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Managerial behaviour

efforts. An important issue rerated to our understanding of the concept ofjobperformance is whether it is a single ',general,, fa-ctor or a number ofdimensions.

campbell (1994) described the unidimensional approach to job performanceas the "classical" approach to personnel research, since he claims that it hasbeen used for the most part of the century and when people ,.r.. ro the termthey clearly imply the existelce of one general factor. illevertheless, he arguedthat the unidimensional.moder ofjob perfofinance has been u -uio.

source ofthe criterion problem "because the search for reliable, un"on r-inated, andobjective indicators that significantry reflect the generar factor, or urtimatecriterion, has generally been a failure" lcampbil, rcoi,- p 34-35). Theurudimensional approach has received more attention, especially since theapplication of meta-analytic methods has shown ,t ui-'u -g.rrrral

factorunderlies most common performance measures (viswesvaran, rgg6,cited inArvey & Murphy, l99g)

The alternative to the unidimensionar approach accepts that job performanceis composed of a number of crearly aistinguishabr. "o-forr*ts,

such thatsome employees could perform well on one performance component, but not1s_ryell on others (campbell, rgg4). one of the most signifi"*i stooi., in thisfi".l-d yT the longitudinal research carried out for trr. i-..i"* army, the socalled Project A. Based o1 the findings of this research, c"*pu.il egg4)proposed a "theory of job performance" suggesting ,* i; performanceconsists of eight major dimensions, each or ritrictr lr .o,,'po.rd of severalmore-specific features. These dimensions incrude i"o ,itranc and non_specifc task profciency, written and orar commuiican:;n,'demonstratingeffort, personal dis.ciprine, faciritating peer and teqm performance,supervision/leadership, and managemeit/administration. Whateu", is thecase' about the dimensions of job performance, it is necessary to haveappropriate and psychometrically sound measures of the relevant constructs.In most occupations it is usualry impossible to use

"bd;;sures ofjobperformance. This has led researcheis and practitioners to adopt reputationarmeasures' i.e. employees' performance is assessed bt ;; immediatesupervisor(s) (which is the most common approach) by peers, subordinates,or even using self-ratings.

Supervisory ratings have attracted most attention because they are easy todevelop and simple to u.se In addition, supervisors' u.rrrrrn#, are usualryconsidered the most important source of information for employees,

80

behaviour an<have often beeme effect, leniras bleak as miet al. (1995) rcollected for radministrative-research purpothat the two tyt(1996) carriedof job performappear to halsupervisors, .41coefficient alphmeta-analysis (peer-supervisorthat while peer-lwere not hrghly

The nature ofjors apparent fronsimply considerAlthough overalpersonnel selecrcharacteristics odefinitions of wcmore dynamic anbroad and adaptaArvey and Muqsuccessful perforsuch as contextu€contextual perfonpart of the revisacontemporary, gkcompetencies areinstead of concent:narrowly describer

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Managerial behaviour

ORcausaTIoNAL CITZENSHIP BEHAVIOURThe term organisational citizenship Behaviour (ocB) first emerged in theliterature of work and organisational psychology in the early l9g0s, whenorgan with colleagues (Bateman & organ,lgs3; and Smith Lt al., l9g3) inan attempt to explain the satisfaction-causes-perforrnance relationship,suggested an altemative form of job performance, which they calledcitizenship behaviour. They defined ocB as the behaviour of the individualthat is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal rewardsystem, and that, in the aggregate, promotes the effective functioning of theorganisation (organ, 19ss). By discretionary, they were describing the tlpeof behaviour which is not enforceable by the organisation or a ,equiremeni ofthe role or the job description tapping the actions the employees engagethemselves in, which are not directly required by the management but arewelcomed, since they assist in the improvement of the image and running ofthe organisation. In their first studies, organ and his colleagues argued thatthe low correlations, if any, usually found between job satisfaction andperformance are due to the fact that ocBs are not taken into account whenmeasuring job performance. Thus, they suggested that job satisfaction shouldlead to discretionary activities like ocB rather than "hard,, activities usuallycaptured by the majority ofjob performance measures (Konovsky and organ,1996) A few examples of citizenship behaviours include, guiding u i.*colleague, exhibiting punctuality and attendance beyond expected norm,assisting peers and supervisor with their duties, making constructivesuggestions for improvement, etc.

Most of the studies examining the concept of ocB agree that it is amultidimensional concept bearing at least two dimensions, a ..personal,'

andan "impersonal" construct. These are altruism and conscientiousness (orgeneralised compliance). Altruism taps the personal form of oCB. It refers tobehaviour, which is directed towards an individual in face-to-face situationsaiming at helping him (e.g. assisting someone with a heavy overload, ororienting new colleagues at work) organ (l9gg) argued that altruisticbehaviours include helpful actions rendered spontaneously on the spotdirected not only towards colleagues, although this is the most frequent use,but also towards outsiders (e.g. customers, crients, suppliers) as long as theseactions have organisational relevance. The impersonal form of oCB calledeither conscientiousness or generalised compliance is indirectly helpful toother people within the firm (peers, supervisors, or subordinates), assisting tothe better running of the organisation in general, such as being punctual,giving advanced notice if unable to attend, etc. Mostly it includes instances

82

where the em1minimum level

WORK coMPETBoam and SparResources Mannow looking fodescribing glolcontext.....drawiterm changes inbased approachtclaimed that theby strategic cha:competitive envicompetitors, andfurned the focusorganisation, sucpolicies and pradevelopment of t1980s recession,Traditional pers<following the wieconomies. Theemployees and mrceased to exist, prmnovation, creat.requirements sectir

The word competesuch as Boyatzis (pu{pose, as he defimanagerial charactand organisations.was built upon ademands and funrcompetencies, whiperformance. He echaracteristics or atappropriate specifican individual level,

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Managerial behaviour

in the job context. They are the underlying characteristics in that they may bemotives, traits, skills, aspects, self-images, social roles, or body of knowledgeused by the person. Two significant features of competencies, according toBoyatzis (1982) are first, that competencies may be known or unknown to theperson, i.e. may operate on an unconscious level, and second that becausethey are underlying characteristics, it can be said they are generic, i.e. theymay be apparent in many forms of behaviour, or a wide variety of differentactions.

Sparrow (1994), in a review of the use of organisational competencies inpersonnel selection and assessment, defined competencies as thosebehavioural repertoires (sets of behavioural patters) which some people cancarry out more effectively than others, including all those behaviours thatemployees bring into the organisation in order to perform well.The competencies approach may be a very influential part of the humanresources strategy ofany organisation. Since the relevant competencies havebeen identified, they can be applied in a number of organisational activities,including, personnel selection and assessment, training, career development,performance management, etc. Sparrow and Bognaruro (1993) claimed thatthe creation of a core set of effective behaviours, such as competencies, maybe used in a large set of assessment settings encouraging mutual behaviouralreinforcement across HR policy areas.

In the present study, the influence of work competencies and organisationalcitizenship behaviour on supervisory ratings of employees' performance isexamined. More specifically, it is hypothesised that work competencies andcontextual performance will independently predict supervisory ratings ofemployees' overall job performance, but also that supervisors will be able todistinguish between in-role performance, citizenship behaviour and workcompetencies. Further, no gender or age differences are expected in theperformance measures, in line with viewpoints reported in recent reviews ofthe performance appraisal issue (Arvey & Murphy, l99S).

Method

SalvprB

The participating supervisors were drawn from twenty-two small and mediumfirms in Athens, Greece. Fifty seven assessors (4I males) providedperformance data for 227 erryloyees (a ratio of 1:4). The majority of the

84

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PROCEDIIR

As part ofassessed torganisatiorcompetencirthe distribulthe HR desupervisorsthe purposethe three qura one-pagescores of eaquestionnain

MEASURES

The OCB neSmith et al.behaviour ustheir subordidescribes horas "helps oth,take unnecess

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Managerial behaviour

17 items' with items like "this employee behaves dynamically at work,,, ..thisemployee respects his/her colleagues", and '.this emptoyee uses correctspelling in writing", where the supervisor has to rate rrirn., .uUordinates inan 8-point scale.

The Job Profciency IndexThis measure was successfully used in a number of studies (e.g. Robertson &Gibbons, 1996; Robertson et at., 1997) as an overall job performuurce score,eliciting internal consistency reliability of g6. It consists tr ri" items wherethe supervisor has to indicate whethlr she4re agrees or disagrees with thebehaviour described in a five-point scale. A total overalljob proficiency scorewas calculated by averaging the raw scores of the six ltems. sampre itemsinclude "achieves the objectives of the job,', ..demo*,r*.-.*pertise

in allaspects of the job", etc. A total score wai calculated providing al overail jobperformance measure.

Tfcsc

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Results

The factor structure of the three perfofinance measures was rnitiallyexamined. The ocB measure originaily developed by smith et ar. (r9g3)assessed two dimensions, altruism and conscientiousness or generalisedcompliance. similar resurts were obtained by organ aoo ronousky (19s9)and Becker and Randall (1994).

An exploratory factor anarysis of the ocB items produced a four-factorsolution, with altruism as the first major factor, along with one more itemfrom the conscientiousness dimension. The remalning items of theconscientiousness dimension split into three dimensions. wt.n the analysiswas repeated, excluding the conscientiousness item loading on the altruismfactor, three factors emerged with a clear altruism factor ira tn. remainingconscientiousness items split into two factors. Thus, in the folowrng analysis,two factors were requested. The resurts of the oblimin factor analysis, arepresented in Table l.

ln order to improve the reliability of the ocB-conscientiousness scale, onemore item w1s dropped ("spends a great deal of time in personal telephoneconversations'), resulting in internal consistencies or .qo for the ocB_altruism and .7 | for the OCB-conscientiousness scale.

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Managerial behaviour

Item Factor

2

Examinatisince the nscales.

As regardsconscrenticpartrcipatirOCB, alth<deviation. Ifemale em1orientation r

Table4. GeruScale

OCB€ltrutsn

OCB-conscier

Communicatioorientation

People orientat

Action-leadershentation

Job proficiency i

Note: * p <.t

Displays kindness to*-a, t irft ".

.otGugu.,, Respects h"a";;j;;;#ur/'sr

co,eagues t 3:

F Shows positivefeelings rowards his/her colleagues ;;

ff -S_hows friendly behaviour within the organisatron .91Has good relations with most of histheicotie'agues .ggShows consideration for his/her col .81

, u_ses correct spelling in witing

5 g Y:::::y*d;.inwriting ;!F E ,r,::: :y"bl.

language both in writing and speaking .s2E -

Y-t:^t,T ?pplopriate style in wriring .s2speaks clearly

g Motivates hisher colleagues at work rrvr .93

E Behaves dynamically at work .90

E Looks for new activities within hisftrer work environ_

.81

Z ment .12 .79

€ Looks for new activities within his/her work environ_

Table 3' Descriptive statistics, internar consistency and correlations ofMean SD cr

Finally, as far as the job proficiency measure is concerned, a factor anarysisgenerated, as expected, one single factor with factor d&;r;*ging from'84 to .89 and cronbach's cr of .93 for the scare. An overail job proficiencyscore was computed for each employee, by averaging the scores of ail sixltems.

Results in.Table 3 5'ggest that the proficiency, ocB and competencies scaleswere highlv inter-correrated implying that o-cB *d ,"d.;;;;s are takeninto account when superviro^ u.*rJrubordinates, pr.fo._ance. '

Job proficiency indexCommunication skillsPeople orientation

4.00 .77 .935. 13 1.62 .955.33 1.72 .97

39**39r,* .69**

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71 .44** .16*5g* *

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Is willing to commit him/herself to new tasksValues below .10 are suppressed

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Managerial behaviour

Next, the weight given to citizenship behaviour and generic work competen_cies in the performance assessment process was examined. The results in Ta_ble 5(a) suggest that when both ocB and competencies are forced to enterseparately the regression equation, they are both valid predictors of overalljob proficiency. when all three competencies scales ano itre two ocB dimen-sions are entered together in a hierarchical regression analysis, the two ocBdimensions still remain unique predictors of overall job performance, alongwith communication skills from the three competencies scales, as shown inTable 5(b). Finally, the incremental effect of ocB was also examined aboveand beyond the effect of competencies. The results of a hierarchical regres_sion analysis in Table 5(c) suggest that action-readership competencies areunique predictors of overall job performance, but also that the two ocB di_mensions still predict incremental variance on the job proficiency index abovethe effect of actionleadership competencies.

!3!^l-e_l Multnariate regression analysis of OCB and competencies on overall job per_

IOftnAnce

As far ashighly c(competencperformanperforman,account. Cfrom empperformantemployees'dimensions

The resultsbehaviour aperformancehypothesis tperformancewould be alemployee,s 1that both foroveralljob ptperformanceleadership copredictors ofyounger emp,OCB-conscieroverall job prconscientiousr

Prior researclprovided evi<consideration rthe present sorganisationsassessment arefirms are smaKrilowicz (199suggested thatcould be that

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Adj1(-

Competencies

OCB-altruismOCB-conscientiousnessCommunication skills

ActionJeadershipOCB-altruism

.80

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75 .56 56 .5680 .64 .64 .088l .66 .66 .02

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.57 .32 .32 .32

.76 .58 .58 .26

.81 .66 .65 .07

.00

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These results show that the two ocB dimensions are valid predictors ofoverall job performance, irrespectively of the effect of the ieneric workcompetencies. It seems that supervisors value the significance Jf citizenshipbehaviours at work, although the high correlations between them and theoverall job performance measure, especially in the case of ocB-altruism,questions the ability of the supervisors, at least in the present sample, todistinguish between in-role and extra-role performan.., ,ir". the two ocBdimensions predict almost 65%o of the total variance in employees' overall jobperformance.

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Managerial behaviour

efFectiveness, as organ (l9gg) first sl,ggested. They also claimed thatsupervisors may have a preconceived concept of what makes an employeeef,Fective, and ocB may be a parr of this concept. to tn. fr.r"nt study itseems that engaginq in citizenship behaviours is considered a very rmportantaspect of work performance for managers in Greek sMEs. tn fact it may bemore significant than employees' workcompetencies in assessment of overallwork proficiency.

The expectation that a rarge proportion of supervisory ratings would bepredicted by the combination of citizenship betauio*s and workcompetencies was also supported. organisationi citizenshif behaviour andwork competencies accounted for 66%o of the variance in overall performanceralinss, highlighting the influence they exert in supervisors, affrairat of theirsubordinates. Althou€h employees' participation into extra-roie activities thatpromote the organisation and assist colleagues is considered as moreimportant than work competencies, at least two work competencies such ascommunication skills and action-leadership competencies are thought to beessential parts of successful performance. The positive relationship betweenthese two types of competencies and job performance ,ugg*, that Greeksupervisors acknowledge their impor[ance on top of citizeiihip behaviours.Summing up, the finding that ocB is more important than work competenciesin predicting job performance suggests thai Greek ,n*ug.r, believe thatparticipating into citizenship behaviours is more significant for organisationalperformance than the abilities that each individual i-r*g, into his/her post.

As far as age differences is concemed, it was found that younger employeestend to participate significantly more than older colleagues rn activitiescaptured by the impersonal dimension of OCB. This result'may indicate thatyounger employees who have also been with their organisation less time thanolder colleagues are keener in exhibiting behaviours, such as avoidrng takingextra breaks or having unnecessary time-offwork, since th.t;; still trying toestablish themselves at work, between their coileagues and tieir supervisors.The higher ratings received by women in the OCB-conscientiousnessdimension, in people orientation competencies and in or..uil;ou performance,contradicts recent suggestions that no gender differences exist in supervisoryratings of work performance (Arvey &Murphy, reet) impryng that overall,the female employees of the study are rated as performing"beier than theirmales counterparts, a resurt which *u, ,rp.uird across- arl performancescales, where females received higher mean scores than males, although notall of them were statistically significant.

92

A limitatirsource (sumethod vaanalyses u(Begley, l!differencesperformancpresence v!relationship

The primanof two im1behaviourperformanceestablished,behaviour arsector are sn

Arvey, R. D. dRniew of psy

Bateman, T. Srelationship br26,587_595.

Becker, T, E.citizenship brPsychological

Begley,T.M. (19an orgamsatioOrganizationat

Boam, R. & SparR. Boam & p.McC'raw-Hill.

Boyatzis, R. (l9gjCampbell, J. p. (

selectron and cPersonnel selecErlbaum Ass.

Harris, M. M. & Ipeer-supervisor r

Harris, M. M., S:appraisal purpos48, l5 l_160.

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94