WORD FORMATION IN CLASSICAL SANSKRIT

TREATMENT BY CONTEXT FREE RULES

Brendan S. Gillon

Department of LinguisticsMcGill UniversityMontreal, Quebec

H3A 1G5 CANADA

brendan.gillon@mcgill.ca

4th Indo-Wordnet WorkshopIndian Institute of Technology Bombay

Mumbai, India

2 January, 2011

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OVERVIEW OF THE FACTS:

1. Compounds have the stress of simple words.(A 6.1.158)

2. Compounds undergo derivational and inflectional affixation just likesimple words.(A 2.4.71; A 6.3.1; MBh ad A 2.1.1; Cardona 1988 264-5)

3. There is no lower bound on the complexity of compounds.

4. The linear order of units within a phrasal constituent is free; the linearorder of units within a compound is not.(A 2.2.30; MBh ad A 2.1.1; Cardona 1988 261-4)

5. A compound comprises two constituents of which the second is thepredominant.(A 2.1.4; A 1.2.43; A 2.2.30; Cardona 261-3)

6. Words internal to a compound do not govern words external to it.(MBh ad A 2.1.1)

7. Each compound has a canonical phrasal paraphrase.

PRIMA FACIE CONCLUSION:

Lexical structures are hierarchical, binary, right-headed, of unbounded length,integrating compounding and derivational affixation without inflectional af-fixation occurring on subordinate constituents within the structure.These are precisely the kind of structures which one would expect the contextfree rules of the sort given by Selkirk (1982) for English would generate.

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PANINIAN ANALYSIS

Pan. ini’s treatment consists in establishing an abstract form of which a com-pound and its canonical phrasal paraphrase are derived. According to histreatment, compounds are divided into four groups: avyayıbhava (adver-bial compounds), dvandva (conjunctive compounds), bahuvrıhi (exocen-tric compounds), and tatpurus.a (thematic compounds).

1. AVYAYIBHAVA (Adverbial Compounds)

Compound: uparibhumi (above ground) (MW: sv)Paraphrase: [PP upari

above[NP6 bhumeh.

ground] ]

2. DVANDVA (Conjunctive Compounds)

Compound: rama+kr.s.n. au (Rama and Krishna)Paraphrase: [ [NP1 ramah.

Ramaca

and] [NP1 kr.s.n. ah.

Krishnacaet

] ]

3. BAHUVRIHI (Exocentric Compounds)

Compound: samacittah. (whose mind is even)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[AP1 samam

even] [NP1 cittam

mind] yasya

whose]

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4. TATPURUS. A (Thematic Compounds)

Compound: asi-kalahah. (sword fight)Paraphrase: [NP1 [NP3 asina

with a sword] kalahah.

fight]

Compound: akhudam. sitah. (rat bitten)Paraphrase: [AP1 [NP3 akhuna

by a rat] dam. sitah.

bitten]

4a. KARMADHARAYA (Descriptive Compounds)

Compound: dırgha-kan. t.hah. (long neck)Paraphrase: [NP1 [AP1 dırghah.

long] kan. t.hah.

neck]

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ANALYSIS OF TATPURUS. A COMPOUNDS BY CONTEXT FREERULES

(1.1) A → A A (vises.an. a-ubhaya-pada-karmadharaya):snatanulipta: bathed and oiled(A (A snata

bathed)+(A anulipta

oiled) )

(1.2) A → A A (vises.an. a-ubhaya-pada-karmadharaya):tulyasveta: equally white(A (A tulya

equal)≺(A sveta

white))

(2) N → A N (vises.an. a-purva-pada-karmadharaya):nılotpala: blue lotus(N (A nıla

blue)≺(N utpala

lotus) )

(3) V → A V (cvi-gati):laghukr.: lighten(V (A laghu

light)≺(V kr.

make) )

(4.1) A → N A (upamana-purva-pada-karmadharaya):analos.n. a: hot like fire(A (N anala

fire)≺(A us.n. a

hot) )

(4.2) A → N A (vibhakti-tatpurus.a):gohita: beneficial to cows(A (N go

cow)≺(A hita

beneficial) )

(5.1) N → N N (vibhakti-tatpurus.a):dadhyodana: rice with curds(N (N dadhi

curd)≺(N odana

rice) )

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ANALYSIS OF TATPURUS.A COMPOUNDS BY CONTEXT FREE RULES(continued)

(5.2) N → N N (upapada-tatpurus.a):kumbhakara: pot maker(N (N kumbha

pot)≺(N -kara

maker) )

(5.3) N → N N (avadharana-purva-pada-karmadharaya):rajars.i: philosopher king(N (N raja

king)≺(N r.s.i

philosopher) )

(5.4) N → N N (upamana-uttara-pada-karmadharaya):purus.avyaghra: tiger-man(N (N purus.a

man)≺(N vyaghra

tiger) )

(6) V → N V (cvi-gati):sren. ibhu: allign(V (N sren. i

line)≺(V bhu

to be) )

(7) A → P A (pradi-tatpurus.a):atimadhura: over sweet(A (P ati

over)≺(A madhura

sweet) )

(8) N → P N (pradi-tatpurus.a):adhiraja: overlord(N (P adhi

over)≺(N raja

lord) )

(9) V → P V:adhisı: lie on(V (P adhi

on)≺(V sı

lie) )

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COMPOUND FORMATION RULES IN ENGLISH ACCORDING TOSELKIRK

A → A A N → A N P∗→ A P V

∗→ A V

wide-spread French-history

A → N A N → N N P∗→ N P V

∗→ N Vhand-made pot-maker

A → P A N → P N P∗→ P P V → P V

over-abundant over-lord over-burden

A∗→ V A N → V N P

∗→ V P V∗→ V V

turn-table

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REMARKS:

1. V → A V : dry clean; white wash

2. V → N V : hand carve

3. N → V N:

(a) someone or something which V the N:spoil sport, turn table, break water

(b) an N which V:rattle snake, glow worm, scrub woman

(c) an N for V-ing:swearword, rap session, think tank

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ANALYSIS OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS AS ADJECTIVES

1. AGREEMENT:

noun adjective noun bahuvrıhi

masculine asih.sword

tiks.n. ah.sharp

pumanman

dırgha-kan. t.hah.long neck

a long-necked man

feminine churıknife

tiks.n. asharp

strıwoman

dırgha-kan. t.halong neck

a long-necked woman

neuter patramblade

tiks.n. amsharp

mitramfriend

dırgha-kan. t.hamlong neck

a long-necked friend

2. NOMINALIZATIONS

adjective bahuvrıhi

suffix: -tva kr.sa-tvathin-ness

dırgha-kan. t.ha-tvalong-necked-ness

suffixe: null kr.sa(the) thin

dırgha-kan. t.halong-nekced things or persons

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THE NULL SUFFIX OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS AND THESUFFIX -ka

common nouns proper nounsepithets

sanskrit -ka -∅ *-ka -∅

English -ed *-∅ *-ed -∅big-foot-ed big-foot

dim-witted dim-wit

SANSKRIT:

The null suffix and the suffix -ka are in free distribution, except for propernouns and epithets, where the suffix -ka is forbidden. (A 5.4.155)

ENGLISH:

The null suffix and the suffix -ed are in free distribution only when they areattached to compounds which are themselves constituents of a compound.Example: long neck (-ed) bottle plant.

Otherwise, the null suffix attaches only to proper nouns and epithets.

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SUB-CLASSES OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS

1.1 SAMANADHIKARAN. A (literal):

Compound: sama-cittah. (fair minded)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[AP1 samam

even]

[NP1 cittammind

] yasyawhose

]

1.2 SAMANADHIKARAN. A (metaphorical):

Compound: candra-mukha (whose face is like the moon)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[NP1 candrah.

moonivalike

]

[NP1 mukhah.face

] yasyawhose

]

other examples: stula-caran. aclub footed

, ayas-mus.t.iiron-fisted

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SUB-CLASSES OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)

2.1 VYADHIKARAN. A (literal)(not productive, according to Whitney 1881 §1303):

Compound: sastra-pan. i (whose sword is in the hand)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[NP7 pan. au

in the hand]

[NP1 sastrah.sword

] yasyawhose

]

other examples: asru-kan. t.hatears in the throat

2.2 VYADHIKARAN. A (metaphorical: very productive):

Compound: us.t.ra-mukha (camel-faced)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[NP6 us.t.rasya

of a camelivalike

]

[NP1 mukhah.face

] yasyawhose

]

Remark:Even if the two principal words are in different cases, the canonical para-phrase still comprises a predication:

tasyahis

mukhamface

us.t.rasyaof a camel

(mukham)(face)

yasyawhose

whose face is like that of a camel

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SUB-CLASSES OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)

3. LINKED TO THE SECOND CONSTITUENT

Compound: dur-atman (evil-minded)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[AP1 dus.t.ah.

evil] [NP1 atma

mind] yasya

whosei]

whose mind is evil

4. PREPOSITION AS A FIRST CONSTITUENT

Compound: adhah. -mukha (dejected)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[AP1 adhogatam

lowered] [NP1 mukham

face] yasya

whose]

whose face is turned down

5. NEGATIVES

Compound: a-bharya (wifeless)Paraphrase: [RC [V P na

not(asti)(is)

[NP1 bhayawife

] yasyawhose

]

whose wife does not exist

6. COMITATIVE

Compound: sa-smasru (bearded)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)

(is)[NP1 smasruh.

beard] yasya

whose]

whose has a beard

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DERIVED WORDS

1. A → AA (comparative and superlative adjectives):suci-tara: purer(A (A suci

pure(A -tara

-er) )

2. N → AN (abstract nouns):guru-tva: heavy-ness(N (A guru

heavy) (N -tva

-ness) )

3. N → AN (adjectival nouns):kr.sa: the thin(N (A kr.sa

thin) (N 0 ) )

4. V → AV: (denominal verb):lohitaya: redden(V (A lohita

red) (V -aya

-en) )

5. A → NA (adjectives with possessive suffixes):dhıman: possessing thought(A (N dhı

thought) (A -man

possessing) )

6. A → NA (adjectives of appurtenance):saiva: sıva(A (N sıva

sıva) (A -a ) )

7. N → NN (abstract nouns):vr.ks.atva:(N (N vr.ks.a

tree) (N -tva

-ness) )

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8. V → NV (denominal verb):putraya: treat like a son(V (N putra

son) (V -ya

treat like) )

9. A → VA (participles):kr.ta: made(A (V kr.

make) (A -ta

-ed) )

10. N → VN (deverbal nouns):darsana: sight (seeing)(N (V dr.s

see) (N -ana

-ing) )

11. V → VV (causative):darsaya: show(V (V dr.s

see) (V -aya

make) )

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RULES OF DERIVATION IN ENGLISH ACCORDING TO SELKIRK

A → A A N → A N P∗→ A P V → A V

A → N A N → N N P∗→ N P V → N V

A∗→ P A N

∗→ P N P∗→ P P V

∗→ P V

A → V A N → V N P∗→ V P V → V V

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SANSKRIT AND ENGLISH COMPOUNDS

Sanskrit English

1. Pronouns as constituents: Yes No

2. Constituents as terms in the Yes Noantecedence relation:

3. Government of a word external Yes Noto a compound by one internal

1. PRONOUNS AS CONSTITUENTS:

1.1 English:

Pronouns in English compounds are rare; and when they do occur, theirsense is not the usual one.

Exemples: he-goat, she-devil, etc.

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1.2 SANSKRIT:

Pronouns are common in Sanskrit comnpounds. And when they occur, theyfunction as pronouns.

1.2.1 RELATIVE PRONOUNS (PVS 18.12):

[S [RC [NP1 [AP1 (yat1≺arthah. )-Bwhich1-aim

] dr.s.t.antah.example

] [V P ucyateis said

] ]

[NP1 [AP1 sah. 1this1

] arthah.aim

] [V P ∅is

[AP1 siddhah.established

] ] ]

The aim for hwich the example is said is established.

1.2.2 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS (M 4.5.7; SG 14.1.2):

[S [NP6 [AP6 tayoh.the two

] baddhayoh.prisoners

] [V P ∅is

[AP1 (kim≺nimittah. )-Bwhat reason

] ]

[NP1 [AP1 ayamthe

moks.ah.release

] ]

What reason is there for the release of the two prisoners?

1.2.3 PERSONAL PRONOUNS (PVS 10.3):

[S [AC [NP7 [NP6 ragasya1

of passion1

] (an-upayoge)non-use

] ]

[ADV kathamhow

[NP1 (tat1≺saktih. )it1-potentiality

] [V P upayujyateis used

] ]

If there is not causal role for passion in the production of speech, how doesits potentiality have a causal role?

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personal pronouns (continued) (PVS 11.1):

[S [NP1 [NP3 [NP6 anvayasyaconcomitance

] niscayenadetermination

]

[NP6 (((viruddha1)+(tat1≺paks.yan. am))contrary1+it1-similar

] nirasah.rejection

] ]

There is a rejection of contraries and of those things similar to them by thedetermination of concomitance.

1.2.4 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (PVS 22.7):

[AC [NP7 [NP6 karyasya1

effec1

] [PP [NP2 (sva1≺karan. am)self1-cause

]

antaren. awithout

] bhaveexistence

] ]

If an effect exists without its cause.

reflexive pronouns (continued) (PVS 19.25):

[S [NP1 tau1

the two1

] ] [V P [NP2 (sva1≺pratibaddham)self1-connected

] nivartayatah.exclude

] ]

The two exclude what is connected with them.

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2. ANTECEDENCE RELATION:

In Sanskrit, as illustrated above, a constituant of a compound can serve asa term of the antecedence relation.

In English, this is not generally the case.*The bicycle owner thinks it was stolen.

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3. GOVERNMENT

3.1 SANSKRIT:

A sub-constituent of a compound may govern a phrase external to it. Thisis known as asamartha-samasa.

[NP1 ((r.ddharich

≺rajaking

)≺purus.ah.man

) ] *[NP1 [AP6 r.ddhasyaof rich

] (raja≺purus.ah. )roi-homme

]

servant of a rich king servant of a rich king

S 3.9.16 (= SG 3.1.6)

[NP1 [NP3 [NP7 tasyamon her

] (snigdha≺dr.s.t.ya)fixed-gaze

] (sucita≺abhilas.ah. )-Bindicated-affection

]

whose affection was indicated by the gaze he had fixed on her.

3.2 ENGLISH

This is not the case in English.

((man≺eating)≺shark)

*(eating≺shark) of men

3.3 CONCLUSION:

In English, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound uniquely from the com-pound’s head.

In Sanskrit, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound not only from the com-pound’s head but also from the sister to the head.

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EVIDENCE FROM BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS

GOAL OR PATIENT:

Compound: praptatithih. gramah. ( SK 830 )Analysis: (prapta≺atithih. -B)

reached-guestgramah.village

Paraphrase [RC atithayah.guests

praptah.reached

yamwhich

]

sah.the

praptatithih. gramah.village

the village which the guests have reached

AGENT:

Compound: ud. harathah. ) anad. van (SK 830)Analysis: (ud. ha≺rathah. )-B

pulled-cartanad.van

bullParaphrase: [RC rathah.

cartud. hah.bull

yenaby which

]

sah.the

ud. harathah. anad. vanbull

the bull by which the cart is pulled

BENEFICIARY:

Compound: upahr.tapasuh. purusah. (SK 830)Analysis: (upahr.ta≺pasuh. )-B

offered-cattlepurusah.

manParaphrase: [RC pasuh.

cattleupahr.tah.offered

yasmaito whom

]

sah.the

upahr.ta-pasuh. purusah.man

the man to whom the cattle is offered

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EVIDENCE FROM BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)

SOURCE:

Compound: uddhr.taudanana sthalı (SK 830)Analysis: (uddhr.ta≺odanana)-B

removed-ricesthalıplate

Paraphrase: [RC odanah.rice

uddhr.tah.removed

yasyah.from which

]

sace

uddhr.taudanana sthalıplate

the plate from which rice has been removed

POSSESSION:

Compound: pıtambarah. purus.ah. (SK 830)Analysis: (pıta≺ambarah. )-B

yellow-clothespurus.ah.

manParaphrase: [RC pıtam

yellowambaramclothes

yasyawhose

]

sah.the

pıtambarah. purusah.man

the man whose clothes are yellow

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EVIDENCE FROM BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)

AMBIGUITY:

Compound: dr.s.t.akas.t.a strı (Coulson 1976, p. 121)Analysis: (dr.s.t.a-kas.t.a)-B

observed-misfortunestrı

womanreading 1: a woman whose misfortune has been observed

i.e.: a woman who has experienced misfortunereading 2: a woman by whom misfortune has been observed

i.e.: a woman who has seen, but has not necessarily experienced,misfortune

Compound: dattadara rajnı ( Coulson 1976, p. 121)Analysis: (datta-adara)-B

given-respectrajnıqueen

reading 1: a queen who is respectful (of others)reading 2: a queen of whom one is respectful

CONCLUSION:

In English, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound uniquely from the com-pound’s head.

In Sanskrit, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound not only from the com-pound’s head but also from the sister to the head.

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CONCLUSION

1. Context free rules provide a suitable analysis for both Sanskrit com-pound formation and English compound formation, bringing out deepstructural parallels between compound formation for the two languages.

2. Context free rules provide a suitable analysis for both Sanskrit deriva-tional morphology and English derivational morphology, bringing outdeep structural parallels not only between the derivational morphologyof the two languages but also between derivational morphology andcompound formation.

3. The application of context free rules must be lexically constrained. Thismeans that the relevant lexical entries must be enriched to impose thepertinent constraints.

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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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