Winter 2000 Vol. 43, No. 1...“It did a good job in the first stage of our investiga- ... sugarcane because it eats borers. Louisiana Agriculture, Winter 2000 3 Volume 43, Number

Louisiana Agriculture, Winter 2000 1

Winter 2000Vol. 43, No. 1

2 Louisiana Agriculture, Winter 2000

EDITORIAL BOARD:David J. Boethel (Chairman)Linda Foster BenedictPat BollichBarbara Groves CornsJane HoneycuttJeffrey W. HoyRichard F. Kazmierczak Jr.John McGregorJames A. OtteaW. Ramsay Smith

Published quarterly by the LouisianaAgricultural Experiment Station,Louisiana State University AgriculturalCenter, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.Subscriptions are free. Send requestsand any comments or questions to:

Linda Foster Benedict, EditorLouisiana AgricultureP.O. Box 25100Baton Rouge, LA 70894-5100

phone (225) 388-2263fax (225) 388-4524e-mail [email protected].

www.agctr.lsu.edu

EDITOR: Linda Foster Benedict

COPY EDITOR: Jane Honeycutt

PHOTO EDITOR: John Wozniak

DESIGNER: Barbara Groves Corns

The mention of a pesticide or use of a tradename for any product is intended only as areport of research and does not constitute anendorsement or recommendation by the Loui-siana Agricultural Experiment Station, nor doesit imply that a mentioned product is superiorto other products of a similar nature notmentioned. Uses of pesticides discussed herehave not necessarily been approved by govern-mental regulatory agencies. Information onapproved uses normally appears on the manu-facturer’s label.

Material herein may be used by the press, radioand other media provided the meaning is notchanged. Please give credit to the author and tothe publication for any material used.

Louisiana State University AgriculturalCenter, William B. Richardson, Chancellor

Louisiana Agricultural ExperimentStation, R. Larry Rogers, Director

The Louisiana Agricultural ExperimentStation provides equal opportunities

in programs and employment.

EPA gives okay for newsugarcane insecticide

Ag Center scientist plays key role

An LSU Agricultural Center scientist played a major role in helping bring to marketa new environmentally friendly insecticide for sugarcane – so friendly that it won anaward from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Called “Confirm,” the insecticide was issued a Section 3 label in November 1999,which means it complies with EPA regulations and is registered for permanent use insugarcane.

“It interferes with the molting process of the insect,” said Gene Reagan, anentomologist who worked for more than three years trying to find a new insecticide tohelp control the sugarcane borer, the No. 1 insect threat to Louisiana sugarcane crops.

“The sugarcane borer is by far the most destructive insect pest in sugarcane. It’sresponsible for more than 90 percent of crop losses by insects,” Reagan said, adding thatlosses could be as much as 50 percent to 60 percent of yield with improper management.

Confirm accelerates molting in only a few groups of lepidopterous insects. Thisgroup includes moths, such as the sugarcane borer. The chemical causes the insect todie by interfering with the completion of the molting process, primarily in the larval(caterpillar) stage.

The EPA gave Confirm the Presidential Green Chemistry Award in 1998 for tworeasons, Reagan said. Confirm works on such a narrow range of insects that it iscompatible with preserving and protecting beneficial insects. Second, it is a minimum-

risk pesticide, which means it is much less hazardous tothe applicator and the environment.

Reagan started his search for a new sugarcaneinsecticide in 1991, when six of the 21 documented fishkills in South Louisiana were attributed to use of theinsecticide Guthion in sugarcane.

“The fish kills brought negative attention to thesugarcane industry,” said Reagan, who then contactedchemical companies to help him identify more environ-mentally friendly chemistry that could be applied tocontrol the sugarcane borer.

One of the companies, Rohm and Haas of Philadel-phia, Penn., suggested two new chemicals, which at thetime had no U.S. labels. One of these was Confirm.

“It did a good job in the first stage of our investiga-tion,” Reagan said.

Working with Dale Pollet, an extension entomolo-gist with the Ag Center, and the Louisiana Department of Agriculture and Forestry, theEPA subsequently issued approval for a state emergency label (Section 18) on Confirmstarting in 1997, and terminated the label for Guthion on sugarcane effective inAugust 1999.

As research continued, results proved Confirm effective and farmers readilyadopted it.

Reagan explained that controlling harmful insects in production systems involvesbiological controls and cultural practices incorporated into a system of integrated pestmanagement.

“There are three approaches to insect control in crops – insecticides, biologicalcontrols and host plant resistance,” Reagan said. “We have a long history in Louisianaof developing insect- and disease-resistant plant varieties.”

Reagan also gives credit for the sugarcane insect pest research to U.S. Departmentof Agriculture scientist Bill White at the Agricultural Research Service in Houma, La. Rick Bogren, Linda Foster Benedict and Sam Rollason

The red imported fire ant isa beneficial insect insugarcane because it eatsborers.


Volume 43, Number 1, Winter 2000

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Page 11

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SCIENCE NOTES

4 A Look at the Last Millennium: Experiment Station positionsLouisiana for global agricultureLinda Foster Benedict

6 Carcass and Palatability Traits of Brahman-Composite and AngusSteersThomas D. Bidner, Wayne E. Wyatt, Paul E. Humes and Donald E. Franke

8 Oocyte Aspiration for In Vitro Embryo Production in Farm AnimalsJoel A. Carter, Marius Meintjes, M. Shane Bellow, Richard Cochran, Kay Graff and Robert A. Godke

12 Urban Influences on Rural Land Values in Southeast LouisianaSteven A. Henning, Lonnie R. Vandeveer, Gary A. Kennedy and Huizhen Niu

16 Timber management improves investment potential of non-industrialforest landTerry R. Clason

20 Effects of Internal Parasites on Replacement HeifersAlvin F. Loyacano, J.C. Williams, Jeff Gurie and Andy DeRosa

22 The Feasibility of Marketing Louisiana Soybeans in Matamoros, MexicoWayne M. Gauthier and Kurt M. Guidry

25 A Decade of Pepper Fertility ResearchRegina P. Bracy

11 Automated machine helps remove plastic mulchRichard L. Parish

14 Louisianagrass (Common Carpetgrass): A Low-maintenance LawnGrass for the Deep SouthEdward Bush

19 Nitrogen Fertilizer Management for Corn Production on Delta SoilsH.J. “Rick” Mascagni Jr. and Dennis Burns

24 New Approach to ‘Best Management Practices’Mark Claesgens

26 Tarnished Plant Bug Occurrence in Pre-tassel Stage of Corn Nextto CottonEugene Burris and Eugene M. Holman

On the cover: An egg is held in place while a sperm is injected into it. ThisLSU Agricultural Center research was done with horses (1998 by Y. Sam Sun).This zebra was used in research on transvaginal oocyte aspiration from free-roaming zebras in South Africa (1995 by Robert A. Godke). In the center arethe first split embryo calves born in the Ag Center’s research program (1982 byDon Didier). The colt is the first born from a live mare using ICSI, intracyto-plasmic sperm injection (1998 by Richard A. Cochran). The research projectshave all been published in the scientific literature. Read more on page 8.


B ecause of the Louisiana Agricul-tural Experiment Station, the state’sagriculture industry has become worldclass and competitive globally.

That is the opinion of three of thestate’s former experiment stationdirectors—Doyle Chambers, Macon“Duke” Faulkner and Kenneth Tipton—as they reflected on turning points andmilestones of the last millennium of theLAES.

Yes, they are biased. But the bottomline is that food and fiber production isnot easy in Louisiana with its lush, warmenvironment attractive to all kinds offierce weeds, insects and diseaseorganisms.

However, because of the scientificbreakthroughs achieved through theexperiment station, which includes 18departments on the LSU campus and 20research stations strategically scatteredthroughout the state, agriculture contrib-utes about $10 billion to the state’seconomy, second only to the petro-chemical industry. And Louisiana islooked to worldwide as a leader in sub-tropical agriculture, particularly withsugarcane, rice and cotton production.

Research station prototypeThe prototype of the research station

started even before federal legislationmade money available for such facilities.Louisiana farmers already knew theyneeded more science. In 1887, a groupof sugarcane growers set up a researchfacility in New Orleans’ Audubon Parkso they could learn more about thegranulation process. Likewise in 1888, agroup of North Louisiana farmers pooledmoney to establish a station at Calhounto study how to grow cotton, corn andvegetable crops and improve dairyproduction.

The Louisiana Legislature hadauthorized an agricultural experimentstation as part of Louisiana StateUniversity in 1884. However, theexperiment station was not officiallyestablished until 1887 when the legisla-tors agreed to comply with the provi-sions of the Hatch Act passed by theU.S. Congress in 1887.

systems were established—one forresearch and one for teaching.

“Every department had a researchhead and a teaching head—duplicateheads,” Chambers said. “It was aninefficient use of resources and talent.”

J. Norman Efferson, the firstchancellor of the Ag Center, changedthat in the 1950s when he was the deanof agriculture. He persuaded the LSUadministration to split the resourcesinstead of the talent so faculty had jointappointments between research andteaching.

“This moved agricultural scienceforward,” Chambers said.

Ag faculty could now teach and takeadvantage of student energy to carry outresearch projects. And students, thefuture ag leaders, could learn first-handfrom the researchers.

Mixing up the money causedanother problem, though. The infusionof federal dollars into the agriculturedepartments gave the appearance ofinequities across campus, especiallywhen student numbers were factored in.A solution put forth by a task force ofoutsiders was to split research andteaching.

A Look at the Last MillenniumExperiment Station positions Louisiana

for global agriculture

“Louisiana wasthe first state to ratifyand accept the termsof the Hatch Act,”said Chambers, whowas director from1964 to 1985. Then in 1890,Congress mademoney available toactually carry out thisconcept. To qualify

for the money, LSU had to join with theNew Orleans and Calhoun stations. Thethree entities became what grew to bethe LAES.

The money was earmarked forresearch only, which led to a shake-up ofthe system.

Director was dean, too“The director of the experiment

station was also the dean of agriculturein the early years,” Chambers said. “Thefeds came down with an audit andthreatened to remove the funding.”

With state funding short, the deanhad used the federal research money toundergird the teaching program. Conse-quently beginning in 1931, two separate

Doyle Chambers


Louisiana agriculture has come a long way from the days of “mule” power. Research atthe Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station has made possible the production of foodand fiber in the state.


“I didn’t want history to repeatitself,” Chambers said.

As a former agriculture student atLSU, he had witnessed the effects ofsplit departments. He knew this was notthe best course for progress. A bettersolution was to make a separate campusof research and extension and keep thejoint appointments with the College ofAgriculture. Partly through his influence,the LSU Agricultural Center was born in1972.

“Agricultural research had adifficult time competing with campusdepartments for funds,” Chambers said.“As a separate campus with our ownadministrative structure, we could bettermeet the needs for agricultural research.”

First rice stationMeanwhile, branch stations were

added over the years. Some were createdfor specialized purposes, such as theRice Research Station in 1909, the firstof its kind in the country.

The agricultural producers them-selves continued to be a driving forcebehind the establishment of stations.Farmers in Northeast Louisiana wantedto know more about growing cotton andother crops so put in some of their ownfunds for the creation of the NortheastResearch Station at St. Joseph in 1929. Abranch station was added at Winnsboroin 1949 to aid in research on twodifferent soil types—the rich, alluvialsoils of the Mississippi Delta and thelighter and poorer loessel soils upland onthe Macon Ridge.

“A problem would have twodifferent solutions, depending on thesoil,” Chambers said.

The “fruit and truck crop people”wanted a station near Hammond, whichwas the center of strawberry country andproduction of other fruits and vegetables.So in 1922, the Hammond ResearchStation was started. In 1949, the CitrusResearch Station was also formed to doresearch on fruits and vegetables,including citrus, to help the farmers meetthe produce needs of New Orleans.

Post-war economyThe technological demands of a

post-war economy helped drive theformation of several branch stations soonafter World War II. For example,farmers in the northwest corner of thestate wanted to learn how to grow cornand better ways to grow cotton. Theirrequest was met with the establishmentof the Red River Research Station nearBossier City in 1947. Similar scenarios

“Duke” Faulkner

led to the Hill Farm Research Stationnear Homer and the Rosepine ResearchStation near Rosepine, both in 1947.

Sweet potato farmers needed aresearch station well north of the sweetpotato weevil zone, which covers mostof South Louisiana. In 1949, thecountry’s first and only Sweet PotatoResearch Station was started in Chase.

“One of their functions was and stillis to develop sweet potato seed free ofthis pest,” Chambers said.

As these various stations wereadded, inequities arose in their funding.Even though they were part of theexperiment station, they operatedindependently in budgeting. Somesuperintendents, which is what residentdirectors were called then, couldgenerate more money than others.

“Some were starving. Others wereblowin’ and goin’,” Chambers said.

To bring about a better planning,Chambers put themall under one budget-ing system. “This wascertainly one of thekey turning points,”said Faulkner, whowas experimentstation director for ayear in 1988 and1989. He hadpreviously been the

resident director of the Rice ResearchStation and director of internationalprograms for the Ag Center.

This change allowed the researchprogram to branch into new areas,including soybeans, aquaculture andforage production, all of which have ledto better agriculture for Louisiana.

But the transition was not easy.“Some of the superintendents were

unhappy,” Chambers said.Another pivotal moment for

agricultural research came in 1971, whencommodity groups voted to mandate acheck-off program to support research.The rice producers were the first group.

“This showed tremendous supportfor the work we weredoing,” said Tipton,who was directorfrom 1989 to 1996. One of Tipton’schallenges was tominimize the effectsof a number of yearsof declining financialsupport. However,one of the worst days

Kenneth Tipton


of his career was when he was told to cutthe budget by 25 percent. “It was on a Good Friday,” he said.“I felt like I was crucifying the researchprogram.”

Fortunately, he did not actually haveto implement the cuts.

But despite limited funding, thecaliber of the research and contributionsto the state remained top rate. Forexample, during Tipton’s administrationthe Louisiana Forest Products Labora-tory was added to expand research on thestate’s No. 1 agriculture crop, timber.

Both Faulkner and Tipton creditChambers for setting a tone of excel-lence and a reverence for ideas.

“He was an idea man,” Tipton said,who had served as resident director ofthe Red River Station and associatedirector under Chambers.

Research milestones of the lastmillennium cover a gamut because of thediversity of Louisiana’s agriculture.Experiment station scientists have beenpioneers in the crossbreeding of cattle,tissue culture and the introduction ofnew varieties that have kept certaincommodities viable in the state, such asthe sweet potato.

World leadersExperiment station scientists are

considered world leaders in in vitrofertilization and the development ofherbicide-resistant rice.

Direct applicability to the urbanaudience includes the work with theFormosan subterranean termite and redimported fire ant.

The LAES begins the new millen-nium plump with past accomplishmentsyet poised for future needs. The scien-tists are breaking new ground in genetransfer, which holds the answers togreater yields with less chemical use.The station is also a leader in patentingand licensing some of the technologiesdeveloped to help offset some of theever-increasing costs of doing research.

But continued success requirescontinued public support.

“Without that, we may go to thegrocery store and find the shelvesempty,” Chambers said. “Without theLouisiana Agricultural ExperimentStation, there would be no agriculture inLouisiana.” Linda Foster Benedict


B

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John

Woz

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by the Brahman-composite breeds toAngus in this study. The project wasinitiated at the Idlewild Research Stationnear Clinton and compared several of themore popular Brahman-compositebreeds to each other and to Angus. Thesteer calves were finished at the IberiaResearch Station feedlot along with asimilar group of Angus steers. All wereslaughtered at the LSU AgriculturalCenter Meats Laboratory.

Five calf cropsGroups of British-based composite

breeds (Brangus and Beefmaster) andContinental-based composite breeds(Gelbray and Simbrah) females wereassembled at the Idlewild ResearchStation before the 1987 breeding season.Females in these breeds consisted ofyearling heifers and young cows, mostlydonated by breeders from Louisiana,Mississippi and Texas. Brahman xHereford first-cross females werepurchased from a Mississippi producer.

Cows in this study produced five calfcrops, starting in 1988. Some of thecomposite heifers born in the early yearsof the study were developed for replace-ments and also produced purebred calvesin the last two years of the study.

Brangus, Beefmaster, Gelbray andSimbrah sires were mated to cows oftheir breed and to Brahman x Herefordfirst-cross cows, but they were not matedto other Brahman composite cow breeds.For example, Brangus bulls were matedto Brangus and to Brahman x Herefordcows, but not to Beefmaster, Gelbray orSimbrah cows. Brahman x Herefordcows were reassigned randomly eachyear to the composite sire breeds so theywould have a chance to produce calvesfrom several sire breeds.

Artificial insemination was used inthe first 60 days of the breeding season,followed with natural matings. Siresused for artificial insemination weresome of the more prominent sires withineach of the composite breeds at the time

rahman-composite breeds weredeveloped from Brahman-crossbredcattle. The Santa Gertrudis, Brangus andBeefmaster breeds were among the firstBrahman-composite breeds, all British-based, developed in the United States.When the Continental European breedsof cattle came to this country in the1960s, they too were crossed withBrahman for commercial calf productionin the Southeast. Development ofBrahman-composite breeds from thesecrosses followed along the lines ofdevelopment of the Brangus. Most of theBrahman-composites were developed tocontain 5/8 of the Continental or Britishbreed and 3/8 of the Brahman breed. The3/8 Brahman composition gives sometolerance to the heat and humidity of theSoutheast and some ability to withstandvarious insects and parasites. In addition,a 5/8-3/8 breed composite retains abouthalf the heterosis (hybrid vigor) expectedin the first cross.

One of the advantages of compositebreeds is that they can be mated inter-se,or like to like, and reproduce their ownkind with the same breed compositiongeneration after generation. Thus,replacements are produced within thesystem, as in purebred cattle. This isespecially important for producers withcow herds not exceeding 100 animals.

Research has consistently shownthat Brahman and Brahman-cross cattlehave less tender meat than do British andContinental breeds. Only limited data areavailable on the carcass and palatabilitytraits of the Brahman-composite breeds,however. Because the Certified AngusBeef Program has set the standard for thebeef industry, we compared steers sired

Carcass and Palatability Traitsof Brahman-Composite

and Angus Steers

Thomas D. Bidner, Professor, Animal ScienceDepartment; Wayne E. Wyatt, AssociateProfessor, Iberia Research Station, Jeanerette,La.; Paul E. Humes, Professor, and Donald E.Franke, Professor, Animal Science Department,LSU Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, La.

Brooke Bellard, left, and Micah Blazek, both undergraduate students in animal science, cooksteaks to an internal temperature of 70 degrees F. The samples are chilled and thenprepared for shear force analysis.

Thomas D. Bidner, Wayne E. Wyatt, Paul E. Humes and Donald E. Franke

Carcass and Palatability Traitsof Brahman-Composite

and Angus Steers


of the study. During the five-yearperiod, 210 steers were available.

After the stocker growing periodon ryegrass pasture, the steers weretransported to the Iberia ResearchStation and placed on a high concen-trate ration. Steers were weighed andevaluated for fat cover over the 13th ribevery 28 days. After at least 84 days onfeed, steers attaining 0.4 inch of backfatwere weighed and transported to BatonRouge for slaughter.

After carcasses spent three days ina cooler, data were collected. Uponcompletion of the grading procedure, a1-inch steak from the 12th rib wasvacuum-packaged and frozen. After 10days of aging, two more 1-inch steakswere removed and frozen for futuresensory panel and tenderness analysis.The sensory panel included eight to 12trained panel members who rated thesteaks for juiciness and tenderness. AnInstron instrument was used to deter-mine shear force of the steaks, which isa measure of tenderness.

Carcass traitsBoth the Brahman-composite

breeds and Angus had significantinfluence on beef carcass quality traits.When the Angus steers were comparedto the Brahman-composite steers, theAngus steers had lighter carcassweights, more youthful, or less maturecarcasses and a higher final qualitygrade. Because all steers were fed to thesame fatness endpoint (0.4 inch), thesedata indicate that the Angus steersmatured earlier.

Even though Angus steers had ahigher quality grade when compared toall the Brahman-composite carcasses,

the average quality grade for all thesteer types was USDA Select. Thequality grade is a combination offactors that predict palatability (tender-ness, juiciness and flavor) of beef.

When the British-based compositebreeds were compared to the Continen-tal-based composite breeds, the British-based breeds had lighter carcassweights and more youthful carcasses.This was expected because Angus,Herefords and Shorthorns have asmaller mature size than Gelbvieh andSimmental. When Brangus steers werecompared to Beefmaster steers, Brangushad a higher quality grade thanBeefmaster.

The Angus steers had smallerribeye areas than all the other steers butlarger ribeyes when this trait was

divided by the hot carcass weight. Thus,the Angus steers had smaller actualribeye muscle but larger ribeye muscleexpressed on a weight basis. The ribeyearea is an indicator of total carcassmuscle.

The Continental-based compositebreeds had larger ribeye muscles whenexpressed either as actual ribeye or on aribeye per unit weight basis comparedto the British-based composite breeds.The Continental-based compositebreeds also had a superior yield gradecompared to the British-based compos-ite breeds. A lower yield grade indicatesmore meat. This finding was expectedbecause Gelbvieh and Simmental aremore heavily muscled breeds of cattlethan Angus, Herefords and Shorthorns.

Breed, palatabilityAll the steaks were similar in ten-

derness with three days of aging, but at10 days of aging, the steaks from Angussteers were more tender as indicated bysensory panel ratings and the Instronshear data compared to the steaks fromBrahman-composite sired steers. Steaksfrom the Angus were the most tender at10 days of aging. These steaks aged(became more tender) more rapidly thandid the steaks from the Brahman-composite breeds. Steaks sold insupermarkets normally have been agedseven to 14 days. This suggests thatsteaks from Brahman-composite steersage more slowly than Angus steaks, andit would take longer than 10 days ofaging to tenderize these steaks. All thesteaks were similar in juiciness.

Table 1. Influence of breed type on carcass traits

Breed Carcass Maturity Quality Ribeye Yieldwt., lb. grade area, sq. in. grade

Angus 623 A74 Select 75 10.9 3.0

Brangus 736 A80 Select 65 11.5 3.1

Beefmaster 729 A84 Select 25 11.1 3.2

Gelbray 752 A94 Select 35 12.7 2.8

Simbrah 803 A88 Select 70 12.9 2.9

A00 is the youngest maturity score and A99 is the oldest within A maturity. Inquality grade, Select00 is the lowest and Select99 is the highest. The Angus wassignificantly different from the other breeds in maturity, quality grade andribeye area. In yield grade, the Brangus and Beefmaster were significantlydifferent from the Gelbray and Simbrah.

Figure 1. Influence of breed type on shear force of steaks aged for 3 and10 days

lbs

Angus Brangus Beefmaster Gelbray Simbrah0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

13.5 13.7

8.810.1

13.914.6

10.4

13.5

9.711

3 days10 days


ales of an animal species have an advantage overfemales in the propagation of their genes. For example, in wildpopulations, it is common for males of many of the hoofstockspecies to mate with seasonal female breeding groups, as longas the male is strong enough to ward off subordinate males.Also, sperm cells can be produced by the testes throughout themale’s life in almost unlimited amounts.

In contrast, the female is born with all the oocytes storedin her ovaries she will ever have. For example, a beef heifer atbirth may have 200,000 primordial follicles containing oocytesin her ovaries. Since a beef cow might have only 10 calves inher lifetime, what happens to the remaining 199,990 oocytes?First, nonpregnant cows exhibit estrus and ovulate, with thissequence of events occurring again 20 to 22 days later (theestrous cycle). Follicles in cattle develop in waves of four to 12follicles at a time, and a cow may have two to three waves ofthese growing follicles during a 21-day estrous cycle. Over thisestrous cycle, 12 to 36 follicles develop to varying degrees andmost then regress during this interval, with usually only onefollicle ovulating. Thus, only one oocyte has a chance tobecome fertilized each cycle.

Oocyte Aspirationfor In Vitro Embryo Production

in Farm AnimalsJoel A. Carter, Marius Meintjes, M. Shane Bellow,Richard Cochran, Kay Graff and Robert A. Godke

This is the first calf in the world produced from an in vitro fertilized embryo where the egg was harvested from a live pregnant cow. TheBrangus donor female remained pregnant and produced her own calf from artificial insemination after a normal-length gestation. This IVFcalf was carried by a surrogate female and was born a little over a month later than the AI calf born to his biological dam.

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Mar

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Mei

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Joel A. Carter, Marius Meintjes, M. Shane Bellow, Richard Cochran, KayGraff, all graduate students, and Robert A. Godke, Professor, Departmentof Animal Science, LSU Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, La.


Valuable female genetic materialThis difference in male and female physiology presents

the problem of how to maximize genetic material (gametes)from valuable females. Embryo transfer (ET) was the firstprocedure to enhance the female’s reproductive potential. WithET, females are superovulated with hormones so that theirovaries release more than one egg before fertilization. Over theyears, embryo transfer technology has been used to increasethe number of possible offspring from selected females.

This approach has a few drawbacks, however. Forexample, some females do not respond or stop responding tothe stimulatory agents or develop physiological conditions thatmake it difficult to retrieve the embryos. One of the majorconcerns with the overall ET procedure, however, is that cowsare most often kept “open” so they may be hormone-stimulatedfor subsequent embryo collections. Cows that are superovu-lated and collected may take 60 days or longer to becomepregnant either with artificial insemination or natural mating.A small percentage of hormone-treated donors also maydevelop cystic follicles on their ovaries.

The advent of in vitro fertilization (IVF), or fertilization ina test tube, changed animal reproductive management. Thistechnique was first successfully used to produce offspring inrabbits (1959) and a healthy bull calf (1982). Even after yearsof research, IVF methodology is still being tested and fine-tuned for farm animals.

Slaughterhouse ovaries used initiallyInitial in vitro embryo production (IVP) used oocytes from

slaughterhouse ovaries. This worked well during early experi-mentation when large numbers of immature eggs (oocytes)were needed to develop procedures. In the 1980s, it wasproposed that the application of IVP in animals would likely beits use in rare exotic animals and in genetically valuableseedstock. Early attempts at retrieving oocytes from potentialdonor cattle included surgical and less invasive laparoscopicprocedures, but there was a limit to how many procedurescould be performed without causing injury. At this stage, therewas essentially no safe, repeatable method of harvesting theoocytes from live farm animals.

Then in the late 1980s, a method was developed inhumans for retrieving oocytes using ultrasonography tovisualize the ovary while a needle was guided transvaginallyinto the follicle. The oocyte could be aspirated from the follicleand subjected to in vitro maturation, fertilization and thenculture procedures. These efforts paved the way for the newreproductive technology now available for farm animals.Currently, transvaginal ultrasound-guided oocyte aspiration(TUGA), also known as ovum pick-up (OPU) in humanmedicine, is now used in cows, goats, mares and more recentlyin pigs and exotic hoofstock species.

Horses present unique problemThe horse has presented a unique problem for researchers

working in the assisted reproductive technology area. Eventhough embryo collection and transfer are relatively simple inthe mare, attempts to superovulate horses have produced poorresults. Because of the unique anatomical structure of the horseovary, only one ovum usually ovulates at the appropriate timeduring each estrous cycle. Also, for some yet unknown reason,typical in vitro procedures have not worked consistently in thehorse. One of the goals of the LSU Agricultural Center’sEmbryo Biotechnology Laboratory has been to develop

Figure 1. The oocytes are recovered from the ovaries of a cow bypuncturing the follicles through the anterior wall of the vagina witha 500-millimeter, 18-gauge stainless steel needle. Collection isguided by an ultrasound probe fitted at the distal end of theextended handle. The ovary with the follicle to be punctured isadequately positioned on the transducer head by the hand in therectum.

Figure 2. Using an Aloka 500-V ultrasound unit with a plastic handpump and negative pressure to collect oocytes from the developingfollicles of both large and small mares.

Figure 3. Diagram of the hand and probe placement fortransvaginal oocyte aspiration of goats.

Transvaginal Oocyte Recovery Procedure

FluidRecovery

UltrasoundProbe

CollectionNeedle

Vagina Ovary

Rectum

OocyteRecovery

Vaginal Probe

NeedleOvary

Bladder

Rectum

Uterus

Figure by Elmarie Meintjes

Figure by Jim Broussard

Figure by Elmarie Meintjes


assisted reproductive technologies to increase the number ofoffspring from genetically valuable mares.

Even though only one follicle normally matures andovulates during an estrous cycle, mares also are thought tohave one or two waves of multiple follicles during that cycle.Once again, this developing follicle population makes itpossible to use transvaginal ultrasound-guided aspiration tocollect oocytes from live mares. The first foals produced fromaspiration of live mares were produced at the Embryo Biotech-nology Laboratory in 1998, using a procedure called intracyto-plasmic sperm injection (ICSI), where a single sperm cell isinjected into the oocyte. After ICSI, embryos are surgicallytransferred at the 2- to 4-cell stage into the oviducts of suitablerecipients, since the culture of IVF-derived equine embryos hasstill not been perfected.

Goats are another farm animal species in which in vitroembryo production has proved successful. Transvaginalaspirations have been performed successfully on cyclic andnoncyclic adult goats by Ag Center scientists.

collection than similar nonpregnant, cyclic females. The firstoffspring produced from oocytes collected by transvaginalultrasound-guided aspiration from pregnant donor animalsresulted from cows and horses at this Ag Center laboratory.

Ultrasound-guided follicle aspiration also has been usedsuccessfully in other animals, with modifications madeprimarily to account for anatomical differences of the donoranimals. This aspiration technique has been used successfullyto harvest oocytes from adult pigs, as long as rectal manipula-tion of the ovaries was possible within the donor females.Transvaginal ultrasound-guided oocyte aspiration has alsobeen used successfully to harvest oocytes in llamas. Thisprocedure, the same used for other exotic hoofstock, has beenused successfully by members of this Ag Center laboratoryteam to obtain oocytes in the rare Bongo antelope and also theAfrican eland.

There is still much to be learned in the use of assistedreproductive technologies to maximize reproductive potentialin genetically valuable animals. Now that repeatable oocyteretrieval methods are being fine-tuned, it is likely theseprocedures will become routinely used to obtain oocytes forfurther gamete and embryo research and also by seedstockproducers for in vitro embryo production from farm animals inthe commercial sector.

Transvaginal ultrasound-guided oocyte aspiration is nowused to harvest valuable oocytes from minor farm animalbreeds, from domestic females representing rare bloodlines,clinically infertile females and cows too old to becomepregnant. Research continues in our laboratory to find applica-tions for this technology, including harvesting oocytes frominjured females, young prepubertal heifers and early postpar-tum beef cows for in vitro embryo production. We also plan touse ultrasound-guided oocyte aspiration to obtain oocytes forin vitro embryo production to help preserve germplasm ofendangered exotic species.

Phot

o by

Jim

Zie

tz

LSU Ag Center scientists began work in the early 1980s on embryo and gamete biotechnologies using a variety of farm animals, includinggoats. This photo was taken at that time at the research farm near St. Gabriel. Robert A. Godke was and still is the director of reproductivephysiology research.

IV success with pregnant cowsAnother problem with the larger farm animals is that their

gestation periods are considered to be long in comparison withthose of dogs (62 days) and cats (63 days) and that the animalsare out of embryo production during their gestation. Cowshave 9 ½-month and mares have 11-month pregnancies, butboth are known to continue follicle wave development duringearly to mid-gestation. Another goal of the Ag Center labora-tory has been to take advantage of these developing ovarianfollicles and attempt to produce IVF-derived offspring fromoocytes harvested from females during pregnancy.

The main concern was whether the oocyte aspirationprocedure would affect the ongoing pregnancies. This oocyteaspiration approach proved not to be a problem, and pregnantdonors were found to consistently produce more oocytes per


The use of plastic mulch is an important cultural practice inthe commercial production of fruits and vegetables, but removaland disposal of the mulch cause problems. Commercial machinesare available to lift and loosen the mulch, but many growerscollect the mulch by hand. Commercial machines are available tocollect the loosened mulch, but control of spool speed is aproblem. The difficulty with mechanizing the collection of themulch is the need to vary the speed of the spool on the collectorto compensate for the increasing spool diameter as the mulchbuilds up on the spool. A simple, automated mulch collector hasbeen constructed at the Hammond Research Station.

To simplify building and testing a prototype, the lifting/loosening operation was done by a separate machine similar tothe available commercial machines (Figure 1). The prototypemulch collector is shown in Figure 2. The spool was driven by ahydraulic motor connected to the tractor remote hydraulics. Anadjustable flow control valve was installed in the line to the motor.The motor was mounted on a swing arm suspended from abearing on the spool shaft (see arrow in Figure 2). Travel of theswing arm was damped and limited by a pressurized hydraulicshock absorber. The swing arm was mechanically linked to theflow control valve so that the flow control valve, and thus thespool speed, was adjusted as the motor/swing arm assemblyrotated in response to changes in load (torque) on the spool. Itwas possible to automatically reduce hydraulic flow (and thusmotor speed) to zero. This allowed the tractor to be stoppedcompletely without disengaging the hydraulic lever, making con-trol of spool speed fully automatic.

The spool was designed to allow easy removal of the rolled-up mulch material. Two alternate spool systems have been usedsuccessfully. Two wood 2-by-4s were grooved so that they wouldform a square box over the spool shaft. Plastic mulch waswrapped onto the 2-by-4s, and then the 2-by-4s were removedand discarded with the plastic mulch. The machine was latermodified to use fiber spools (the cylinders on which the plasticmulch was originally wrapped when purchased) to replace the 2-by-4s. The fiber spools were then discarded with the plastic.

The prototype was used to remove plastic mulch from a bellpepper crop. The prototype mulch collector worked as antici-pated. The swing-arm mechanism effectively sensed torque onthe collection spool and adjusted spool speed accordingly. Theprototype effectively maintained operation when the tractor wasslowed down, stopped and started. Once adjusted, operationwas automatic. In addition to a tractor driver, one person wasneeded to tie the plastic mulch to the spool at the beginning ofeach row and whenever the mulch tore.

Observations on use of the prototype on several smallresearch fields revealed that a crew of two could do in two hours,with less effort, the work that a crew of four to six had previouslyrequired three to four hours of hard labor to complete.

Automated machine helps remove plastic mulch

Richard L. Parish, Professor, Hammond Research Station, Hammond, La.

Figure 1. The primary purpose of this machine is to loosen and liftthe plastic. It also slices the plastic which aids in soil removal.

Figure 2. The vertical bar on the left of the spool is a swing arm thatallows automatic adjustment of the spool speed. Note arrow.

Farmers can also use a baler to remove plastic mulch. However, thisworks best if there is vegetative material, such as weeds or cropresidue, that can be taken up with the plastic.



T raditionally, rural land values havebeen influenced by site characteristicssuch as soil quality, type of crops grown,size of tract, relative accessibility,improvements and government pro-grams. More recently, populationincreases and economic developmenthave expanded urban and suburbanareas, resulting in an increased demandfor rural land.

Few studies have measured theeffect of potential economic develop-ment on rural land values. The objectiveof this study is to develop a model thatmeasures the effect of location andeconomic development on rural landvalues in southeast Louisiana. Geograph-ical Information Systems (GIS) proce-dures provided insight into the spatialcharacteristics of this land market,guiding the selection of measures oflocation and economic development.

Data for this study are based onrural land market sales collected usingannual mail surveys of professionalrealtors, appraisers and financial officersfamiliar with rural land markets inLouisiana. From January 1993 throughJune 1996, 1,811 sales were reportedstatewide. For this study area, a subset ofthe larger state data base, with 204reported sales, was used.

The study area (Figure 1) consists ofeight parishes. The primary general soilsare Southern Mississippi Valley SiltyUplands, Coastal Plain and Gulf CoastFlatwoods. The area is characterized byrolling hills with pine tree, nursery crop,dairy farm and other animal productionactivities.

GIS proceduresGIS procedures were used to review

spatial characteristics of rural land sales

data. An important feature of GIS is theability to overlay data. Overlay is theprocess of stacking digital representa-tions of spatial data so new informationcan be revealed, visualized and analyzed.For example, in Figure 1 the location ofeach sale tract is overlaid on a parishmap. The overlay in Figure 1 not onlyprovides a spatial view of the data butalso suggests a positive relationshipbetween the per acre value and proxim-ity to Baton Rouge and New Orleans. Itis hypothesized that relatively large peracre tract values in St. Tammany Parishresult from the Pontchartrain Causewaythat links New Orleans with this area.The bridge provides convenient accessfor commuters.

Relatively large per acre sales inBaton Rouge and New Orleans suggestthat location has an influence in thismarket. GIS procedures were used tocompute distance between each tract andthe nearest city. These straight linedistances were estimated and added tothe rural land data base electronically.These distance estimates generallyreflect three groups of sales: 1) north andwithin a one-hour commute to down-town Baton Rouge, 2) north and within aone-hour commute of downtown NewOrleans and 3) a north-central sectionnot generally considered a convenientcommute to either metropolitan area.

Contour mapsAnother feature of GIS is the ability

to develop a land value contour map.Similar to topographic maps that showequal elevation above sea level, thecontour map in Figure 2 depicts areaswith approximately equal per acre landvalues. Each contour line is drawn as acontinuous line identifying land values at$500 price intervals. Lines located closetogether indicate rapid price changeswithin short distances, and lines locatedfarther apart indicate much slower pricechanges.

In Figure 2, rapid land valuechanges lie at the heart of the BatonRouge metropolitan statistical area(MSA). Similarly, a concentration of

Steven A. Henning, Associate Professor; Lonnie R. Vandeveer, Professor; Gary A. Kennedy, AdjunctAssistant Professor; and Huizhen Niu, Instructor/GIS Manager, Department of AgriculturalEconomics and Agribusiness, LSU Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, La. Kennedy is also AssistantProfessor, Agricultural Sciences Department, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, La.

Figure 1. Tract location and magnitude of per acre selling price, RuralLand Market Survey, Southeast Louisiana, 1993-1996.

Baton Rouge

New OrleansLand Sale Price ($/Acre)

Under 10001001-20002001-30003001-40004001-5000Over 5000

West Feliciana

East Feliciana

St. Helena

Tangipahoa

Washington

St. Tammany

Livingston

EastBatonRouge

Steven A. Henning, Lonnie R. Vandeveer, Gary A. Kennedy and Huizhen Niu

Urban Influences on Rural LandValues in Southeast Louisiana


contours in St. Tammany Parish, thenorthernmost parish of the New OrleansMSA, suggests that economic activity inthis area has a positive influence in therural land market. The concentration ofcontours on MSAs suggests that eco-nomic development has a positiveinfluence on rural land values, implyinga need to include this variable in a modelof the rural land market.

The dollar contribution to totalproperty value attributed to individualcharacteristics of that property arerevealed to economic agents from theobserved prices of different tracts of landand the specific quantity of an individualcharacteristic associated with each tract.Prices of these characteristics areimplicit because there is no direct marketfor them. The implicit marginal price ofeach characteristic is an estimate of theamount by which the per acre land pricechanges, given a unit change in thecharacteristic.

The model analysis considered anumber of agricultural and nonagricul-tural variables that could influence ruralland value. The final model includedonly statistically significant variables.Variables in the final model explained 53percent of the variation in rural landvalues in the study area. They were size,month of sale, percentage of timber,value of improvements, paved access,distance to nearest city and parish as partof an MSA.

Per acre land valuesMarginal implicit prices are used to

observe the magnitude and direction ofinfluence of various model factors on peracre land values. The marginal implicitprice for size of tract at the mean sizeand price is estimated to be minus $4.52,indicating that per acre land pricedeclines by $4.52 with a one-acreincrease in size at the mean (115.88acres).

The marginal implicit price varieswith the size of tract, however. Forexample, if the mean per acre size was150, the marginal implicit price isestimated at minus $3.49 per acre,whereas if the average size was 50 acres,the marginal implicit price is estimatedat minus $10.47 per acre.

The marginal implicit price for thevalue of improvements was an estimated$0.00629, suggesting that $10,000 ofimprovements on a tract of land in thesoutheast Louisiana study area wouldincrease land value by $62.90 per acre,assuming all other factors constant. Themarginal implicit price for time of saleindicates that each month betweenJanuary 1993 and June 1996 adds $32.76to per acre value.

Development, locationMarginal implicit prices suggest that

nonagricultural factors representingeconomic development and location(metropolitan areas, distance to nearestcity and type of road adjacent to ruralproperty) have substantial effects on

rural land value in the study area. Themarginal implicit price for the MSAvariable indicates that tracts located in anMSA generally sell for $1,574 more peracre than tracts not located in an MSA.The effect of location suggests that asdistance to nearest city declines by onemile, the per acre value of land increasesby $27.69 per acre. Similarly, themarginal implicit price for paved roadaccess (RT) is valued at $569.26 peracre. Timber was the only agriculturalvariable to be statistically significant,with an additional 1 percent of timber ina tract actually reducing land value by$2.92 per acre. Most timber observationsin the data set represent cutover pinetimber. The model estimate reflects thecost of clearing the land for other uses.

Visual observation, using GISprocedures, suggests the existence of aspatial relationship between per acrerural land values and the distance to themetropolitan statistical areas of BatonRouge and New Orleans for the south-east Louisiana study area. Results of astatistical model of the study areaindicate that the nonagricultural vari-ables, distance to the nearest city andlocation in an MSA, affect rural landprices significantly. Selected tractcharacteristics (value of improvements,month of sale and paved road access)also influence tract value. The onlyagricultural variable to be statisticallysignificant was percentage of timber inthe tract, and it actually decreased tractvalue as the percentage of timberincreased.

The model analysis supports severalconclusions. One is that the value ofrural land in southeast Louisiana isgreater for land located within either theBaton Rouge or New Orleans MSA. Inaddition to the MSA effect, distance tothe nearest city also increases the valueof rural tracts, the closer the tract is tothe city. Results of this study alsosupport the conclusion that agriculturedoes not have a significant positiveeffect on land values in the study area.

Taken together, these conclusionssupport the proposition that alternativenonagricultural uses for rural landheavily influence land prices. Residentialand commercial use of rural land may bedriving the price of land in the southeastLouisiana area above agricultural marketlevels. With continued populationincreases and economic growth, thelong-term implication is a continualtransition of agricultural land to urbanand suburban use for this area.

Baton Rouge

New Orleans

GF

Contour LinesMetropolitan Statistical Areas (MSA)Parish Boundary

F Baton Rouge MSAG New Orleans MSA

Figure 2. GIS land value contour map estimated at $500 increments andoverlaid on metropolitan statistical areas, Rural Land Market Survey,Southeast Louisiana, 1993-1996.


Common carpetgrass was introduced into the United States through New Orleansduring the early 1800s. The Creole citizens of New Orleans referred to it as “Louisianagrass”or “petit gazon” meaning “small lawngrass.” Carpetgrass adapted well to the southeasterncoastal plains near the Gulf of Mexico, growing in a wide variety of soil textures ranging frominfertile sands to imperfectly drained clays. Carpetgrass has also been referred to as “nativepasture grass” because of its ability to grow in infertile pastures where other grasses donot thrive. Interest in common carpetgrass as pasture grass peaked during World War IIwhen agricultural fertilizers were limited.

Although carpetgrass was distributed throughout Louisiana in the 1940s as a pasturegrass, there had been little research on the use of carpetgrass as a lawn turf. St.Augustinegrass is predominately grown in Louisiana’s southern parishes where tempera-tures seldom drop below 32 degrees F, while centipedegrass is commonly grown in thenorthern parishes where temperatures more frequently dip below freezing. Zoysiagrassand bermudagrass are rarely used as lawn grasses because of the increased culturalpractices and equipment required. Common carpetgrass is an alternative low maintenancelawn grass well suited to Louisiana’s warm, moist climate. Research at the LSU Agricultural

Louisianagrass(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgrass):ass):ass):ass):ass):

A Low-maintenance Lawn Grassfor the Deep South

Louisianagrass(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgr(Common Carpetgrass):ass):ass):ass):ass):

A Low-maintenance Lawn Grassfor the Deep South


Center has been uncovering information that indicates commoncarpetgrass is suitable for growing on lawns in all 64 parishes ofthe state.

Common carpetgrass is often mistaken for St. Augustinegrassor centipedegrass (Figure 1). Common carpetgrass is a perennialcreeping grass that forms a dense sod, with light green, coarse-textured leaf blades. The color and texture of carpetgrass leavesare similar to centipedegrass. Leaves of common carpetgrass areshort, blunt-tipped, smooth and folded in the bud. The prominentseedheads of carpetgrass are an easy way of distinguishing it fromother lawn grass species (Figure 2). Seedheads typically range inheight from 6 to 12 inches. Centipedegrass and St. Augustinegrass

seedheads are shorterand less conspicuous. Carpetgrass adapts towide soil types and pHranges (4 to 7). It caneasily be established fromseed, sprigs or sod. Plant-ing 1 to 2 pounds of pure,live seed per 1,000 squarefeet from June 1 to Sep-tember 1 in Louisiana is arapid and inexpensive wayto establish a lawn. Com-mercially packaged seedmixtures of commoncarpetgrass and cen-tipedegrass are being soldthroughout the GulfCoast region. Commoncarpetgrass germinatesand establishes quickly,

reducing the potential of seed washing and erosion. Soakingcarpetgrass and centipedegrass seed in distilled water at roomtemperature 48 hours before seeding can reduce germinationtime by at least two days.

Nitrogen requirements are low compared to other warm-season lawn grasses. According to Ag Center research, qualitycarpetgrass lawn can be maintained by applying between 2 to 4pounds nitrogen per 1,000 square feet per year and mowingweekly at 1.5 to 3 inches with a rotary mower. Mowing weekly

Carpetgrass is often found at old plantations, such as here at theBurden Research Station.

Samples of common carpetgrass from Magnolia Mound Plantationin Baton Rouge are preserved at the LSU Herbarium.

Figure 2. The prominent seedheads ofcarpetgrass are an easy way ofdistinguishing it from other lawn grassspecies.

Figure 1. Common carpetgrass is often mistaken for St. Augustinegrass orcentipedegrass.

Edward Bush, Assistant Professor, Department of Horticulture, LSUAgricultural Center, Baton Rouge, La.

will control tall seedheads associated with commoncarpetgrass. Application of newly developed plantgrowth regulators (PGRs) and herbicides with PGRattributes can chemically reduce seedhead productionand vegetative growth and increase turfgrass quality.

Comparatively, common carpetgrass has fewerpest problems than most warm-season lawn grasses.This is essential in Louisiana where disease and insectpressures are high. For example, brown patch (Rhizoc-tonia solani) is often associated with large circularbrown patches in St. Augustinegrass lawns during thespring and fall. This is less of a problem with commoncarpetgrass. Insects are also less of a problem with

common carpetgrass. However, the best protection against pestsis scheduled fertilization and irrigation.

Common carpetgrass is one of the only turfgrass speciesrecommended for wet sites. It often is found growing in areaswith high water tables where other grasses cannot grow. AgCenter research has shown that carpetgrass can survive up to sixweeks of continual soil waterlogging. This is essential in the GulfCoast region of the United States where heavy rains and tropicalstorms can result in frequent soil waterlogging.

The low maintenance aspects of common carpetgrass, pestresistance and its adaptability to moist soil conditions make it adesirable turfgrass species not only in Louisiana but in thesoutheastern coastal plains of the United States.

Photos by Ed Bush

Left: Carpetgrass provides a cushioned walkway between bloomingrose bushes at the LSU Ag Center’s Burden Research Plantation.



Timber managementimproves investment potentialof non-industrial forest land

Phot

o by

Mar

k C

laes

gens

T he economic potential of non-industrial forest land in Louisiana isvirtually untapped. Timber management

Timber managementimproves investment potentialof non-industrial forest landTerry R. Clason

The LSU Ag Center’s Hill Farm Research Station near Homer includes about 300 acres ofsouthern pine, in which various research projects are conducted.

Terry R. Clason, Professor, Hill Farm ResearchStation, Homer, La.

is a cost-effective financial option onmost non-industrial land because it cansustain timber production continuity and

create an environment conducive forhunting, recreation or grazing. Sincethere are no general prescriptions fordeveloping a highly productive forestresource, each tract must be treated as aunique entity based on biologicalconditions and landowner investmentgoals.

Many landowners perceive timbermanagement as too costly, especiallywhen timber prices are low. Althoughtimber prices have increased dramati-cally in recent years, removing timberwithout appropriate managementguidelines affects ecological develop-ment by altering vegetative compositionin favor of less desirable species.

A study to evaluate the potential ofusing timber management to improveinvestment potential of small tracts ofnon-industrial forest land was conductedin northwest Louisiana. The researcharea was a 30-year-old, 240-acre mixedpine-hardwood forest of averageproduction quality. Nine, 20-acretreatment plots were established byidentifying boundary lines and invento-rying the existing timber. Inventory datawere used to separate the nine plots intoblocks of three plots. Subsequently, threemanagement treatments, which differedby investment goals and managementintensity, were assigned randomly to oneplot in each block. Management treat-ments included:

No Thin: Allow initial timber valueto accrue with no managementintervention.Thin: Provide periodic revenuefrom intermediate harvests.Thin & Release: Provide periodicrevenue from intermediate harvestsand hunting lease income.Intermediate harvests were com-

pleted on the Thin and Thin & Releasetreatments at ages 30 and 38. Wildlifehabitat enhancement was initiated at age32 with a hardwood suppression treat-


ment and was continued with prescribedburns at ages 35, 38, 41 and 44.

Treatment plot growth and develop-ment were evaluated from age 30 to age45. Tree growth data were collectedfrom 20, 0.1-acre measurement plots pertreatment plot at age 30 before treatmentapplication and at ages 38 and 45. Costand revenue data were maintained todetermine the cost efficiency of eachtreatment. The financial evaluation foreach treatment was based on theseassumptions:

1) Mean investment assets at age 30totaled $543.87 for timber only.No land value was included.

2) The 15-year investment periodwas from January 1984 throughDecember 1998.

3) Cost values during the invest-ment period were obtained fromactual or published data.

4) Product stumpage values forages 30, 38 and 45 were pulp-

wood $19, $23 and $27 per cord;chip-n-saw $44, $35 and $86 percord; and sawtimber $178, $213and $375 per 1,000 board feet.

5) The annual hunting leaseaveraged $5 per acre, and thelessee assumed liability insur-ance costs.

6) All costs and revenues werediscounted annually at 8 percent.

7) Financial evaluations were basedon before-tax dollars.

No Thin TreatmentAge 30 stand stocking, tree diam-

eter, tree height and stand volumeaveraged 147 trees per acre, 8.9 inches,65 feet and 17.4 cords per acre (Figures1 and 2). Between ages 30 and 38, treemortality reduced stand stocking by ninetrees per acre, and stand volume growthaveraged 8.6 cords per acre. Periodicstand mortality and growth from age 38to 45 averaged nine trees and 2.4 cords

per acre. Total mean stand volumegrowth was 11 cords per acre. Finalharvest volume was 28.4 cords per acre,with distribution among wood productclasses averaging 9.6 cords for pulp-wood, 1.5 cords for chip-n-saw and4,360 board feet of sawtimber (Table 1).

Thin TreatmentAge 30 stand stocking, tree diam-

eter, tree height and stand volumeaveraged 143 trees per acre, 9.1 inches,65 feet and 17.2 cords per acre. The firstintermediate harvest reduced standstocking and volume to 60 trees and 9.6cords per acre (Figures 1 and 2). Notrees died between ages 30 and 38, andstand volume averaged 17.5 cords peracre. After the second intermediateharvest, stand stocking and volumeaveraged 30 trees per acre and 10.5cords per acre. From age 38 to 45, notrees died and stand growth averaged 1.8cords per acre. Total stand volumegrowth was 9.7 cords per acre. Interme-diate and final harvest volumes were14.6 and 12.3 cords per acre withdistribution among wood product classesaveraging 7.1 cords for pulpwood, 4.2cords of chip-n-saw and 4,000 board feetof sawtimber (Table 1).

Thin & Release TreatmentAge 30 stand stocking, tree diam-

eter, tree height and stand volumeaveraged 141 trees per acre, 9.1 inches,65 feet and 16.9 cords per acre. The firstintermediate harvest reduced standstocking and volume to 60 trees and 9.5cords per acre (Figures 1 and 2). No treedeaths occurred between ages 30 and 38,and stand volume averaged 18.4 cords

Figure 1. Treatment Stand Stocking Figure 2. Treatment Stand Volume

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Age 30

Tree

s/A

cre

Age 38 Age 45

147

60 60

30 30 30 30

138129

No ThinThinThin & Release

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Age 30 Age 38 Age 45

17.4

9.6 9.5

26

10.5 11.1

28.4

12.3 13.2

Cor

ds/A

cre

No ThinThinThin & Release

Table 1. Stand harvest volume and product distribution by management option

Total Volume Product VolumePulpwood Chip-N-Saw Sawtimber

Option (cords/acre) (cords/acre) (cords/acre) (board feet/acre)

Age 30 HarvestThin 7.6 3.4 4.2Thin & Release 7.4 3.4 4.0

Age 38 HarvestThin 7.0 2.4 1,280Thin & Release 7.3 2.4 1,360

Final HarvestNo Thin 28.4 9.6 1.5 4,360Thin 12.3 1.7 2,720Thin & Release 13.2 1.7 2,840


per acre. After the second intermediateharvest, stand stocking and volumeaveraged 30 trees per acre and 11.1cords per acre. From age 38 to 45, notrees died and stand growth averaged 2.1cords per acre. Total stand volumegrowth was 11 cords per acre. Intermedi-ate and final harvest volumes were 14.7and 13.2 cords per acre; distributionamong wood product classes averaged7.1 cords for pulpwood, 4.0 cords ofchip-n-saw and 4,200 board feet ofsawtimber (Table 1).

Wildlife habitat enhancement on theThin & Release option was designed toincrease accessibility, improve visibilityand enrich the diversity of the shorterplants, known as the understory. Thefirst intermediate harvest limitedequipment movement to designated skidtrails placed parallel at 50-foot intervalswithin the stand. All unwanted hard-wood, except the mast species thatproduce nuts and seeds, were removed.

At age 32, a hardwood suppressiontreatment was applied with groundmobile equipment traveling along theexisting skid trails. A contact herbicidewas used to suppress the growth ofhardwood sprouts and pine and hard-wood seedlings, while minimizingdamage to the residual mast trees. Theunderstory was maintained by initiatinga triennial burning schedule at age 35. Itwas continued through age 44.

During the 15-year investmentperiod, intermediate harvests removedperiodic volume growth, provided short-term revenue and enhanced stand marketpotential. The age 30 harvest removed7.6 and 7.4 cords per acre from Thin andThin & Release treatments. Volumedistribution among product classes wassimilar for each option. Pulpwood andchip-n-saw accounted for 45 percent and55 percent of the volume (Table 1).

Harvest yields at age 38 were 7.0and 7.3 cords per acre for the respectivetreatments. Treatment pulpwood volumewas similar at 2.4 cords per acre, andsawtimber volume was 1,280 and 1,365board feet per acre for the Thin and Thin& Release treatments. Total standvolume production, which is the sum offinal and intermediate harvest volumesfor No Thin, Thin and Thin & Releasetreatments, was 28.4, 26.9 and 27.9cords per acre. Although final harvestsawtimber volume differed amongtreatments, sawtimber production duringthe investment period for the respectivetreatments was 4,360, 4,000 and 4,200board feet per acre.

Figure 3. Financial Comparison

0

200

400

600

800

1000 No ThinThinThin & Release

Costs Revenue NPV

Rou

nded

to d

olla

rs/A

cre

538583

637 632

755810

104

172 174

Dr. Terry Clason, who has been a researcher at the LSU Ag Center’s Hill Farm ResearchStation since 1976, focuses on two major areas of research: managing competing vegetationin southern pine plantations and the effects of combining pastures with raising trees.

Phot

o by

Lin

da B

ened

ict

Table 2. Actual treatment costs and revenues in dollars per acreThin &

Item Age No Thin Thin Release Cost

Stand Value 30 533.00 553.42 545.20Harvest Costs

First Thinning 30 16.21 16.21Second Thinning 38 15.25 15.25Final Harvest 45 15.27 15.27 15.27

Habitat ManagementStand Release 32 58.16Prescribed Fire 35 4.20Prescribed Fire 38 5.00Prescribed Fire 41 7.63Prescribed Fire 44 10.00

RevenuesFinal Harvest 45 2,003.19 1,044.14 1,088.18Intermediate Harvests

First Thinning 30 248.62 239.76Second Thinning 38 327.73 344.50Hunting Lease 31-45 75.00


Cost and revenue items for eachinvestment goal are presented in Table 2by year incurred and value. Actualmanagement costs for the No Thin, Thinand Thin & Release treatments were$15.27, $46.73 and $131.72 per acre(Table 2). Wildlife habitat enhancementaccounted for 65 percent of the Thin &Release management costs. Actual costswere discounted annually at 8 percentand combined with initial stand value toderive the respective investment treat-ment costs, which were $537.81,$582.69 and $636.56 per acre (Figure 3).

Actual total revenue from the NoThin treatment exceeded the Thin andThin & Release by $382.70 and $255.75per acre (Table 2), but the discountedrevenues for the respective treatmentswere $631.49, $754.84 and $810.50 peracre (Figure 3). Hunting lease revenuesfrom the Thin & Release treatmentprovided 5 percent of the discountedrevenues and surpassed the discountedhabitat enhancement costs by 30 percent.

Net present values at age 45,discounted revenues less discountedcosts, show that the investment potentialfor all treatments exceeded a discountinterest rate of 8 percent (Figure 3).Although the No Thin treatment accruedthe lowest management costs, its netpresent value was $68.48 and $70.26 peracre less than Thin and Thin & Releasetreatments. The internal rate of return,which is the interest rate at which thedifference between discounted revenuesand costs equals zero, for the investmentperiod was 9.2 percent, 9.8 percent and9.8 percent for the No Thin, Thin andThin & Release treatments.

In moderately stocked, mixed pine-hardwood forests, intermediate harvestsand understory vegetation manipulationcan sustain adequate timber growth,generate periodic timber income andcreate an additional marketing resource.Although intermediate harvesting did notincrease timber growth, the removal ofperiodic growth provides a short-termcash flow for investing in other financialinstruments. Altering stand understoryprovides a resource for additional short-term cash flow and may reduce futurereforestation costs. Thus, timber man-agement practices can help landownersimprove the financial potential of theirforest land.

Nitrogen Fertilizer Management forCorn Production on Delta Soils

Many soil types are present in the Mississippi River Delta of Louisiana. Optimalnitrogen application rates and timing are needed for each specific soil type to enhancefertilizer efficiency, increase corn profitability, minimize environmental pollution andto create a database for precision farming practices. Research in other regions of theUnited States has indicated that fertilizer efficiency is enhanced with sidedresscompared to at-planting applications. When nitrogen is sidedressed, an early-seasonnitrogen deficiency might be avoided by applying a starter fertilizer to supply nitrogenfor early growth. The objectives of this study were to determine if time of nitrogenapplication affected fertilizer efficiency and to determine if an in-furrow starterfertilizer was beneficial with either timing of fertilizer application.

Field experiments evaluating six nitrogenfertilizer rates, two nitrogen application timesand two starter fertilizer treatments wereconducted from 1996 through 1998 on a Com-merce silt loam at the Northeast ResearchStation near St. Joseph. Nitrogen fertilizer ratesranging from zero to 250 pounds of nitrogenper acre were knifed in on the side of the row(about 10 inches from the drill) at planting or atthe six-leaf growth stage (sidedress). Twostarter treatments were evaluated, a controland 10 pounds of nitrogen per acre applied in-furrow. The fertilizer nitrogen source for allfertilizer treatments was urea-ammonium ni-trate solution containing 32 percent nitrogen.Pioneer brand 3167 was planted each year atabout 28,000 seeds per acre. The test was notirrigated, and the previous crop was cotton.

Maximum yield occurred at similar nitrogen rates, 150 to 200 pounds of nitrogenper acre, regardless of the time of fertilizer application, at-planting vs. sidedress, intwo of the three years. Yields were highest for the at-planting application in 1998,probably because a relatively dry period after the sidedress application may havereduced availability of the fertilizer nitrogen to plants. Similarly, the yield responsesto starter fertilizer tended to occur primarily at the lower nitrogen rates (100 poundsof nitrogen per acre and less) and had little effect on optimal nitrogen rates.

Results of this study suggest there is little benefit from sidedressing or using astarter nitrogen fertilizer in lowering optimal nitrogen rates on this Commerce siltloam soil. Growers typically wait until emergence to apply nitrogen fertilizer so theycan evaluate plant population and yield potential. If nitrogen is applied sidedress, anapplication earlier than the six-leaf growth stage (about 30 days after emergence) willbetter ensure adequate fertilizer activation (availability to plants) by the time thenitrogen requirement of the plant exceeds the native soil supply. The starter fertilizerused in this test contained only nitrogen. Previous Louisiana research has indicateda significant early growth response and, in most years, a yield increase from in-furrowapplication of starter fertilizers that contain both nitrogen and phosphorus, particu-larly on the more coarse-textured, sandy soils.

H.J. “Rick” Mascagni Jr., Associate Professor, Northeast Research Station, St. Joseph, La., andDennis Burns, former Research Associate, Northeast Research Station, and now AssistantManager, Boll Weevil Eradication Program, Louisiana Department of Agriculture andForestry, Winnsboro, La.

Phot

o by

John

Woz

niak


Figure 1. Pregnancy and Calf Weights

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300

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600

Preg% Birth Wean Adj. Wean

53 63 66 78 71 74 71 76

400437

407

449

490529

503

546No ControlControl RoundwormsControl Liver FlukesControl Worms and Flukes

lbs

roundworms (Treatments 1 and 3) had gained significantly lessand were significantly lighter than heifers treated for round-worms (Treatments 2 and 4). This relationship was maintainedthroughout the breeding season.

At palpation, heifers treated for roundworms and liverflukes (Treatment 4) had gained more than those heifers treatedfor only roundworms (Treatment 2), and heifers treated foronly roundworms gained more than those not treated forroundworms. Condition scores also were affected by parasiteinfections. At the beginning of the breeding season, heifers thathad not been treated for roundworms had lower scores thanthose treated for roundworms. By the end of the breedingseason, heifers that had not been treated for either parasite(Treatment 1) had significantly lower scores than heifers thathad been treated for flukes (Treatment 3). Heifers treated foronly liver flukes had lower scores than heifers treated forroundworms. At palpation, heifers that received neithertreatment had significantly lower scores than heifers treated foronly one of the parasites. Heifers treated for both parasites hadsignificantly higher condition scores than heifers treated foronly one of the parasites.

Pregnancy ratesParasite infections significantly affected pregnancy rates.

Heifers repeatedly treated for both types of parasites had a 78percent pregnancy rate. Heifers treated for flukes but notroundworms had a 66 percent pregnancy rate. Heifers treatedfor roundworms, but not liver flukes, had a 63 percent preg-nancy rate, which was significantly lower than that of heiferstreated for both parasites. Heifers not treated for either parasitehad a 53 percent pregnancy rate, also significantly lower thanthat of heifers treated for both parasites. The parasites seemedto have a cumulative effect in that heifers treated for round-worms and liver flukes had higher pregnancy rates than heiferstreated for only roundworms.

Treatment had a significant effect on calf birth weight.Calves from heifers treated for both parasites had heavier birth

eef cattle in Louisiana are constantly infected withgastrointestinal nematodes, commonly referred to as round-worms. The brown stomach worm, Ostertagia ostertagi, is themost troublesome gastrointestinal nematode parasite. Also aproblem in much of the Red River basin and the coastal marshis the bovine liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, a parasitic trema-tode. Between 50 percent and 100 percent of yearling andolder cattle are infected with this pest. Young cattle (stockersand replacement heifers) are most susceptible to clinicalparasitic disease and production loss.

This project was conducted to measure the productionlosses caused by roundworms and liver flukes in beef replace-ment heifers, to identify when these losses occur and the lossesattributed to each type of parasite.

This study was conducted using 372 Angus- or Brangus-sired beef heifers from the 1993 through 1996 spring calvingseasons. After weaning each year (approximately October 15),heifers were randomly allotted to three pasture groups and oneof four treatments within each group. Parasite control treat-ments were as follows: Treatment 1 - no parasite control;Treatment 2 - roundworm control; Treatment 3 - liver flukecontrol; and Treatment 4 - roundworm and liver fluke control.

Roundworms were controlled with the injectable formula-tions of Ivomec (Merial) or Dectomax (Pfizer). Both productscontrol the major nematode parasites for at least 21 days.Curatrem (Merial) drench was administered to control liverflukes. Heifers in this trial received no treatments for parasitecontrol before the study. Treatments were initiated at allot-ment. Since the objective was to minimize the effects of theparasites, treatments were repeated at 28- to 84-day intervals,depending on time of year and risk of infection. The average ofseven treatments per year was far in excess of a practicaltreatment regimen.

Weight and conditionCattle were weighed and condition-scored at each treat-

ment date. Fecal samples were collected per rectum from abouthalf of each group. Parasite infection was monitored by fecalegg counts. Heifers remained in pasture groups until they werepalpated for pregnancy diagnosis in October. Pregnant heiferswere pooled at that time and pastured together through theirfirst calving season and until their calves were weaned the nextOctober. Calves were born during the spring calving seasonsfrom 1995 through 1998. Calf weights were recorded at birthand at weaning.

Initial weights for the treatment groups were the same. Bythe beginning of the breeding season, heifers not treated for

Effects of Internal Parasiteson Replacement HeifersAlvin F. Loyacano, J.C. Williams, Jeff Gurie and Andy DeRosa

Alvin F. Loyacano, Professor, Dean Lee Research Station; J.C. Williams,Professor, Department of Veterinary Science; Jeff Gurie, ResearchAssociate, Dean Lee Research Station, Alexandria, La.; and Andy DeRosa,Instructor, Department of Veterinary Science, LSU Agricultural Center,Baton Rouge, La.

B


weights than those from heifers not treated for roundworms. Atweaning, calves from heifers that had been treated for bothparasites had the highest average weaning weights. Heiferstreated for only one of the parasites produced calves withaverage weaning weights that were not significantly lower thanthose from heifers treated for both parasites. Calves fromheifers that were not treated for either parasite weresignificantly lighter than calves from heifers that weretreated for both parasites. Adjusted weaning weightsfollowed the same pattern.

Initial nematode egg counts ranged from zero to 600 eggsper gram and were not different between treatments. At thebeginning of the breeding season, an average of 46 days posttreatment, heifers treated for nematodes had significantly loweraverage egg counts than heifers that were treated for flukes orthat received no treatment. At the end of the breeding seasonand at palpation (60 to 84 days post treatment), there were nosignificant treatment effects on the nematode egg count. Itmust be emphasized that egg counts were not used to measurethe efficacy of treatments. They were used to monitor infec-tions and to demonstrate that heifers repeatedly reinfected withnematodes may have suffered some losses to nematodeinfections, despite repeated prophylactic treatments.

Initial liver fluke egg counts were not different betweentreatments and ranged from zero to 6.5 eggs per gram. Theprevalence or rate of infection was 30 percent. At the initiationof the breeding season and throughout the rest of the study,

heifers treated for flukes had significantly lower egg countsthan untreated heifers. Fluke transmission is seasonal, occur-ring primarily in the spring and fall with a life cycle of up to 12weeks. Animals that receive an effective treatment whentransmission is not occurring can remain fluke-free forextended periods. Infection rates for heifers not treated forflukes were 41 percent at breeding and 80 percent at palpation.Infection rates for heifers treated for flukes were 7 percent atbreeding and 35 percent at palpation.

In this study, roundworms reduced body weights andcondition scores for yearling heifers throughout the test period.Fluke infections reduced body condition scores and weights bythe end of the breeding season and reduced pregnancy rates.Heifers treated for both parasites had the highest pregnancyrates. Roundworm infections reduced calf birth weights.Treating heifers for roundworms increased the weaningweights of their calves. Treating for flukes resulted in weaningweights intermediate between those of heifers treated forroundworms and those receiving no treatment.

Roundworms, liver flukes affect growthIn the Red River region of central Louisiana, both round-

worms and liver flukes significantly affect the growth andproduction of replacement heifers. Many heifers were obvi-ously suffering from some parasitic disease before initiation ofthe trial each year. While treating for liver flukes did notincrease heifer gains before the end of the breeding season,treating for roundworms resulted in increased gains during thefirst weigh period. Therefore, it must be assumed that round-worms were the major cause of the pre-trial effects of parasit-ism. This indicates that roundworms affected the heifers earlierthan liver flukes did and that the optimum times for initiatingtreatment of the parasites is probably much earlier for round-worms. When both parasites are present, their effect seems tobe cumulative.

In fluke-endemic areas, the strategic treatment of replace-ment heifers for both parasites is recommended. Timelytreatments for roundworms should begin at least at weaning.Fluke control for spring-born heifers should be initiated by atleast the beginning of their first breeding season. A productthat controls both roundworms and liver flukes would be agood choice for use on younger heifers. Older animals mightbenefit more from timely treatments with a more effectiveflukacide and a broader spectrum endectocide.

Figure 2. Heifer Weights

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Initial Breed Palpation Gain

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LAES research program. Both of these awards include a $2,000cash prize.

This year’s Tipton Team Award was presented to thecotton team, which includes scientists at four locations. Teamcoordinator is David Caldwell at the Red River ResearchStation near Bossier City. The other members are PatrickColyer, also at Red River; Steve Moore at the Dean LeeResearch Station near Alexandria; Don Boquet and MerrittHolman, both at the Northeast Research Station near St.Joseph; and Ivan Dickson in the Agronomy Department.Because of their work, cotton producers in Louisiana can makeinformed choices about seed varieties so they can both savemoney in production costs and make money in yields.

James L. Griffin, Terrence Tiersch and the LouisianaAgricultural Experiment Station’s Cotton Variety and StrainEvaluation Team won the top research awards presented atthe LSU Agricultural Center’s Annual Conference in Decem-ber 1999.

Griffin, a professor in the Plant Pathology and CropPhysiology Department and weed scientist, received the DoyleChambers Research Award for meritorious contributions toagriculture.

Tiersch, a professor at the Aquaculture Research Station,received the Mississippi Chemical Corporation/Triad Nitro-gen Award, which is given to the scientist who has made duringthe past five years the most significant contributions to the

Griffin, Tiersch and cotton team win 1999 research awards


ever, that Louisiana farmers do not reapthe full benefits of these advantages.Most Louisiana soybeans are solddirectly to local elevators at harvest.Sales at harvest limit opportunities toparticipate in value-added activities.

The Mexican advantageMatamoros was picked as a poten-

tial market outlet for several reasons.First, it is just across the Rio Grandefrom Brownsville, Texas, and accessibleto Louisiana producers by either train orbarge through the Gulf IntracoastalWaterway (GIW). Barges generally offerthe lowest per unit costs because theycan transport 50,000 to 55,000 bushelsper barge compared to 3,333 bushels perrail car. Second, the GIW links all majorLouisiana river grain elevators withBrownsville because it flows in an east-west direction throughout the length ofSouth Louisiana and intersects all of thestate’s major rivers. Third, Mexico hashistorically been and will likely continueto be a soybean-deficit country. Since

1994, Mexico has ranked among the topthree buyers of U.S. soybeans. Nearly allof its soybean imports are from theUnited States, and 5.83 percent enteredthrough Matamoros. The three soybeancrushing plants in Matamoros make up 7percent of Mexico’s total soybeancrushing capacity. Estimates of theannual need for soybeans in Matamorosranged from 6.8 million bushels to 21.5million bushels, or from 20 percent to 66percent of Louisiana’s 1997 soybeanproduction. Fourth, most soybeanimports entering Matamoros are beingshipped from 1,200 to 1,500 miles bytrains from Midwestern U.S. supplypoints. Distances from major Louisianasupply regions to Matamoros range from470 to 1,087 river miles and from 541 to765 railroad miles.

Economic feasibilityRegardless of source, feasibility for

the Mexican buyer is defined by thelowest landed (elevator delivered) perbushel costs. For the Louisiana producer,

he search for new markets is acontinuing quest. To that end, theLouisiana Soybean and Feed GrainsPromotion and Research Board funded astudy to determine whether Louisianasoybean farmers could net more moneyby barging soybeans into Matamoros,Mexico, rather than selling them atharvest to local elevators.

For years, river barges have com-peted effectively against trains inmoving Midwest and Louisiana grains toexport markets. Louisiana soybeanproducers appear to have the advantageof proximity to a waterway infrastructuresupporting barge shipments toMatamoros through Brownsville, Texas,and a climate that allows early plantingand harvesting. There is a sense, how-

The Feasibility of MarketingLouisiana Soybeans

in Matamoros, MexicoWayne M. Gauthier and Kurt M. Guidry

Wayne M. Gauthier, Associate Professor,Department of Agricultural Economics andAgribusiness, and Kurt M. Guidry, AssistantSpecialist, LSU Agricultural Center, BatonRouge, La.

T

The Feasibility of MarketingLouisiana Soybeans

in Matamoros, Mexico

Table 1. Per bushel cost components for barging Louisiana soybeans to Matamoros, Mexico

Total Costsc withLouisiana Supply Production Equivalents b Total Miles Transhipment by Total CostsRegion (Bushels)a Barge Rail Barged Railed Truck d Raile Rail Direct

Lake Providence 8.15 163 2445 1,087 765 $ 0.84 $ 0.89 $ 0.85

Tallulah 2.45 49 735 1,056 737 0.81 0.85 0.83

St. Joseph 3.07 62 923 995 708 0.83 0.87 0.85

Vidalia 4.80 96 1439 962 686 0.82 0.87 0.85

Lettsworth 7.22 144 2165 912 637 0.84 0.89 0.87

Port Allen 0.52 10 155 825 628 0.80 0.85 0.82

Krotz Springs 5.37 107 1611 640 590 0.72 0.77 0.75

Mermentau 5.94 119 1782 470 541 0.72 0.76 0.75

a Millionsb Barge and rail equivalents are the number of barges and railcars needed to transport the supply region’s 1997 total production of soybeans.c Total costs per bushel includes assembly, barging, transloading and transhipment. Assembly costs include trucking, elevator storage, barge loading andFederal Grain Inspection Service charges. Barging costs include barging on both the Mississippi River and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. Transloading costsinclude wharfage, stevedoring, elevator elevation and weight supervision costs at Brownsville, Texas.d Transhipment costs by truck include trucking costs as well as costs for phytosanitary and customs paperwork.e Transhipment costs by rail include rail costs as well as costs for phytosanitary and customs paperwork.


Tallulah

St. Joseph

Vidalia

Lettsworth

Matamoros

Lake Providence

Port Allen

New Orleans

Cities and TownsWaterways in StudyPer Bushel Net Returns

Mermentau

KrotzSprings

($0.

10)

($0.

09)

($0.

02)

($0.06)

feasibility depends on the differencebetween the prices paid by Mexicanbuyers and Louisiana local marketprices. The difference must be greaterthan all the known costs of exporting –plus a risk premium. The risk premiummust be large enough to make producerswilling to assume the additional risk anduncertainty of exporting soybeans toMexico instead of selling directly tolocal elevators. At any time, thatdifference is determined by the relativeprice relationships for soybeans inLouisiana and Matamoros, barge and railtransportation rates, associated explicittransaction costs and implicit riskpremium costs.

Estimated explicit costs and returnrelationships for eight Louisiana supplyregions are presented in Table 1 andFigure 1. The implicit risk premium thatwill create exports is an unpredictable,producer-unique number. The explicitrisk premium is the difference betweenthe price in Mexico less the sum of thelocal Louisiana elevator price and theexplicit costs of exporting. Theproducer’s decision to export instead ofsell to a local elevator is the best

indicator as to whether the explicit riskpremium was sufficiently greater thanthe implicit risk premium.

FindingsSoybean production from 34

Louisiana parishes was assigned intoeight supply regions. Assignment wasbased on distance of the parish seat froman existing elevator with barge-loadingcapabilities.

Table 1 identifies (1) the 1997productive capacity of the supply regionin terms of bushels and their barge andrailcar equivalents, (2) the number ofriver and barged miles from each supplyregion and (3) the total estimated landedcost of a bushel of soybeans at theprocessing plant in Matamoros fromthree shipment combinations. Thefootnotes in the table identify thespecific elements of the major compo-nents (assembly, barging, transloadingand transhipment) of total costs.

Soybeans can be shipped fromLouisiana by direct rail or barge to theBrownsville-Matamoros border. Bargeshipment requires a transhipment byeither truck or rail since the soybean

processing plants at Matamoros are notsituated on the Rio Grande and thesoybeans must be transported inland.Soybeans arriving in rail direct ship-ments maintain the origin weight andproduct identity integrity established atloading. Thus, custom clearing bordertransactions costs for direct rail ship-ments are minimum as compared tobarge shipments. Louisiana rail directtotal costs for assembly and transporta-tion from the eight Louisiana supplyregions into the plants at Matamorosrange from $0.75 to $0.87 per bushel.

Barged soybeans must be trans-ferred into an elevator for subsequentreloading into either trucks or railcars forfinal inland shipment to Matamoros.Depending upon the supply region, thecosts of exporting soybeans by bargewere estimated to range from $0.72 to$0.84 per bushel with truck transhipmentand $0.76 to $0.89 per bushel with railtranshipment. Of these costs, the costs ofelevator transfer at Brownsville were anestimated $0.17 per bushel. Costs fortranshipping grain by truck wereestimated at $0.05 per bushel, andtranshipping by rail was estimated at

Per bushel net returns (loss) associated with bargingsoybeans to Matamoros, Mexico, with truck transhipmentfrom select Louisiana supply regions.

Supply Region Mode of Transport

Barge- Barge- RailTruck Rail Direct

$ per bushel

Lake Providence ($0.10) ($0.15) ($0.11)

Tallulah ($0.07) ($0.11) ($0.09)

St. Joseph ($0.09) ($0.13) ($0.11)

Vidalia ($0.08) ($0.13) ($0.11)

Lettsworth ($0.10) ($0.15) ($0.13)

Port Allen ($0.06) ($0.11) ($0.08)

Krotz Springs $0.02 ($0.03) ($0.01)

Mermentau $0.02 ($0.02) ($0.01)

Net bushel gain (loss) in exportingsoybeans to Matamoros, Mexico, fromalternate Louisiana supply regions.

Figure 1. Estimated explicit costs and return relationships for eight Louisiana supply regions


$0.09 per bushel. Therefore, the totalestimated costs to transload and transhipbarged soybeans at Brownsville are$0.22 to $0.26 of the $0.72 to $0.84 orabout 31 percent of the per bushel totalcosts for barged shipments toBrownsville and their respective truckand rail transhipments to Matamoros.This cost component reflects not only thephysical costs of a second handling ofthe grain, but also the transactions costsassociated with establishing weight andproduct identity so that the truck or railunit can clear customs.

The legend in Figure 1 identifies thenet bushel gains and losses fromexporting soybeans to Matamoroscompared to selling them in Louisianaby Louisiana supply region and shipmentcombination. These gains and losses areestimated using the identified costs fromTable 1 and an estimated averageDecember 1997 export price of $8.47and Louisiana price of $7.73 per bushel.

The derivations of the per bushelgains and losses can be illustrated usinga combination barge shipment toBrownsville with a truck transhipment toMatamoros from the Lake Providencesupply region. Table 1 indicates that thisbarge shipment from Lake Providence toBrownsville with a truck transhipment toMatamoros had an estimated total cost of$0.84 per bushel. Given a $8.47 exportprice, the Lake Providence producerwould have realized a net price of $7.63(8.47 - 0.84) per bushel from exportingsoybeans to Matamoros. Given aLouisiana price of $7.73, the LakeProvidence producer would have netted$0.10 (7.73 - 7.63) less per bushel fromexporting to Matamoros than fromselling in Louisiana.

The set of net bushel gains andlosses from exporting soybeans toMatamoros instead of selling them inLouisiana suggests that only producersfrom the Krotz Springs and Mermentauregions using a barge shipment/trucktranshipment combination would haverealized any gains from exportingsoybeans to Matamoros instead ofselling them in Louisiana in December1997. The magnitudes of those gains,$0.02 per bushel, appear too small togenerate the implicit risk premiumsneeded to export soybeans intoMatamoros. But, the sets of relativerelationships rendering export instead ofLouisiana sale more profitable canchange. Under profitable exportingconditions, the set of net gains and lossessuggests that the barge shipment/trucktranshipment would likely be the most

profitable and the barge shipment/railtranshipment the least profitable.

A final consideration is competitionfrom U.S. Midwest suppliers. Currently,unit trains of soybeans from the Midwestsatisfy Mexican demand. If relative costsand returns were to make exports fromLouisiana feasible, the next question iswhether Louisiana could competeeffectively with Midwest suppliers. Unittrain rates from the Midwest werereported to average about $0.71 perbushel. Costs for Louisiana producers toexport soybeans average more than$0.80 per bushel. Therefore, Louisianadoes not seem to have a competitiveadvantage over the Midwest.

Competitive disadvantageDespite proximity to the market and

the economics of barge transportation,both direct rail and barges from Louisi-ana supply points were found to be at acompetitive disadvantage to Midwest

unit trains in supplying the Matamorossoybean market.

In addition, there are differences inassembly costs between supply regionsin Louisiana and in the barging coststructure on the Mississippi River andthe GIW. Assembly cost differences areattributable to cumulative farm-to-elevator distances between Louisianasupply regions. Barging costs structuredifferences are because of the capacity ofthe Mississippi River to accommodate upto 36 barges in a single tow as contrastedto a maximum tow of only six barges onthe GIW. Also, the variety of economicactivities on the Mississippi Rivercreates abundantly more backhaulopportunities for barges on the Missis-sippi River than for barges on the GIW.Backhauls are both cost-offsetting andrevenue-generating activities critical toprofitability and influential in determin-ing rates charged to shippers on theinitial movement.

The LSU Agricultural Center has started an aggressive plan to improve the state’swater quality with a new approach to best management practices.

This new BMP education and outreach program will cut across commoditiestoward a common goal of reducing nonpoint source water pollution. Traditionally,farm management has focused primarily on yields and production for individual crops.The strategy will embrace virtually all Louisiana agriculture, including forestry.

Water quality is a major concern both nationally and locally among the votingpublic, according to Paul Coreil, assistant director for environmental affairs. Louisianafarmers are not out of step with the public sentiment, he added. They are willing andeager to address the issue of water quality through voluntary practices. He said theyare asking the Ag Center to develop practical, economical solutions based onresearch. They know that taking a wait-and-see attitude could invite regulations bothunsuitable and unachievable under local conditions.

“The focus of land-grant institutions has been on yields and production,” Coreilsaid. “Now, it is yields, production and water quality.”

Nonpoint source pollution is the general runoff from the landscape. It includespotential contaminants from a variety of sources, such as sediment, fecal materials,fertilizers, pesticides and organic materials. All are spread by rainfall or irrigationwater discharge. Because they do not observe property lines or parish boundaries,these threats become community or regional challenges. Homeowners, municipali-ties, industries and businesses all contribute.

Coreil said a series of BMP publications will be ready for distribution in mid-2000.Through most of 1999, extension and research personnel, along with producers andother agencies, have been examining and refining BMP recommendations for eachcommodity.

“The publications are a major part of the strategy to reach the producer,” Coreilsaid. “They will be spokes in the wheel for education and outreach.”

All information and publications eventually will be made available on an AgCenter website and on CD. Mark Claesgens

New Approach to ‘Best Management Practices’


subject to leaching losses when applied in October for lateMarch-early April planting.

Initial nitrogen rates of 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 pounds peracre were applied in the fall and again in the spring to deter-mine if initial fall fertilizer rates could be reduced. Phosphorusand potassium were banded in the bed center at the rate of 200pounds per acre in October, and beds were covered withpolyethylene mulch. Initial nitrogen treatments in the fall-applied treatments were banded with the phosphorus andpotassium. The spring nitrogen treatments were injectedthrough the mulch using a spoke-wheel injection system withinone week of transplanting.

At higher rates of nitrogen, marketable and extra-largeyields were not different for application timing. Applying theinitial nitrogen fertilizer in the fall instead of the spring did nothave an effect on production, if an initial nitrogen rate of morethan 50 pounds per acre was used.

SidedressUsing plastic mulch offers many benefits such as weed

control and soil temperature modification. This method ofproduction, however, hinders the application of fertilizer afterthe mulch has been applied. The common method of applyingfertilizer after the mulch is in place is to drop the fertilizer inthe furrow between beds or to punch holes through the mulchand manually place a small amount of fertilizer in the hole. Athird method of applying fertilizer was introduced to the areaseveral years ago and consists of injecting liquid fertilizerthrough the mulch with a spoke wheel.

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect ofsidedress fertilizer applications on pepper yield and size. Plantswere sidedressed twice after transplanting with nitrogen (40pounds per acre) using one of three methods: (1) granularfertilizer mechanically dropped in the furrow between the beds,(2) granular fertilizer manually dropped between each plant inholes punched through the mulch and (3) granular fertilizerdissolved in water and injected through the mulch using aspoke wheel.

Yields of extra-large and marketable bell peppers were notaffected (statistically) by the method of sidedress application,although there was a trend toward higher yields in plotssidedressed with the spoke-wheel injector. The use of thespoke-wheel injector increased yield at the first harvest,offering an advantage of producing more peppers during theearly market when the price is usually most favorable.

Liquid fertilizerBy injecting liquid fertilizer through the mulch, spoke-

wheel injectors offer more accurate placement of plantnutrients, reduce leaching and potentially improve plant-uptake

ell peppers are grown extensively throughout southeast-ern Louisiana, with production concentrated in Tangipahoa andsurrounding parishes. Gross farm value in 1999 was about $1.6million.

Bell peppers are produced using transplants, supplementalirrigation and raised, fumigated beds covered with polyethyl-ene mulch. Because of the intensive production, the cost ofestablishing and producing the crop is estimated at $3,700 peracre, even before harvesting begins.

Fertilizer costs have always been considered a small,insignificant part of the overall cost of vegetable production,but growers are realizing that small savings in fertilizer add upover acres and years. Also, the environmental impact thatleaching of excess fertilizer has on surface and ground watersmust be considered.

Researchers at the Hammond Research Station conductfield studies to develop the most efficient and effective use offertilizer for bell pepper production. A discussion of thefindings of a decade of pepper fertility research follows.

Phosphorus, potassiumRecommendations for phosphorus and potassium fertiliza-

tion of bell pepper had been based on early work with mixedfertilizers. Improved cultivars, extensive management practicesand different cultural systems required a re-evaluation offertilizer recommendations.

Four rates (0, 100, 200, 300 pounds per acre) of phospho-rus and potassium were applied to bell peppers in threeexperiments. Nitrogen rates of 100 pounds per acre preplantand 40 pounds per acre sidedressed were kept constant over alltreatments.

Phosphorus had a greater effect on bell pepper productionthan potassium when soil levels of phosphorus and potassiumwere low. Rates of 200 pounds per acre of phosphorus and 100pounds per acre of potassium are adequate for bell pepperproduction on soils low in phosphorus and potassium. Addingphosphorus and potassium fertilizer to soils with adequatelevels (more than 100 milligrams) of phosphorus and potas-sium is not necessary for bell peppers grown with plasticmulch.

Nitrogen ratesEvaluations of various preplant nitrogen rates (from 0 to

200 pounds per acre) have indicated that at least 50 pounds peracre of nitrogen should be applied initially (preplant) under themulch. Higher rates of initial nitrogen (100 to 200 pounds peracre) did not increase yields over the 50 to 80 pounds per acrerates, if the crop was sidedressed.

Fall or spring NBecause spring rains often prevent timely field operations,

many growers prepare the field and apply preplant fertilizerand mulch in the fall for the spring bell pepper crop. Althoughmulch may offer some protection from Louisiana’s heavyrains, soluble fertilizer nutrients (particularly nitrogen) are still

Regina P. Bracy, Associate Professor, Hammond Research Station,Hammond, La.

A Decade of PA Decade of PA Decade of PA Decade of PA Decade of PepperepperepperepperepperFFFFFererererertility Researtility Researtility Researtility Researtility ResearchchchchchRegina P. Bracy

B


As field corn acreage has increased in the mid-South, consult-ants and farmers have often noted high tarnished plant bugpopulations in cotton fields adjacent to corn. The origin of theinfestations in these cotton fields is often perceived to be a resultof early population buildup in the pre-tassel stages of corn. Inthese troublesome fields, economic thresholds for insecticidetreatments are usually reached earlier than in cotton fields notbordered by corn.

Plant mapping data taken from cotton fields adjacent to cornindicate a gradient in plant damage similar to insect populationgradients detected by sweepnet. At cotton field margins adjacentto corn, square loss at nodes 4 to 9 ranged from 48 percent to85 percent, indicating severe damage occurred shortly after thepin-head square stage of cotton. Cotton will compensate formoderate levels of early season square loss, depending uponwater availability and late-season environmental conditions, butearly season square losses of more than 30 percent can reduceyield, delay maturity and usually require expensive insecticidetreatments. These studies were conducted to determine theorigin of the tarnished plant bug infestations in cotton fields nextto corn and to study the peak times for immigration of the insects.

Tarnished plant bugs in cornEvaluation of tarnished plant bug movement into pre-tassel-

ing corn and pre-squaring cotton was accomplished by usingsticky traps, sweepnet samples and whole plant observation.Population surveys in 1998 used 40 sticky traps placed on 1-inchby 1-inch garden stakes in a grid pattern. Ten cards were placedat the corn/cotton margins, and these were replicated four timesso that the grid pattern covered about 400 by 1,000 feet.

Regardless of the sample method used, low densities oftarnished plant bug adults were recorded in pre-tasseling corn,and no reproduction could be associated with the corn. Previousresearch also indicated that only limited plant bug reproductionoccurs in corn. In these studies, plant bug adults ranged from ahigh of 85 per acre to a low of 11 per acre. Samples taken in thecorn crop in mid-April with sweepnets confirmed that tarnishedplant bug densities were very low.

Cotton planted adjacent to corn has been associated with earlyinfestations of tarnished plant bugs.

Tarnished Plant Bugefficiency. If liquid fertilizer could be used to supply thepreplant and sidedress fertilizer needs of the bell pepper crop,the practice of applying preplant granular fertilizer in the fall orspring would be eliminated. Applying mulch without preplantfertilizer would reduce fertilizer leaching and shorten the timeneeded for field preparation. Greater flexibility in timing ofliquid fertilizer applications when the crop is growing couldreduce overall fertilizer requirements, reduce potential lossesthrough leaching and improve plant-uptake efficiency, sincethe fertilizer could be applied as needed.

Several studies were conducted to evaluate the effect offertilizer type (granular or liquid), rate and timing on bellpepper production. Fertilizer treatments included a ½X, 1X and2X rate of fertilizer applied at transplanting or split over twoapplications (at transplanting and two weeks after transplant-ing). Liquid fertilizer (10-10-10) was injected at the rates of2340, 1170, 585 pounds per acre for the 2X, 1X and ½X rates,respectively. Granular fertilizer (13-13-13) at the rate of 900and 450 pounds per acre for the 1X and ½X rates, respectively,was applied preplant in the fall.

Fertilizer type (granular or liquid) did not affect market-able yield or earliness, indicating that fertilizer applicationcould be delayed until spring and a liquid formulation could beused. Splitting the fertilizer application, regardless of the rateapplied, had a significant effect on size of bell pepper pro-duced. Applying one-half the fertilizer two weeks aftertransplanting increased the yield of extra-large peppers.

Nitrogen sidedressingResearch at the Hammond Station has shown that bell

peppers respond to additional applications of nitrogen fertilizerduring the growing season. Sidedressing nitrogen has consis-tently increased total and extra-large yields, pepper weight andearliness in several different experiments. Applying additionalnitrogen in sidedressing has had a more consistent effect onproduction than have preplant nitrogen rates. If sufficient initialnitrogen fertility (more than 50 pounds per acre) is provided,applying nitrogen fertilizer three to five weeks after transplant-ing has more effect on bell pepper size and production thaneither fertilizer rate, fertilizer type or fall/spring applicationtiming.

What we learnedBell peppers respond to sidedress nitrogen application.

Applying nitrogen fertilizer three to five weeks aftertransplanting had the most consistent and positive effecton production.

Nitrogen rate and initial fertilizer timing were not ascritical for production when the initial nitrogen rate wasat least 50 pounds per acre and the crop was sidedressed.

Rates of 200 pounds per acre of phosphorus and 100pounds per acre of potassium are sufficient for productionon most soil types.

Liquid fertilizer can be used for initial or sidedressapplication of fertilizer without affecting yield or fruitsize.


Tarnished plant bugs in weedsTarnished plant bugs have numerous plant hosts, including

many weed species common to Louisiana. Sweepnet samples ofplant bugs in weeds near corn and cotton fields revealed largedensities of plant bugs in all stages of development. From March toJune, it was not uncommon to collect eight to 10 adults per 10sweeps.

In mid-April, all stages of nymphs were present in the sweepnetsamples in very high numbers. This indicates a key time in the lifecycle of the tarnished plant bug, because the nymphs observed inmid-April represent the immature insects that would eventuallyinfest cotton as new adults.

The weedy areas harboring large numbers of plant bugsincluded roadside ditches, field drains, point rows, highway medi-ans, utility poles and other non-tillable areas such as wooded areasadjacent to fields. At one farm site, a waterfowl conservation sitehad floral vegetation after drainage and produced large numbers ofplant bugs. The principal weeds that supported high populations ofplant bugs were vetches, clovers and docks, but many broadleafweeds that flower in spring were observed to harbor plant bugs.

Direction for future researchThese surveys indicate that plant bug densities in pre-tassel

corn are too low to cause significant economic damage in adjacentcotton fields. Furthermore, the level of reproduction in pre-tasselcorn was not high enough to account for the consequent damage.In contrast, development of plant bugs in weed habitats near thesefields supported extremely high densities of tarnished plant bugadults. The peak numbers of adults and nymphs observed by mid-

Surveys of tarnished plant bugs along roadsides indicated the firstweed species attractive to plant bugs are vetches, clovers and docks.

Sticky traps placed in field corn shortly afterplanting were used for detection of earlytarnished plant bug movement.

April probably account for the first infestations in cotton, how-ever, the economic infestations occurring in cotton adjacent tocorn cannot be attributed solely to weed refuges near corn,because weed refuges infested with tarnished plant bugs areabundant near fields far removed from corn and without similarproblems.

One possible explanation is that corn is a barrier to localmigration, because the flight of plant bugs is about 3 feet above theground. Too, plant bugs may prefer cotton over corn as a foodsource. Most of the recorded hosts for plant bugs are broadleafplants, and only a few are grasses. These are hypotheses only. Thereasons for the high populations of plant bugs in cotton adjacentto corn need further evaluation.

The information gathered suggests that vegetation manage-ment of the weedy areas associated with high populations oftarnished plant bugs would have merit and could probably beaccomplished with selective herbicides and mowing. A project hasbeen initiated for the year 2000 with the U.S. Department ofAgriculture’s Agricultural Research Service to evaluate earlyherbicide programs and their effect on tarnished plant bugpopulations and their movement into cotton.

Eugene Burris, Associate Professor, and Eugene M. Holman, AssistantProfessor, Northeast Research Station, St. Joseph La.

Figure 1. Fruit abscission at nodes 4 to 9 in a cotton field plantedadjacent to field corn on July 16.


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Occurrence in Pre-tassel Stage of Corn Next to Cotton


Non-profit Org.U.S. Postage

PAIDPermit No. 733Baton Rouge, LA

Louisiana Agricultural Experiment StationLouisiana State University Agricultural CenterP.O. Box 25100Baton Rouge, LA 70894-5100

Inside:

The LAES makes agriculture possiblein Louisiana. .................................... Page 4

Scientists bring about somebreakthroughs with in vitro fertilizationin farm animals. .............................. Page 8

Population changes affect rural landvalues. ............................................. Page 12

Nitrogen fertilizer management forcorn production. ........................... Page 19

Effects of internal parasites onreplacement heifers. ................... Page 26

New technology is making it possible toarchive historical photos in a more efficient,more easily retrievable manner. John Wozniak,photographer with Ag Center Communica-tions, is in the process of digitizing and storingon CDs photos of past events and people.These three and one on page 4 are part of theAg Center Photo Archive. Based on what weknow so far, these photos show spraying forticks some time in the late 1940s (right); earlyattempts to explain artificial insemination (bot-tom right); and a field day from the 1940s inwhich the mechanical harvesting of corn wasdemonstrated. See page 4 for more on thepast.

Photos from the First Millennium

Documents

Winter 2000 Vol. 43, No. 1...“It did a good job in the first stage of our investiga- ... sugarcane because it eats borers. Louisiana Agriculture, Winter 2000 3 Volume 43, Number