression among employees. Blackmore et al. (2007) found that depression was associated with certain aspects of the work environment, such as high job strain, a low level of social support within the workplace, low employ-ment security, and increased psychologi-cal demands. Depression can also be the result of a perceived lack of autonomy at work and of situations involving “caring” for others as part of the work role (Wilhelm et al. 2004). One of the main causes of depression is work-related stress (Melchior et al. 2007; Smith 2001; J. Wang 2005), which might stem from negative work-place climate, culture, or both (Dunnagan, Peterson, and Haynes 2001). McDaid, Curran, and Knapp (2005) stated that stress can be related to excessive workload and working hours, lack of job security; low level of empowerment in decision making; and imbalance between work, social, and family life. A recent study also found that employees who experience an effort-reward imbalance (i.e., a lack of appropriate recog-nition and rewards in return for the effort put into the work) are at risk of physical and mental health problems, including exhibiting symptoms of depression (Vear ing and Mak 2007).

Another well-documented antecedent to the outbreak of depression is burnout (Kahill 1988), a state of physical, emo-tional, and mental exhaustion resulting from chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job (Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter 2001). In their extensive review, Cordes and Dougherty (1993) indicated that burnout might be the result of various factors in the workplace, such as certain





work characteristics (e.g., intense contact with clients), role conflicts and role ambi-guity (i.e., a lack of clarity with regard to the expectations required in performing one’s job), and role overload (both quanti-tative, e.g., hours of work; and qualitative, e.g., demanding mental and interpersonal requirements).

Other aspects of the workplace environ-ment that are related to depression may not directly be connected to formal job charac-teristics. Certain trends in the workplace, such as reengineering and diversity, often result in the development of feelings of envy and jealousy among employees, which might lead to the onset of psychological symp-toms (Dogan and Vecchio 2001). Apple-baum and Roy-Girard (2007) pointed out that the phenomena of toxic organizations (i.e., organizations that are in a constant state of crisis) and toxic managers (charac-terized by a high level of self-centeredness, a lack of concern toward their employees, and a destructive urge to control and quar-rel) can also generate feelings of despair and depression.

Some occupations seem to have a greater incidence of depression than others. In their study, Eaton et al. (1990) found the highest depression rates among lawyers, teachers and counselors, and secretaries. Other evi-dence indicates that sales, customer service, and white-collar workers are more likely to have faced depression than blue-collar workers (Gilmour and Patten 2007; P. Wang et al. 2003), while entrepreneurs and self-employed persons are less likely than other workers to be depressed (Bradley and Roberts 2004). Low seniority and a low status in the organization were also found to accelerate outbursts of depression (Lerner et al. 2004). Finally, higher rates of depres-sion were also noted among people who work evening and night shifts compared to people working regular hours (Gilmour and Patten 2007).

Treatment of Work-Related Depression

Although the workplace can generate depression, employers can also offer treat-ment. Schene et al.’s (2006) review on recovery from depression suggests that effective treatment of work-related depres-sion should include the following: (1) early assessment of depression or other mental health problems; (2) education and train-ing of managers and employees in relation to mental health problems and their conse-quences; and (3) intervention provided by trained staff, lasting at least six months, aimed at assisting employees suffering from depression. Research suggests that the key for dealing with depression in the work-place is to develop awareness, especially among managers, regarding the symptoms of depression and the appropriate actions that need to be taken to face the problem (Kline and Sussman 2000). The main chal-lenge faced by employers is to reduce the stigma of depression in the workplace, which often deters employees from seek-ing help. We acknowledge that this is a challenge, because many employers them-selves hold negative attitudes and miscon-ceptions about depression in the workplace. For example, Glozier (1998) found that employers are less likely to employ depressed workers than workers with diabetes, despite both having identical qualifications, out of a perception that the former will perform less well than the latter.

It is interesting to note here that although clinical depression is a mental impairment under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), not everyone with clinical depres-sion will qualify for coverage. In 1999, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that even though clinical depression is a permanent condi-tion, if an employee is able through medi-cations and therapy to perform major life activities without difficulty, that employee





will not meet the ADA’s definition of “disability” (Sutton v. United Airlines, Inc.; Murphy v. United Parcel Service, Inc.; and Albertson’s Inc. v. Kirkinburg).

Hospitality Employees’ Depression and Well-Being at Work

In a recent editorial of the International Journal of Hospitality Management titled “Depression among Foodservice Employ-ees,” coauthor Abraham Pizam draws the attention of the readers to the magnitude of the problem and asks the industry’s captains to “take all necessary steps to reduce the prevalence of depression among their employees” (2008, 135). Despite the impor tance of depression among hospital-ity employees, we do not see that it has received substantial attention in the hospi-tality literature. Having said that, we also note numerous studies focusing on work environment, job stress, and burnout in the industry, which might provide useful indi-cations about the prevalence of depression and its causes among hospitality employ-ees. Since the prevalence of burnout and stress in the hospitality industry has been well established, Pizam hypothesizes that the high rate of burnout among hospitality employees leads to a substantial rate of depression.

Many hospitality employees regularly have direct contacts with guests, often an intense interaction that requires them to come up with prompt responses in “real time” while providing pleasant and cour-teous service (Dann 1990). As noted by Miller and Madsen (2003, 76), many front-line hospitality employees “feel their work is insulting, demeaning, and humiliating, as they cater to the needs and sometimes eccentric wants of customers.” The phe-nomenon of “jaycustomer” behavior, which refers to customers who deliberately act in a thoughtless or abusive manner, can cause

problems for the employees (Harris and Reynolds 2004).

Despite negative feelings that frontline employees may experience, much of their work requires “emotional labor” (Hochschild 1983), in which the employee has to either conceal or control actual feelings for the benefit of successful service delivery. As noted by Constanti and Gibbs (2005), the outcomes of this might have negative effects on employees, such as feelings of alienation, exhaustion, loss of identity, and depression. Beyond that issue, food and beverage–related occupations also generate low satisfaction and a high level of work-related stress (Sims 2007). A recent study conducted in the United Kingdom has revealed that being the head chef in a restau-rant is one of the most stressful jobs, mainly because of the heavy workload, inflexible and long hours, and constant fear of failure (Murray-Gibbons and Gibbons 2007).

Hospitality managers who adopt an auto-cratic management style (rather than con-sultative) (Anastassova and Purcell 1995; El Masry, Kattara, and Demerdash 2004) “may produce emotions such as anxiety, anger and perhaps even some incidents of depres-sion” (Ross 2005, 137).

Another factor known to contribute to feelings of anxiety and depression is sex-ual harassment in the workplace (Fitzgerald et al. 1997). Eller (1990) noted that sexual harassment is more prevalent in the hospi-tality industry than in society at large, which seems to stem from the special nature of many hospitality businesses (Worsfold and McCann 2000).

The Pilot StudyWe are aware of few studies on work-

related depression among hospitality employ-ees. This pilot study can be seen as a first step towards a deeper understanding of the characteristics of work-related depression in the hospitality industry. Specifically, the study proposed the following hypotheses:





Hypothesis 1: The study’s respondents will

exhibit a medium to high level of work-

related depression.

Hypothesis 2: Work-related depression will be

positively associated with burnout.


positively associated with job-related

stress.


negatively associated with job satisfaction.

Hypothesis 5: Job satisfaction will be nega-

tively associated with burnout.

Hypothesis 6: Job satisfaction will be nega-

tively associated with job-related stress.

Hypothesis 7: Female respondents will exhibit

statistically significantly higher levels of

work-related depression than male

respondents.

Hypothesis 8: Respondents working in house-

keeping and food service departments

will exhibit statistically significantly

higher levels of work-related depression

than respondents working in other

departments.

Hypothesis 9: Respondents classified as general

staff employees will exhibit statistically

significantly higher levels of work-related

depression than respondents classified as

supervisors, managers, or executives.

Instrument and Measures

The questionnaire used in the study com-prised five main sections. First, work-related depression was measured using a scale devel-oped by Caplan et al. (1975) that asked respondents to state how often they feel sad, unhappy, good, depressed, blue, or cheerful when they think about their job. Responses for these six items were obtained on a 4-point scale, where 1 = never or little of the time; 2 = some of the time; 3 = a good part of the time; and 4 = most of the time.

Second, to evaluate the level of employee burnout, the study used the short version of the Burnout Measure developed by Malach-Pines (2005), which comprises ten items,

such as “tired,” “disappointed with people,” “hopeless,” and “physically weak or sickly.” Respondents indicate their burnout attitudes on a 7-point scale.

The third scale used in the study was the nine-item version of the Job Stress Scale developed by Jamal and Baba (1992), which was based on the original scale of Parker and Decotiis (1983). Respondents give rat-ing of strongly disagree to strongly agree on such items as “my job gets to me more than it should,” “I feel like I never have a day off,” and “I have too much work to do and too little time to do it in.”

The fourth question simply asked res-pondents how satisfied they were with their current job on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied. Finally, the fifth section of the question-naire consisted of employee profile ques-tions, which included both demographics (gender and age group) and job-related information (department, level in the hotel, years of service in current position, years of service in current hotel, and total years of service in the hotel industry).

Sample. The exploratory study was conducted among hotel employees in and around Orlando, Florida. Survey boxes were placed in either the administrative office or employee entrance of eight hotels ranging in size from 315 to 1,334 rooms, most of which were located within five miles of the Orlando and Kissimmee tour-ist zone. Together, these hotels represent the range of size and type prevalent in the area. The employees of these hotels were asked to anonymously complete and drop the completed questionnaires into specially marked and locked boxes. Each ques-tionnaire had a cover sheet attached to it explaining the purpose of the study and its anonymous and voluntary nature. Over-all, the survey boxes were available for a period of three weeks, during which 171 questionnaires were collected. However, 20





questionnaires were found to be unusable, leaving a total sample of 151.

FindingsEmployees’ profile. As can be seen in

Exhibit 1, more than half (60.3 percent) of the participants in the study were women, and 65 percent were thirty-five years old or above. A plurality of the par-ticipants worked in the front office (29.0 percent), followed by food and beverage (22.1 percent), housekeeping (20.7 percent),

administration (15.9 percent), and security (12.4 percent). A majority (60.3 percent) were general staff who have worked an average of 4.8 years in their current posi-tion, 5.0 years in their current hotel, and 9.7 years in the hotel industry.

Depression and Its Precursors

As was noted earlier, the instrument included measures for work-related depres-sion, burnout, job stress, and job satisfaction

Exhibit 1:employees’ Profile

Variable Category N % M SD Median

Gender male 58 39.7 Female 88 60.3 Age 18-25 35 23.5 26-35 32 21.5 36-45 37 24.8 46-55 25 16.8 56 and above 20 13.4 Department Housekeeping 30 20.7 Front office 42 29.0 Food and beverage 32 22.1 Administration 23 15.9 Security 18 12.4 Level in the organization executive 9 6.4 manager 26 18.4 Supervisor 21 14.9 General staff 85 60.3 Years of service 4.81 5.68 2.50 in current positionYears of service 5.01 5.98 2.50 in current hotelTotal years of service 9.68 7.00 8.28 in the hotel industryWork-related depression 12.5 1.9 12.0 scale (score: 6 to 24)burnout scale 26.7 13.6 22.0 (score: 10 to 70)Job stress scale 22.0 8.4 21.0 (score: 9 to 45)Job satisfaction 3.66 1.18 4.00 (score: 1 to 5)





(see Exhibit 1). The sample’s mean score of work-related depression was 12.5, with a standard deviation of 1.92 and a median of 12.0. Given the possible score range of 9 to 24, 8.7 percent of the respondents had a score higher than the midpoint on the scale (16.5), which in our opinion is a fairly high proportion given the significant and serious effects that depression has on the individ-ual, family, and workplace. Thus, it is pos-sible to conclude that H1 was confirmed.

With regard to the burnout scale, the sample’s mean was 26.7, with a standard deviation of 13.6 and a median of 22.5. Considering the possible score range of 10 to 70, more than 15 percent of the respond-ents had a score higher than the midpoint on the scale (40.0), thus indicating a relatively high level of burnout for this small part of the sample. The sample’s mean for job stress was 22.0, with a standard deviation of 8.4 and a median of 21.0 (possible score range: 9 to 45). Approximately 29 percent of the respondents indicated a relatively high level of stress with a score higher than the midpoint on the scale (27.0). The Cronbach’s alpha for these scales were .93 for work- related depression and burnout and .88 for job stress, all indicating high reliability. Finally, the sample’s mean for job satisfac-tion was 3.66, with a standard deviation of 1.18 and a median of 4.00 (possible score range: 1 to 5). More than 64 percent of the respondents reported being either “satisfied” (score of 4.0) or “very satisfied” (score of 5.0) with their current job, thus indicating a relatively high level of job satisfaction among the participants of this study.

Work-Related Depression among Respondents

We subjected the results to independ-ent t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and correla-tions to examine the relationship between work-related depression and the employees’

personal characteristics (see Exhibit 2). With regard to demographics, the results showed that gender, age, and hotel depart-ment had no statistically significant effect on work-related depression. Thus, H7 and H8 were not confirmed. However, the results showed a statistically significant difference (p < .05) in work-related depres-sion based on the respondents’ hierarchical level in the organization. The Scheffe post hoc test revealed a significant difference only between the general staff, who had the highest depression scores (mean = 12.8), and executives, who had the lowest scores (mean = 11.3). Therefore, it is possible to conclude that H9 was partially confirmed. In addition, the results showed that work-related depression was not statistically sig-nificantly correlated with years of service in the current position, years of service in the current hotel, or the total number of years of service in the hotel industry.

Antecedents to Work-Related Depression

Two stepwise multiple regression anal-yses were conducted, as follows, to

1. analyze the relationship between

work-related depression (dependent

variable) and the two indicators of (the

absence of) occupational well-being,

namely, burnout and job stress, and one

positive indicator, job satisfaction (inde-

pendent variables); and

2. analyze the relationship between job

satisfaction (dependent variable) and

work-related depression, burnout, and

job stress (independent variables).

As can be seen in Exhibit 3, the two independent variables, burnout and job stress, predicted 42 percent of the vari-ance in work-related depression. Beta (β) scores indicated that burnout was the most significant predictor of work-related





depression, followed by job stress. There-fore, it is possible to conclude that H2 and H3 were confirmed. Job satisfaction did not enter the equation, thus indicating that it is not a predictor of work-related depression, even though the two variables were nega-tively correlated (which confirms H4). A possible reason for the poor predicting ability of job satisfaction in this study was the extremely high proportion of respon-dents who were either satisfied or highly satisfied with their current job.

As far as the variables that predict job satisfaction, it is interesting to note that the only factor of interest that entered the equation was burnout, which explained 34 percent of the variance in job satisfaction.

Based on this finding, it is possible to sug-gest that those who experienced a high level of burnout were dissatisfied with their job and, further, to conclude that H5 was confirmed. Though job-related stress did not enter the equation, the negative bivariate correlation between job-related stress and job satisfaction confirmed H6.

DiscussionThe findings of the study allow initial

comparisons between hotel employees and employees in other occupations, as reported in previous studies that used the same instru-ment to measure work-related depression. Based on this pilot study, it can be concluded at this stage that the rate of work-related

Exhibit 2:Work-related Depression by Demographic and Job Profile Characteristics

Variable M SD Statistic p

Gender t = -1.7 .09male 12.1 1.7 Female 12.7 2.0

Age f = 0.41 .8418-25 12.5 2.3 26-35 12.1 1.8 36-45 12.7 1.8 46-55 12.6 1.8 56-65 12.2 2.0

Department f = 2.1 .08Housekeeping 13.2 2.7 Front office 12.3 2.0 Food and beverage 12.9 2.0 Administration 11.8 0.8 Security 11.9 1.7

Level in the organization f = 3.3 .02executive 11.3a 1.0 manager 12.4ab 1.2 Supervisor 11.5ab 0.9 General staff 12.8b 2.2

Years of service in current position r = -.4 .69Years of service in current hotel r = -.04 .63Total years of service in hotels r = -.07 .41

Note: Significant differences in the means between pairs based on the Scheffe test are indicated by the subscripts a, b, or c. Pairs of means that do not have the same letter are significantly different whereas those pairs of means that have the same superscript are not significantly different.





depression among hotel employees in the current study is quite similar to that of other professions examined in previous studies. Caplan et al. (1975) conducted a random sur vey on occupational health among a wide

variety of professions and found that the overall sample mean was identical to the sample mean of the hospitality employees who participated in this pilot study. More recently, Begley and Czajka (1993) found

Exhibit 3:Correlations and multiple regression Analysis

Intercorrelations between the Various Measures of Occupational Well-Being

Work- Related Job Job Depression Burnout Stress Satisfaction

Work-related depression 1.000 burnout .61 1.000 Job stress .37 .79 1.000 Job satisfaction -.36 -.58 -.46 1.000

Stepwise Multiple Regression: Dependent Variable = Work-Related Depression

R2 β t p VIF Tolerance

burnout .38 .86 7.3 .0 2.7a 0.37b

Job stress .41 .32 2.7 .0 2.7a 0.37b

YD = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3, where YD = work-related depression,x1 = job burnout, x2 = job stress, x3 = job Satisfaction

Stepwise Multiple Regression: Dependent Variable = Job Satisfaction

R2 β t p

burnout .33 -.58 -7.6 .0 YJ = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3, where YJ = job satisfaction, x1 = job burnout, x2 = job stress, x3 = work-related depression

a. A VIF value smaller than 5.0 indicates no collinearity (Field 2005, 196; Hutcheson and Sofroniou 1999, 83).b. A tolerance value larger than 0.2 indicates no collinearity (Field 2005, 196; Hutcheson and Sofroniou 1999, 83).





a higher level of work-related depression among hospital employees than was found in the hospitality sample.

Although a significant difference in the work-related depression scores was found between executives and general staff, it is interesting to note that none of the other profile characteristics had any effect on depression (including age, gender, depart-ment within the hotel, length of service in the current position, length of service in the current hotel, and length of service in the hotel industry).

The finding that burnout was the most significant predictor of work-related depres-sion is consistent with some earlier studies (e.g., Kahill, 1988). The similar effect of job stress is in keeping the results of some recent studies, such as those of Melchior et al. (2007), Smith (2001), and J. Wang (2005).

Altogether, the findings of this study confirm Jamal and Baba’s (1992) model, which suggests that job stress leads to burn-out, which in turn can lead to work-related depression. In our pilot study, job stress was

associated with burnout, which in turn not only correlated with depression but with job dissatisfaction (see Exhibit 4).

Conclusions and ImplicationsOur study found a relatively moderate

but still noteworthy incidence of depres-sion among the sample of Florida hospital-ity employees. Many observers predict that depression is likely to spread even fur-ther in the future. Fortunately, along with the increasing knowledge on work-related depression and its causes, a variety of options for effective treatment of employ-ees’ depression are available for organiza-tions. To reduce the costs of depression in the workplace, early identification of depression among employees is vital, along with a deeper understanding of the critical factors leading to work-related depression.

Based on the findings of the pilot study reported here, it is possible to provide some preliminary indicators of the nature of work-related depression in the hospitality industry. This investigation did not indicate

Exhibit 4:The relationship between the Four measures of Workplace Well-being

WORK-RELATEDDEPRESSION

JOB SATISFACTION

BURNOUTJOB STRESS





an exceptionally high depression rate when compared to employees from other sectors that were surveyed in previous studies. However, if the national rate of hotel employ-ees who are afflicted by work-related depres-sion is similar to the one identified in this study (8.7 percent), then the total number of U.S. hotel employees who regularly suffer from multiple incidences of work-related depression every year exceeds 233,000. This calculation is based on statistics pub-lished by the American Hotel & Lodging Association (2008), which show that in 2008, there were 2.686 million hotel employees (4,389,443 rooms × 61.2 employ-ees per 100 rooms). If we assume that each of these employees is absent from work an average of five days per year due to depres-sion and if the absence cost was $100 per day, than the total estimated direct cost to the industry would be $116.8 million per year.

In addition to the various strategies offered earlier for treatment of work-related depression, effort should also be invested to reduce the antecedents to depression. In this exploratory study, it was found that the most significant predictors of work-related depression are burnout and job stress.

Reichel and Pizam (1984) recom-mended the following actions to improve the situation for hospitality employees:

1. redesigning many hospitality jobs to

make them more meaningful, challeng-

ing, and psychologically rewarding;

2. improving working conditions to make

them more pleasant and desirable;

3. training managers and supervisors for

efficient and effective human resource

management for the purpose of improving

their managerial skills and sensitizing

them to the needs of their employees; and

4. cultivating a professional and respect-

able image for the hospitality employ-

ees by undertaking a series of public

relations and publicity campaigns in the

local community.

It should be emphasized that the current study is only an exploratory pilot study aimed to provide preliminary indications of work-related depression in the hotel industry. Only future studies involving rep-resentative larger samples from various locations can be used as the basis for firm data regarding the incidence of depres-sion among hotel workers. Finally, atten-tion should also be paid to other hospitality sectors beyond hotels to gain a more com-prehensive picture of work-related depres-sion in the industry.

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Amir Shani, Ph.D., is a lecturer, ben-Gurion University of the Negev, eilat Campus, Israel ([email protected]). Abraham Pizam, Ph.D., is dean and Linda Chapin eminent Scholar Chair, rosen College of Hospitality management, University of Central Florida ([email protected]).

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Work-Related Depression among Hotel Employees