Williams, James - Origin of Beverages.pdf

8/17/2019 Williams, James - Origin of Beverages.pdf

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First Edition, 2009

ISBN 978 93 80075 02 0

© All rights reserved.

Published by:

Global Media

1819, Bhagirath Palace,Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006Email: [email protected]


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Table of Contents

1. Origin & Making of Whisky

2.Origin & Production of Champagne

3. Origin & Production of Rum

4. Origin & Production of Sake

5. Origin of Beer

6. Origin of Cognac

7. Origin of Gin

8. Origin of Tequila

9. Origin of Vodka

10. Origin of Wine


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HISTORY OF WHISKY AND OF DISTILLATION (I)

1st part : The origins 2nd part : Smugglers and Excisemen

The origins

Are the origins of whisky Scottish or Irish ? Naturally, opinions about this question aredrastically opposed depending on the native country of the person to whom you ask.

Nevertheless, it seems that more and more people tend to agree on the hypothesis of anIrish origin. It would be no one else than Saint-Patrick himself, the patron of the Irish,who would have introduced the still in his country at Vth AC, holding it himself

indirectly from the Arabian. Irish monks would have then spread from Vth before J.C. the

art of distillation at the same time as Christian civilization, in their own country to start

with, then in Scotland.

In any case, what one knows for sure is that the art of distillation is very old and dates

back too much more ancient time than the first origins of whisky. The Egyptians are

known to have practised the distillation of perfumes 3000 years before J.C. As a matter offact, the word alcohol is directly derived from the Arabic al-koh'l, koh'l being a dark

powder from pulverized antimony and used as an eye make up.

From XIIth onwards, distillation of water of life or aqua vitae spreads progressivelythrough Europe, notably in Ireland and in Scotland under its Gaelic name of UisgeBeatha or Usquebaugh, which will eventually transform into Uisge then Uisky, until

becoming Whisky. Some virtues, literally miraculous which were justifying its name,

were attributed to the water of life. Curing virtually any pain, it was then a medicinal potion which was prescribed as well as an ointment as a remedy to be drunk. It was a

long way from possessing the flavours and the subtlety of the one drunk today, and was

consumed for its mere virtues as opposed for pleasure.


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In his "Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland" published in 1577, Raphael

Holinshed describes as follows the incomparable virtues of Uisge Beatha :

"Being moderately taken,

it slows the age,

it cuts phlegm,it lightens the mind,

it quickens the spirit,

it cures the dropsy,

it heals the strangulation,

it pounces the stone,

its repels gravel,

it pulls away ventositie,

it keeps and preserves the head from whirling,

the eyes from dazzling,

the tongue from lisping,

the mouth from snuffling,the teeth from chattering,

the throat from rattling,

the weasan from stiffing,

the stomach from womblying,

the heart from swelling,

the belly from wincing,

the guts from rumbling,

the hands from shivering,

the sinews from shrinking,

the veins from crumpling,

the bones from aching,the marrow from soaking,

and truly it is a sovereign liquor

if it be orderly taken."

A remedy definitely miraculous and most indispensable !


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Whilst Irishmen and Scotsmen were distilling and double-distilling whisk(e)y from

malted barley, at the same time Frenchmen were producing Armagnac and Cognac fromfermented wines with the same techniques. In Italy, in Spain and in Germany, one distils

also the burned or branded wine.

Whether distilled from malted barley or from fermented wines, in both cases the spirit of

life offered, when compared to the drink from which it originated - a kind of rough beer

or a wine - the triple advantage of allowing preservation without problem, of being more

economical to transport and of being more palatable.

Uisge Beatha

In 1494 is to be found the first official and indisputable reference concerning distillation

of whisky in a document from the Scottish Exchequer Rolls mentioning "Eight bolls of

malt to Friar John Cor wherewith to make aquavitae" .

In Ireland as well as in Scotland, distillation of Uisge Beatha will from now on develop

steadily but not without events, governing instances waiting little time until they wouldstart to regulate and tax its production. In 1644 distillation had developed to such a stage

in Scotland that, following a poor harvest, a fear of a shortage of cereals appeared. This

situation inspired to the king of England, Charles Ist, the idea of a fiscal tax on water oflife. This idea was immediately taken over by the Scottish Parliament who will decide to


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restrict the right of distillation to upper and noble classes and will put in effect the first

taxation measures. These will mark the first step of a long saga which will see illicitdistillers and governments representatives confront each other. This epic, rich of

anecdotes in which comical and tragic are often mingled, will know its apogee during the

course of XVIIIth.

In 1707 Scotland is linked to England with the signature of the Union Act and theScottish Parliament abolished. The governing body of the United Kingdom will then lay

new taxes which will quickly become unbearable, at the same time as it will create

specialized brigades aimed at fighting against illicit distillation, the Excisemen.

Smugglers and Excisemen


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From now on and inescapably, production of illicit whisky will strongly proliferate,

notably in the Highlands. Having at its disposal easily transportable equipment, thesmuggler hides in the innumerable glens. The most valuable part of its rustic still is the

copper coil. Immersed in a cask and cooled by the river's water, it enables the

condensation of spirit vapours in a distilled liquor preciously collected. The authoritative bodies did have the brilliant idea of offering a 5 Pounds bonus to anyone who would

denounce the existence of an illicit distillery. Therefore, when his coiled was worn out

the smuggler only had to get the governing authorities visiting the place of the so-calledillicit still, where he had previously judiciously hidden his old coil. The bonus money so

collected would allow him to buy a brand new coil without delay !

In spite of their isolation in the wild Highlands countries the smugglers, who could be

spotted due to the smoke of their distillation, could not always escape to the vigilance of

Excisemen. If, taking advantage of their knowledge of the land, of their mobility and ofall complicities, they would often run away in time, such was no always the case. Hard


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confrontations, often marked with gun fires and blood, leaving dead or wounded men on

the ground, would then follow.

Gangs of illicit distillers and smugglers could gather up to as many as fifty men and

ponies. At the end of XVIIIth they were literally controlling several areas of Scotland

where Excisemen would venture only reluctantly and at their own peril.

Illicit production had also developed in towns to the point that in 1777 one could count inEdinburgh eight licensed distilleries and 400 illicit stills !

Legalization

After countless wanderings in the regulation, realism and common sense will eventually prevail. In 1823, on the initiative of the Duke of Gordon, the "Excise Act" is voted, with

an aim at making licensed distillation an economical and viable occupation, at the same

time as generating profits for the authorities, thanks to suitable and reasonable taxation.Illicit still will progressively disappear. In the same time many technical evolutions, such

as steam heating and continuous distillation, will accompany the development of theindustrialization of distilleries during the course of IXth, marking what can be considered

as the start of the modern era of Scotch Whisky.

Highland distillery at the end of XIX th (Drawing of the time by John Barnard)

Several factors will favour the growing of this industry. From 1870 on the phylloxeracrisis will bring to almost nought the production of Cognac, offering to Scotsmen an


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opportunity which they will not miss. At the same time, the practice of blending will

develop in the Lowlands, consisting in the mixing of malt whisky with grain whisky, thelatest being distilled in continuous stills from maize or wheat. The spirit produced in this

manner is smoother and easier to drink, at the same time as it is much cheaper to

manufacture. The legitimacy of grain whisky will be bitterly contested by Highland

distillers, until a Royal Commission will rule on its favour in 1909, after 18 months ofdeliberation.

Stills room (Islay) at the end of XIX th (Drawing of the time by John Barnard)

In Ireland, the whiskey industry had grown to reach its apogee at the end of XVIIIth with

more than 1100 licensed distilleries in 1779. Irish Whiskey was then reigning the world

over, far above Scotch Whisky.

Locke's distillery in Kilbeggan, Ireland

Illicit distilling was even more widespread than it was in Scotland, with a productionequal to 3 or 4 times that of licensed distilleries ! Whereas in 1834 a total of 692 illicitdistilleries was recorded in Scotland, more than 8000 were discovered in Ireland !

Regulation and taxation will then be subject, as in Scotland, to many wanderings, their

reinforcement which was aiming at restricting smuggling being bound to heavily penalize

licensed distilleries. In the same time, the Irish will refuse to adopt the practice of blending. By an irony of fate, the latest had been made possible thanks to the continuous


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still developed by an ex Irish Exciseman, Adrian Coffey, who will finally sell his process

to the Scotsmen.

The expansion of Scotch Whisky

The Scotch Whisky industry will be subject to important concentration moves between

the two World Wars. In parallel, Scotsmen will altogether take rather good advantage ofthe situation created in the USA by the prohibition between 1919 and 1933. Considerable

volumes of Scotch Whisky will be smuggled in, resulting in the Americans discovering

the quality of the Scottish drink. The latest, whose main outlets was then constituted of

the Commonwealth countries, will see promising openings appear, which will materialize

after the second World War.

In 1999, more than 950 millions of bottles of Scotch Whisky were exported, which equalsto 30 bottles each second. France represents the N° 1 market for sales of bottled Scotchwith 138 millions of them, while sales to the USA amount to 115 millions. Taking in

consideration the ageing time necessary for producing Scotch Whisky, there are not less

than 18,5 millions of casks currently lying in Scottish bonded warehouses !

One counts today in Scotland approximately 85 working Malt distilleries and 8 grain

distilleries.

The Irish Whiskey industry, which is very much concentrated, is limited to 3 Malt

distilleries and 2 grain distilleries, which does not prevent it from being currently in fullrevival.

THE MAKING OF WHISKY

Barley, water, yeast and fire !

The making of whisky can be done in different manners, depending in particular to thegeographical origin of production. The main differences are related to the raw material,

which is always a cereal, and on the type of distillation which may be either "batch"

distillation in a pot still, or continuous distillation in column stills.

This allows for the making of different types of whisky corresponding to variousdefinitions, each offering their specific character, the main ones being Blended whisky,

Single Malt whisky and Grain whisky.

The most famous whiskies are often issued from the distillation of malted barley in pot


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stills. Such is the case in particular of Scotch Pure Malts, of which we will follow the

main steps of making.To produce a Malt Whisky, you need barley, water, yeast, heat and (much !) time.

This process can be broken down in five main steps :

1 - Malting2 - Milling3 - Mashing4 - Fermentation5 - Distil lation6 - Ageing

Many factors have an influence on the quality and character of whisky : characteristics of

malt (Origin of barley, malting process), quality of water, type of yeast, shape of stills,

conducting of distillation, origin and quality of casks used for ageing, ambient air being

"breathed" during many long years by the spirit through the cask's wood. each of theseselements play a role, and if combination of these parameters can vary to infinite, very few

are these which allow for a good whisky.

If you ask to a Scottish distiller which, in his opinion, are the most important factors,

chances are that he will reply that the key elements are the quality of his water and theshape of his stills. This is effectively true, even if in reality things are much more

complex than that. Beyond the experience painstakingly accumulated by generations ofdistillers and the resulting mastery, the making of whisky still depends to a certain extent

of a mysterious alchemy which escapes any analyse or reasoning.


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Even if today's distillers benefit from analysing tools which enable them a betterunderstanding and an improved control of the process, achieving the "marvellous" balance in the combination of all the factors being involved remains a particularly

delicate art in which Scotsmen and Irishmen are the undisputed masters.

One of the consequences of the complexity of this art is that the variety of characters to be found among whiskies is definitely comparable to the one that can be observed among

wines.

This is precisely this richness which makes this spirit so unique and so fascinating !

Malting


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After it has been harvested, barley contains starch which is a non fermentiscible sugar.

The process of malting is aimed at transforming this starch in a fermentiscible sugar

which itself will be able to be transformed into alcohol.

To start with, barley is soaked in water for two or three days before being spread as a

layer approximately twenty to thirty cm thick on the malting area made as a wide flatconcrete surface. This is where its germination will start, lasting for about eight days.

Barley will have to be turned over several times a day with wooden shovels so as to allow

steady and uniform germination, and its temperature will be controlled permanently.

Once the starch has been transformed into sugar, germination will be stopped through the

heating of the barley in a kiln during 20 to 48 hours.

Heat will be provided by the burning of coal and to a varying degree by the burning of

peat. the smoke of the latest will impart to the malt a character and aromas of very

specific type which will be found in the finished product, the peatiest whiskies being

those from the island of Islay.


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Nowadays, the majority of malts are produced in industrial malting plants, where the

process take place in large horizontal steel drums including a perforated bed on whichlays the barley, turning on themselves and through which vaporized water then hot air are

spread.

Milling The malt is then ground in a mill containing two or three pairs of steel rollers and

transformed into grist. The latest must consist of about 10% flour, 20% husks and 70%

"middles" or actual grist to allow for a satisfying mashing.


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MASHING

Grist is then mixed with hot water in the mashing machine which pours it into themashtun, which capacity can be in excess of 25.000 litres. Three successive waters, with

temperatures varying from 63 to 95°C, are used to produced a sugary liquid known as

wort.

The mashtun possesses a double bottom finely perforated which will allow the wort to be

drawn off through the underback at the same time as it will retain the solid particlesknown as draff. Those will be taken away at the end of the process and are excellent food

for cattle.


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The last water used for mashing will be directed to a tank and used as the third water of

the next mashing. Wort will then travel through a heat exchanger to be cooled to about

20°C, to prevent yeast cells which will ferment it from being killed.

Traditional mashtuns may be enclosed by a copper dome so as to preserve heat. They are

nowadays very often superseded by lautertuns which allow for a better extraction ofsugars contained in the malt.

Fermentation


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Wort is the pumped into the washbacks which are large and open fermentation vessels,

which can hold up to 70.000 litres and be as high as 5 or 6 m. They may be covered by

detachable panels and are usually made of Oregon pine.

Some distilleries use fully closed vessels made of steel which are easier to clean.

Yeast is added, being either distillers yeast or a mixture of the latest with brewer yeast,

and will start fermentation. The action of yeast on wort's sugar will produce alcohol and

carbon dioxide. Wort will bubble, and may even in some occasions generate strong

vibrations of the washback itself in spite of its impressive size.

After about 48 hours, bubbling and fermentation are over and the wort has beentransformed into wash, an alcoholic liquid of 7 to 8% vol. and not unlike a sort of crude

beer, which is pumped into the wash charger.

Distillation This is the process which is at the heart of whisky making. It consists essentially in

separating the alcohol contained in the wash from the water, taking advantage of the fact


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The low wines are kept in the spirit charger, wastes of the first distillation known as pot

ale being conveyed to a dark grain plant to be transformed into cattle food.

The second distillation takes place in the spirit still which usually has a capacity equal to

about two third of the wash still's. This is where the stillman's art expresses at its best,when he must retain only the middle cut, eliminating the heads which contain too much

high volatility alcohols running at about 80% vol., and the tails comprising the heavy

components. As the distillation progresses the alcoholic strength of the flowing distillatediminishes regularly : the moment when the stillman stops collecting the middle cut or

heart of run is called the cut, and will usually happen when the hydrometer will read

about 62/65% vol. If the cut is made too late, too high a proportion of the tails will resultin an unbalanced whisky with unpleasant aromas. To the contrary, if the cut is made too

early, the spirit will be deprived from some of its components indispensable to achieve awhisky with satisfying character. One will then obtain a product without major default,

but without real interest and personality either.

Speed of distillation also has a direct influence on the quality of the collected spirit.

The latest which is perfectly colourless is at about 70% vol. and is pumped into the spirit

receiver. The stillman has to do all his operations by intervening on the spirit safe, built

with a copper frame holding plate glasses and into which lead all pipes linking the stillsto the various holding tanks. It is usually a beautiful object duly padlocked under the

control of Custom and Excise, the stillman not being allowed to have any direct contact

with the product flowing from the stills.


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For controlling the process, the stillman uses hydrometers and can check the purity of the

spirit in verifying if it does not get cloudy when mixed with water.Heads and tails will be pumped and kept in the low wine charger to be redistilled in the

spirit still at the same time as the low wine intended for the next distillation. Waste of

distillation known as spent lees will be thrown away or treated.

Some whiskies, notably in Ireland and in the Scottish Lowlands, are subject to a tripledistillation process, which delivers a spirit of a higher alcoholic strength at about 85%

vol.

Ageing Before being transferred into casks, the newly made spirit will have its strength reduced

to 63,5% vol. with demineralised water. The cask being used are usually casks having

been previously contained Bourbon, and are used either as they come or after being

rebuilt as hogsheads in Scottish cooperage.They will usually be kept on site for ageing or in a centralized warehouses together with

other spirits from a same company or group.

Last stage of the process of whisky making, ageing is at the same time the longest one

and one of the most important. The origin and the quality of casks have a determiningrole in the end result, as well as, even if to a lesser extent, the location of the warehouse.

The quality of he air, its temperature, its humidity, its coastal character or not, have an

influence on the ageing process.


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The nature of the warehouse itself has its importance, in particular depending whether it

is more or less isolate. For instance, it is generally admitted that warehouses with earth

ground provide the best results as they maintain higher humidity level. As a matter offact, during ageing some alcohol evaporate through the wood of the casks with losses of

about 2% per year, this is what is called the "Angel Share". In a humid warehouse the

loss of spirit will materialize as a decrease of the alcoholic loss, which will advantage theobtaining of a high quality whisky. In a dry warehouse, this loss will materialize through

a diminution of volume, with in extreme cases a rising of the alcoholic strength, and will

deliver a dryer spirit. Altogether, losses are lower in dry warehouses than they are in adamp ones, the latest which provide the best results are also the most costly.

Temperature also has its influence on ageing, if it is higher maturation of the whisky will

progress faster.


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It is only after three years of ageing in cask that spirit is entitled to be called whisky, butone usually considers that it is only after 8 years that a malt whisky reaches real maturity.

Some can reach their optimum at the age of 10 or 12 years, many are those which willtake advantage of further maturation up to 15 years or possibly beyond. If some of them

may become exceptional at the age of 20 or 25 years, others might suffer of staying too

long in a cask, their character ending up in fading away and aromas directly imparted bythe cask becoming too preponderant.

Last of all, one should not forget the ultimate stage in the long process of whisky makingwhich is bottling. The reduction, which is the operation by which the alcoholic strength,

initially at around 60% vol, is brought down to drinking strength - in most cases 40 or

43% vol - is much more delicate than one usually imagines. Quality of filtration has alsoan important effect, in particular depending whether it is a chill or non chill filtration

process.

Discovering two Scottish distilleries :

To terminate and illustrate this little presentation on the making of whisky, we propose to

you to follow us in the visit of two Scottish distilleries which, each one in its specific

manner, is quite fascinating and representative of the variety of character whichScottsmen can offer us in this respect. This, as much in the character of their whiskies as

in that of these magic places where the uisge beatha is produced.


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In both cases, it concerns distilleries which have been saved from a possible, if not likely

disappearing, by independant companies, and thanks to the the tenacity of men who didnot hesitate to take risks and have not spared their efforts. The latest will have not been

done in vain, and in each case, the history if it is only strating -or starting again- is

already a very nice one, as you will be able to see for yourself.


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Wines from the Champagne region were known before medieval times. Churches ownedvineyards and monks produced wine for use in the sacrament of Eucharist. French kingswere traditionally anointed in Reims and champagne wine was served as part of

coronation festivities.

Kings appreciated the still, light, and crisp wine, and offered it as an homage to othermonarchs in Europe. In the 17th century, still wines of Champagne were the wines forcelebration in European countries. The English were the biggest consumers of

Champagne wines.

The first commercial sparkling wine was produced in the Limoux area of Languedocabout 1535. Around 1700, sparkling Champagne, as we know it today, was born. English

scientist and physician Christopher Merret documented a second fermentation by the

addition of sugar at least 30 years before the work of Dom Perignon who, contrary tolegend and popular belief, did not invent sparkling wine.Merrett presented the Royal

Society with a paper in which he detailed what is now called méthode champenoise in

1662.

Although the French monk Dom Perignon did not invent champagne, it is true he

developed many advances in the production of this beverage, including holding the corkin place with a wire collar to withstand the fermentation pressure. It is believed

champagne was created accidentally, yet others believe that the first champagne was

made with rhubarb but was changed because of the high cost.

Champagne first gained world renown because of its association with the anointment ofFrench kings. Royalty from throughout Europe spread the message of the unique

sparkling wine from Champagne and its association with luxury and power. The leading

manufacturers devoted considerable energy to creating a history and identity for theirwine, associating it and themselves with nobility and royalty. Through advertising and

packaging they sought to associate champagne with high luxury, festivities and rites of

passage. Their efforts coincided with an emerging middle class that was looking for ways

to spend its money on symbols of upward mobility.

In 1866 the famous entertainer and star of his day, George Leybourne, began a career of

making celebrity endorsements for Champagne. The Champagne maker Moët

commissioned him to write and perform songs extolling the virtues of Champagne,especially as a reflection of taste, affluence, and the good life. He also agreed to drink

nothing but Champagne in public. Leybourne was seen as highly sophisticated and his

image and efforts did much to establish Champagne as an important element inenhancing social status. It was a marketing triumph, the results of which endure to this

day.

In the 1800s Champagne was noticeably sweeter than modern Champagne is today, withthe Russians preferring Champagne as sweet as 300 grams per litre. The trend towards

drier Champagne began when Perrier-Jouët decided not to sweeten his 1846 vintage prior

to exporting it to London. The designation Brut Champagne, the modern Champagne,


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was created for the British in 1876.

Champagne and the law

The Champagne appellation highlighted in red

Champagne (wine region)

Regardless of the legal requirements for labeling, extensive education efforts by the

Champagne region and the use of alternative names by non-Champagne quality sparklingwine producers, some consumers continue to regard champagne as a generic term for

white sparkling wines, regardless of origin. The laws described here were intended to

reserve the term as a designation of origin. In the European Union and many other

countries, the name Champagne is legally protected by the Treaty of Madrid (1891)

designating only the sparkling wine produced in the eponymous region and adhering tothe standards defined for it an Appellation d'origine contrôlée; the right was reaffirmed in

the Treaty of Versailles after World War I. This legal protection has been accepted bynumerous other countries worldwide. Most recently Canada, Australia and Chile signed

agreements with Europe that will limit the use of the term Champagne to only those products produced in the Appellation of Champagne in these countries. The United States


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permits wineries to to use the semi-generic champagne label of their sparkling wines but

does not allow new producers to use the term.

Even the term méthode champenoise or champagne method was forbidden consequent to

an EU court decision in 1994. As of 2005, the description most often legally used forsparkling wines not from Champagne yet using the second fermentation in the bottle

process is méthode traditionnelle. Sparkling wines are produced worldwide, and many

producers use special terms to define them: Spain uses Cava, Italy designates itspumante, and South Africa uses Cap Classique. An Italian sparkling wine made from

the Muscat grape uses the DOCG Asti. In Germany, Sekt is a common sparkling wine.Other French wine regions cannot use the name Champagne, i.e. Burgundy and Alsace

produce Crémant. Yet some Crémant producers label their wines to mislead drinkers to

believe they are buying Champagne.. In addition, many quality producers refuse to usethe term "Champagne" on their sparkling wines even if their countries' laws do not

explicitly forbid such use.

Other sparkling wines not from Champagne sometimes use the term "sparkling wine" on

their label, while most countries have labeling laws preventing use of the word

Champagne on any wine not from that region. Some – including the United States – permit wine producers to use the name “Champagne” as a semi-generic name if they have

used it before March 10, 2006. The term is banned from all new labels in the United

States. One reason American wine producers are allowed to use European wine names is

that the Treaty of Versailles, despite President Wilson's signature, was not ratified by theU.S. Senate. The Treaty of Versailles included a clause limiting the German wine

industry and allowing use of the word Champagne only for wines from the Champagne

region (the site of WWI battles). As the U.S. Senate did not ratify the Treaty, this

agreement was never officially respected in the United States.

Sparkling wines mislabeled Champagne can and often are seized and destroyed by legal

authorities. The destruction often is completed using heavy machinery.

Current U.S. regulations require that what is defined as a semi-generic name

(Champagne) shall only appear on a wine's label if the appellation of the actual place of

origin appears and the label was approved by the Federal Government before March 10,

1996 . As US appellations can be quite general, many US sparkling wines use the terms"California Champagne," "New York Champagne" or even the more general "American

Champagne."

The Champagne winemaking community, under the auspices of the ComitéInterprofessionel du Vin de Champagne, has developed a comprehensive set of rules and

regulations for all wine produced in the region to protect its economic interests. They

include codification of the most suitable growing places; the most suitable grape types(most Champagne is a blend of up to three grape varieties — chardonnay, pinot noir, and

pinot meunier — though five other varieties are allowed); and a lengthy set of

requirements specifying most aspects of viticulture. This includes pruning, vineyard


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yield, the degree of pressing, and the time that wine must remain on its lees before

bottling. It can also limit the release of Champagne to market to maintain prices. Onlywhen a wine meets these requirements may it be labeled Champagne. The rules agreed

upon by the CIVC are submitted for the INAO's final approval.

The government organization that controls wine appellations in France, the Institut National des Appellations d'Origine, is preparing to make the largest revision of theregion's legal boundaries since 1927, in response to economic pressures. With soaring

demand and limited production of grapes, French Champagne houses say the rising price

could produce a consumer backlash that would harm the industry for years into thefuture. That, along with political pressure from villages that want to be included in the

expanded boundaries, led to the move.

The village of Champagne, Switzerland has traditionally made wine labelled as"Champagne", the earliest records of viticulture dated to 1657. In an accord with the EU,

the Swiss government conceded in 1999 that by 2004 the village would phase out use of

the name. Sales dropped from 110,000 bottles a year to 32,000 after the change. In April2008 the villagers resolved to the fight against the restriction following a Swiss open-air

vote.

Production

Champagne production

Le Remueur: 1889 engraving of the man engaged in the laborious daily task of turning

each bottle a fraction

Méthode Champenoise is the traditional method by which Champagne (and some

sparkling wine) is produced. After primary fermentation and bottling, a second alcoholicfermentation occurs in the bottle. This second fermentation is induced by adding several

grams of yeast (usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae, although each brand has its own secret

recipe) and several grams of rock sugar. According to the Appellation d'Origine


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Contrôlée a minimum of 1.5 years is required to completely develop all the flavour. For

years where the harvest is exceptional, a millesimé is declared. This means that the

champagne will be very good and has to mature for at least 3 years.

During this time the champagne bottle is capped with a crown cap. The bottle is then

riddled, so that the lees settles in the neck of the bottle. The neck is then frozen, and thecap removed. The pressure in the bottle forces out the ice containing the lees, and the bottle is quickly corked to maintain the carbon dioxide in solution. Some syrup is added

to maintain the level within the bottle. The process described above is the industrial one,

the manual one is in fact no more used, it relied on the skills of the wine maker able to

get rid of the lees that had accumulated just under the cap with as little wine as possible.

Champagne producers

List of champagne producers

There are more than one hundred champagne houses and 15,000 smaller vignerons (vine-

growing producers) in Champagne. These companies manage some 32,000 hectares of

vineyards in the region and employ more than 10,000 people.

An Edwardian English advert for Champagne, listing honours and royal drinkers

Annual sales by all producers total more than 300 million yearly bottles, roughly €4.3 billion. Roughly two-thirds of these sales are made by the large champagne houses withtheir grandes marques (major brands). Fifty-eight percent (58%) of total production is

sold in France, and the remaining 42% exported worldwide – primarily to the UK, the

U.S., and Germany. Generally, champagne producers collectively hold stock of about 1

billion bottles being matured, some three years of sales volume.


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The type of champagne producer can be identified from the abbreviations followed by the

official number on the bottle:

• NM: Négociant manipulant . These companies (including the majority of the

larger brands) buy grapes and make the wine

•

CM: Coopérative de manipulation. Co-operatives that make wines from thegrowers who are members, with all the grapes pooled together

• RM: Récoltant manipulant . A grower that also makes wine from its own grapes (a

maximum of 5% of purchased grapes is permitted). Note that co-operative

members who take their bottles to be disgorged at the co-op can now labelthemselves as RM instead of RC.

• SR: Société de récoltants. An association of growers making a shared Champagne

but who are not a co-operative

• RC: Récoltant coopérateur . A co-operative member selling Champagne produced

by the co-operative under its own name and label

• MA: Marque auxiliaire or Marque d'acheteur . A brand name unrelated to the

producer or grower; the name is owned by someone else, for example asupermarket

• ND: Négociant distributeur . A wine merchant selling under his own name

Marketing Champagne

Champagne in popular culture

The popularity of Champagne is attributed to the success of Champagne producers in

marketing the wine. Champagne houses promoted the wine's image as a royal and

aristocratic drink. Laurent-Perrier's advertisements in late 1890 boasted their Champagne

was the favorite of King Leopold II of Belgium, George I of Greece, Alfred, Duke ofSaxe-Coburg and Gotha, Margaret Cambridge, Marchioness of Cambridge, and John

Lambton, 3rd Earl of Durham, among other nobles, knights, and military officers.

Despite this royal prestige, Champagne houses also portrayed Champagne as a luxuryenjoyable by anyone, for any occasion. This strategy worked, and, by the turn of the

twentieth century, the majority of Champagne drinkers were middle class.

In the 19th century, Champagne producers made a concentrated effort to market theirwine to women. This was in stark contrast to the traditionally "male aura" that the wines

of France had—particularly Burgundy and Bordeaux. Laurent-Perrier again took the lead

in this area with advertisements touting their wine's favour with the Countess of Dudley,


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the wife of the 9th Earl of Stamford, the wife of the Baron Tollemache, and the opera

singer Adelina Patti. Champagne labels were designed with images of romantic love andmarriage as well as other special occasions that were deemed important to women, such

as the baptism of a child.

In some advertisements, the Champagne houses catered to political interest such as thelabels that appeared on different brands on bottles commemorating the centennialanniversary of the French Revolution of 1789. On some labels there were flattering

images of Marie-Antoinette that appealed to the conservative factions of French citizens

that viewed the former queen as a martyr. On other labels there were stirring images ofRevolutionary scenes that appealed to the liberal left sentiments of French citizens. As

World War I loomed, Champagne houses put images of soldiers and countries' flags on

their bottles, customizing the image for each country to which the wine was imported.During the Dreyfus Affair, one Champagne house released a Champagne Antijuif with

anti-Semitic advertisements to take advantage the wave of anti-Semitism that hit half of

France.

Use in society

Champagne is typically drunk during celebrations. For example Tony Blair held achampagne reception to celebrate London winning the right to host the 2012 Olympic

Games.

It is also used to launch ships when a bottle is smashed over the hull during the ship's

launch. If the bottle fails to break this is often thought to be bad luck.

VarietiesChampagne is a single Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée. Grapes must be the white

Chardonnay, or the black Pinot Noir or Pinot Meunier. Also permitted but rare in usage

are Pinot Blanc, Arbane and Petit Meslier.

The black Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier give the wine its length and backbone. They are

predominantly grown in two areas - the Montagne de Reims and the Valée de la Marne.

The Montagne de Reims run east-west to the south of Reims, in northern Champagne.They are notable for north-facing chalky slopes that derive heat from the warm winds

rising from the valleys below. The River Marne runs west-east through Champagne,

south of the Montagne de Reims. The Valée de la Marne contains south-facing chalkyslopes. Chardonnay gives the wine its acidity and biscuit flavour. The majority of

Chardonnay is grown in a north-south-running strip to the south of Epernay, called the

Côte des Blanc, including the villages of Avize, Oger and Le Mesnil-Sur-Oger. These areeast-facing vineyards, with terroir similar to the Côte de Beaune. The various terroirs

account for the differences in grape characteristics and explain the appropriateness of

blending juice from different grape varieties and geographical areas within Champagne,

to get the desired style for each Champagne house.


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Most Champagnes are made from a blend of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, for example

60%/40%. Blanc de blanc (white of white) Champagnes are made from 100%Chardonnay. Possibly the most exquisite, and definitely the most expensive of these is

grown in a single Premier cru vineyard in Le Mesnil-Sur-Oger for Salon. Blanc de noir

(white of black) Champagne is pressed from 100% Pinot Noir or black grapes, using a

special quick-pressing, so that the black colour of the skin does not stain the vin de presse(pressed grape juice).

Champagne is typically light in color even if it is produced with red grapes, because the

juice is extracted from the grapes using a gentle process that minimizes the amount oftime the juice spends in contact with the skins, which is what gives red wine its colour.

Rosé wines are produced throughout France by leaving the clear juice of black grapes to

macerate on its skins for a brief time. Rosé Champagne is notable as it is the only winethat allows the production of Rosé by the addition a small amount of red wine during

blending. This ensures a predictable and reproducible colour, allowing a constant Rosé

colour from year-to-year. The amount of sugar (dosage) added after the second

fermentation and aging also varies:

• Brut Natural or Brut Zéro (less than 3 grams of sugar per liter)

• Extra Brut (less than 6 grams of sugar per liter)

• Brut (less than 15 grams of sugar per liter)

• Extra Sec or Extra Dry (12 to 20 grams of sugar per liter)

• Sec (17 to 35 grams of sugar per liter)

• Demi-Sec (33 to 50 grams of sugar per liter)

• Doux (more than 50 grams of sugar per liter)

The most common is brut, although throughout the 19th century and into the early 20th

century Champagne was generally much sweeter than what we see today.

Most Champagne is non-vintage, produced from a blend of years (the exact blend is only

mentioned on the label by a few growers), while that produced from a single vintage is

labelled with the year and Millésimé.

Many Champagnes are produced from bought-in grapes by well known brands such as

Veuve Clicquot or Mumm.

Blanc de noirs

Blanc de noirs is a French term (literally "white of blacks") for a white wine producedentirely from black grapes. It is often encountered in Champagne, where a number ofhouses have followed the lead of Bollinger's prestige cuvée Vieilles Vignes Françaises in

introducing a cuvée made from either Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier or a blend of the two

(these being the only two black grapes permitted within the Champagne AOC

appellation). Although Bollinger's wine is famed for its intense richness and full-bodiednature, this has more to do with the way the grapes are planted and when they are


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harvested than any intrinsic property of blanc de noirs Champagne, which is often little

different from cuvées including a proportion of Chardonnay.

Blanc de blancs

Conversely, blanc de blancs means "white of whites" and is used to designatechampagnes made only from Chardonnay grapes. The term is occasionally used in othersparkling wine-producing regions, usually to denote Chardonnay-only wines rather than

any sparkling wine made from white grape varieties.

Prestige cuvée

A prestige cuvée, or cuvée de prestige, is a proprietary blended wine (usually aChampagne) that is considered to be the top of a producer's range. Famous examplesinclude Louis Roederer's Cristal, Laurent-Perrier's Grand Siècle, Moët & Chandon's Dom

Pérignon, and Pol Roger's Cuvée Sir Winston Churchill.

The original prestige cuvée was Moët & Chandon's Dom Pérignon, launched in 1936with the 1921 vintage. Until then, Champagne houses produced different cuvées of

varying quality, but a top-of-the-range wine produced to the highest standards (and priced

accordingly) was a new idea. In fact, Louis Roederer had been producing Cristal since

1876, but this was strictly for the private consumption of the Russian tsar.

Cristal was made publicly available with the 1945 vintage. Then came Taittinger 's

Comtes de Champagne (first vintage 1952), and Laurent-Perrier's Grand Siècle 'La

Cuvée' in 1960, a blend of three vintages (1952, 1953, and 1955). In the last threedecades of the twentieth century, most Champagne houses followed these with their own

prestige cuvées, often named after notable people with a link to that producer (VeuveClicquot's La Grande Dame, the nickname of the widow of the house's founder's son; PolRoger's Cuvée Sir Winston Churchill, named for the British prime minister; and Laurent-

Perrier's Cuvée Alexandra rosé, to name just three examples), and presented in non-

standard bottle shapes (following Dom Pérignon's lead with its eighteenth-century revival

design).

The Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne

Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne

All of the over 15,000 growers, cooperatives and over 300 houses that are central to

producing Champagne are members of the Comite Interprofessionel du Vin deChampagne (CIVC), established in 1941 under the auspices of the French government

(now represented by the Ministry of Agriculture). This organization has a system in

which both the houses and the growers are represented at all levels. This includes a co- presidency where a grower representative and a representative of the houses share the

running of the organization. This system is designed to ensure that the CIVC's primary

mission, to promote and protect Champagne and those who produce it, is done in a


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manner that represents the interests of all involved. This power structure has played an

important role in the success of Champagne worldwide and the integrity of the

appellation itself.

Bubbles

Carbonation

Bubbles from rosé champagne

An initial burst of effervescence occurs when the champagne contacts the dry glass on pouring. These bubbles may form on imperfections in the glass that facilitate nucleation

or on cellulose fibres left over from the wiping/drying process as shown by Gérard Liger-

Belair, Richard Marchal, and Philippe Jeandel with a high-speed video camera. .

However, after the initial rush, these naturally occurring imperfections are typically toosmall to consistently act as nucleation points as the surface tension of the liquid smooths

out these minute irregularities.

"Contrary to a generally accepted idea, nucleation sites are not located on

irregularities of the glass itself. The length-scale of glass and crystal irregularitiesis far below the critical radius of curvature required for the non-classical

heterogeneous nucleation." G. Liger-Belair et al

The nucleation sites that act as a source for the ongoing effervescence are not natural

imperfections in the glass, but actually occur where the glass has been etched by themanufacturer or the customer. This etching is typically done with acid, a laser, or a glass


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etching tool from a craft shop to provide nucleation sites for continuous bubble formation

(note that not all glasses are etched in this way)

Dom Pérignon was originally charged by his superiors at the Abbey of Hautvillers to get

rid of the bubbles since the pressure in the bottles caused many of them to burst in the

cellar. As sparkling wine production increased in the early 1700s, cellar workers wouldhave to wear heavy iron mask that resembled a baseball catcher's mask to prevent injuryfrom spontaneously bursting bottles. The disturbance caused by one bottle's

disintegration could cause a chain reaction, with it being routine for cellars to lose 20-

90% of their bottles to instability. The mysterious circumstance surrounding the thenunknown process of fermentation and carbonic gas caused some critics to call the

sparkling creations "The Devil's Wine".

Champagne bottles

Side-by-side comparison of champagne bottles. (L to R) On ladder: magnum (1.5 litres),

full (0.75 litre), half (0.375 litre), quarter (0.1875 litre). On floor: Balthazar (12 litres),Salmanazar (9 litres), Methuselah (6 litres), Jeroboam (3 litres)

Champagne is mostly fermented in two sizes of bottles, standard bottles (750 mL), andmagnums (1.5 L). In general, magnums are thought to be higher quality, as there is less

oxygen in the bottle, and the volume to surface area favors the creation of appropriately-sized bubbles. However, there is no hard evidence for this view. Other bottle sizes,

named for Biblical figures, are generally filled with Champagne that has been fermented

in standard bottles or magnums.

Sizes larger than Jeroboam (3.0 L) are rare. Primat sized bottles (27 L) - and as of 2002Melchizedek sized bottles (30 L) - are exclusively offered by the House Drappier. The

same names are used for bottles containing wine and port; however Jeroboam, Rehoboam

and Methuselah refer to different bottle volumes. Unique sizes have been made for

special occasions and people, the most notable example perhaps being the 20 fluid ounce/ 60 cL. bottle (Imperial pint) made specially for Sir Winston Churchill by Pol Roger. In

order to see a side-by-side comparisen, see this site: Champagne sizes

Champagne corks


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Corking a Champagne Bottle: 1855 engraving of the manual method

Champagne corks are built from several sections and are referred to as aglomeratedcorks. The mushroom shape that occurs in the transition is a result of the bottom section,

which is in contact with the wine, being composed of two stacked discs of pristine cork,

cemented to the upper portion which is a conglomerate of ground cork and glue. Prior toinsertion, a sparkling wine cork is almost 50% larger than the opening of the bottle.

Originally they start as a cylinder and are compressed prior to insertion into the bottle.

Over time their compressed shape becomes more permanent and the distinctive

"mushroom" shape becomes more apparent.

The aging of the champagne post disgorgement can to some degree be told by the cork,

as the longer it has been in the bottle the less it returns to its original cylinder shape.

Serving Champagne

Champagne is usually served in a champagne flute, whose characteristics include a longstem with a tall, narrow bowl, thin sides and an etched bottom. Riedel makes such glasses

for vintage and non-vintage Champagnes. Other manufacturers have copied Riedel's

design and make similar, more affordable flutes. Another notable manufacturer is SchottZwiesel. The Victorian coupe (according to legend, approximating the breast of Marie

Antoinette) is not recommended as it disperses the nose and over-oxygenates the wine.

More information is found in Champagne stemware.

Additionally one should hold the flute by the stem or base as opposed to the bowl and

refrain from overzealous clinking.

Alternatively, when tasting Champagne, a big red wine glass (e.g; a glass for Bordeaux)

can be used, as the aroma spreads better in the larger volume of the glass. Glasses should


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A sabre can be used to open a Champagne bottle with great ceremony. This technique is

called sabrage.

Health benefits

In April 18, 2007, the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry published the resultsof a recent joint study by the University of Reading and University of Cagliari that

showed moderate consumptions of Champagne may help the brain cope with the trauma

of stroke, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's disease. The research noted that the high amountof the antioxidant polyphenols in sparkling wine can help prevent deterioration of brain

cells due to oxidative stress. During the study scientist exposed two groups of mice withblanc de blancs (100% Chardonnay composition) and blanc de noir (Pinot Noir and Pinot

Meunier based) and a control group with no exposure to Champagne. All groups were

then subjected to high levels of neurotoxicity similar to what the human brainexperiences during inflammatory conditions. The study found that the groups pretreated

with exposure to Champagne had the highest level of cell restoration compared to the

group that wasn't. The study's co-authors noted that it was too early to conclusively saythat drinking Champagne is beneficial to brain health but that the study does point

researchers to more exploration in this area.

Alcohol absorption

It is a common perception that people become drunk more quickly on champagne. It has

been shown that alcohol is more rapidly absorbed when mixed with carbonated water,

and this may explain this anecdotal assertion.


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Rum

Rum is a distilled beverage made from sugarcane by-products such as molasses and

sugarcane juice by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a clear liquid,

is then usually aged in oak and other casks. While there are rum producers in places suchas Australia, India, Reunion Island, and elsewhere around the world, the majority of rum production occurs in and around the Caribbean and along the Demerara river in South

America.

Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies, and has famousassociations with the British Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a popular

medium of exchange that helped to promote slavery along with providing economic

instigation for Australia's Rum Rebellion and the American Revolution.

Origins of the name

The origin of the word rum is unclear. A common claim is that the name was derived

from rumbullion meaning "a great tumult or uproar".

Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen

known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.

Other options include contractions of the words saccharum, Latin for sugar, or arôme,

French for aroma.

Regardless of the original source, the name had come into common use by May 1657

when the General Court of Massachusetts made illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether

knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc., etc."

In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on the rum's place of origin. For

rums from Spanish-speaking locales the word ron is used. A ron añejo indicates a rum

that has been significantly aged and is often used for premium products. Rhum is the termused for rums from French-speaking locales, while rhum vieux is an aged French rum

that meets several other requirements.

Some of the many other names for rum are Rumbullion, Rumbustion, Barbados water,Rumscullion, Devil's Death (or "Kill-Devill"), Nelson's Blood, and Rumbo.

History


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Origins of rum

The precursors to rum date back to antiquity. Development of fermented drinks producedfrom sugarcane juice is believed to have first occurred either in ancient India or China,

and spread from there. An example of such an early drink is brum. Produced by the

Malay people, brum dates back thousands of years.

The first distillation of rum took place on the sugarcane plantations of the Caribbean in

the 1600s.

Plantation slaves first discovered that molasses, a by-product of the sugar refining

process, fermented into alcohol. Later, distillation of these alcoholic by-products

concentrated the alcohol and removed impurities, producing the first true rums.

Richard Ligon wrote in 1647 that slaves on plantations on Barbados would consume kill-

devil; he described it as a "hot, hellish and terrible liquor".

A 1651 document from Barbados stated "The chief fuddling they make in the island isRumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and

terrible liquor".

Rum in colonial America

After rum's development in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to ColonialAmerica. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the colonies was

set up in 1664 on current day Staten Island. Boston, Massachusetts had a distillery threeyears later. The manufacture of rum became early Colonial New England's largest andmost prosperous industry. The rum produced there was quite popular, and was even

considered the best in the world during much of the 1800s. Rhode Island rum even joined

gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.

Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the AmericanRevolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 Imperial

gallons (13.5 liters) of rum each year.

To support this demand for the molasses to produce rum, along with the increasing

demand for sugar in Europe during the 1700s and 1800s, a labour source to work thesugar plantations in the Caribbean was needed.

A triangular trade was established between Africa, the Caribbean, and the colonies to

help support this need.


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The circular exchange of slaves, molasses, and rum was quite profitable, and the

disruption to the trade caused by the Sugar Act in 1764 may have even helped cause the

American Revolution.

The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution with George Washington

insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration. Eventually the restrictionson rum from the British islands of the Caribbean combined with the development ofAmerican whiskey led to a decline in the drink's popularity. Rum's association with

piracy comes from the fact that it was a locally available drink during the peak years for

Piracy in the Caribbean. Further embellishment to this association was made with literaryworks such as the poem "Fifteen men on the Dead Man's Chest" by Robert Louis

Stevenson in his book Treasure Island.

Naval Rum

Rum's association with piracy began with English privateers trading on the valuable

commodity. As some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, their fondness for

rum remained, the association between the two only being strengthened by literary works

such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island.

The association of rum with the British Royal Navy began in 1655 when the British fleet

captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the

British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.

While the ration was originally given neat, or mixed with lemon juice, the practice of

watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol onhis sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon directed that the rum ration be watered down before being issued. In honor of the grogram cloak the Admiral wore in rough weather, the

mixture of water and rum became known as Grog.

The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot," until

the practice was abolished after July 31, 1970.

A story involving naval rum is that following his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar,Admiral Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transport back to

England. The tale serves as a basis for the term Nelson's Blood being used to describe

rum. The details of the story are disputed, with some historians claiming the termoriginated instead from a toast to Admiral Nelson.

Rum in colonial Australia


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Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South

Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of thecolony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the

lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that

convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South

Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputationfor drunkenness even though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly

consumed in England at the time.

When William Bligh became governor of the colony in 1806, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem with drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of

exchange. In response to this action, and several others, the New South Wales Corps

marched, with fixed bayonets, to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. Themutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan

Macquarie in 1810.

Caribbean light rum

Until the second half of the 1800s all rums were heavy or dark rums that were consideredappropriate for the working poor, unlike the refined double-distilled spirits of Europe. In

order to expand the market for rum, the Spanish Royal Development Board offered a

prize to anyone who could improve the rum making process. This resulted in manyrefinements in the process which greatly improved the quality of rum. One of the most

important figures in this development process was Don Facundo Bacardi Masso, who

moved from Spain to Santiago de Cuba in 1843. Don Facundo's experiments with

distillation techniques, charcoal filtering, cultivating of specialized yeast strains, andaging with American oak casks helped to produce a smoother and mellower drink typical

of modern light rums. It was with this new rum that Don Facundo founded Bacardi y

Compañia in 1862.

Rum categorization

Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated by the fact that there is no singlestandard for what constitutes rum. Instead rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of

the nations that produce the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such asspirit proof, minimum aging, and even naming standards.

Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rum possess a minimumalcohol content of 50 ABV, while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40

ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of 8 months, the Dominican Republic

requires one year, and Venezuela requires two years. Naming standards also vary, with

Argentina defining rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Barbados uses the terms


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white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and

flavored rum.

Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are

provided to help show the wide variety of rums that are produced.

Regional Variations

Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has a unique style. These styles can

be grouped by the language that is traditionally spoken.

• Spanish-speaking islands traditionally produce light rums with a fairly clean taste.

Rums from Cuba and Puerto Rico are typical of this style.

•

English-speaking islands are known for darker rums with a fuller taste that retainsa greater amount of the underlying molasses flavor. Rums from Jamaica and the

Demerera region are typical of this style.

• French-speaking islands are best known for their agricultural rums (rhum

agricole). These rums, being produced exclusively from sugarcane juice, retain agreater amount of the original flavor of the sugarcane. Rums from Martinique and

Guadeloupe are typical of this style.

Cachaça is a spirit similar to agricultural rum that is produced in Brazil.

Rum Grades

The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location that a rum was

produced. Despite these variations the following terms are frequently used to describe

various types of rum:

• Light Rums, also referred to as light, silver, and white rums. In general, light rum

has very little flavor aside from a general sweetness, and serves accordingly as a

base for cocktails. Light rums are sometimes filtered after aging to remove any

color.

• Gold Rums, also called amber rums, are medium-bodied rums which are

generally aged. The rum can obtain its flavor through addition of spices and

caramel/color (a variation often sold as Spiced Rum), but historically gains its

darker color from aging in wooden casks (typically oak).


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• Dark Rum, also known as black rum, classes as a grade darker than gold rum. It is

generally aged longer, in heavily charred barrels. Dark rum has a much strongerflavor than either light or gold rum, and hints of spices can be detected, along

with a strong molasses or caramel overtone. It is used to provide substance in rum

drinks, as well as color. In addition to uses in mixed drinks, dark rum is the type

of rum most commonly used in cooking.

• Flavored Rum: Some manufacturers have begun to sell rums which they have

infused with flavors of fruits such as mango, orange, citrus, coconut, and lime.

These serve to flavour similarly themed tropical drinks which generally comprise

less than 40% abv.

• Overproof Rum is rum which is much higher than the standard 40% alcohol. Most

of these rums bear greater than 75%, in fact, and preparations of 151 to 160 proof

occur commonly.

•

Premium Rum: As with other sipping spirits, such as Cognac and Scotch, amarket exists for premium and super-premium spirits. These are generally

boutique brands which sell very aged and carefully produced rums. They have

more character and flavor than their "mixing" counterparts, and are generally

consumed without the addition of other ingredients.

Production Methodology

Unlike some other spirits, such as Cognac and Scotch, rum has no defined productionmethods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between

locations and distillers.

Fermentation

Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.

Most rum is produced from molasses. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is

from Brazil. A notable exception is the French-speaking islands where sugarcane juice isthe preferred base ingredient.

To the base ingredient yeast, and potentially water, are added to start fermentation. While

some rum producers allow wild yeast to perform the fermentation, most use specific

strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time.Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source

in Jamaica.


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“The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican

master blender Joy Spence.

Distillers that make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.

Use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation,allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.

Distillation

As with all other aspects of rum production, there is no standard method used for

distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production

is done using column still distillation.

Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills and thus produces a fuller-tasting rum.

Aging and Blending

Many countries require that rum be aged for at least one year. This aging is commonly performed in used bourbon casks, but may also be performed in stainless steel tanks or

other types of wooden casks. Due to the tropical climate common to most rum-producing

areas, rum matures at a much faster rate than is typical for Scotch or Cognac. An

indication of this faster rate is the angel's share, or amount of product lost to evaporation.While products aged in France or Scotland see about 2% loss each year, rum producers

may see as much as 10%.

After aging, rum is normally blended to ensure a consistent flavor. As part of this

blending process, light rums may be filtered to remove any color gained during aging.

For darker rums, caramel may be added to the rum to adjust the color of the final product.

Brands

•

10 Cane

• Angostura

• Appleton Estate

• Bacardi

• Bambu Rum

• Barcelo

• Bayu

• Barbancourt

•

Don Lorenzo

• Don Q

• El Dorado

• English Harbour Rum

• Estelar

• Flor de Caña

• Ghostship

• Goodwill

•

Ocumare

• Old Monk

• Old Sam's

• One Barrell

• Panama Jack

Spiced Rum

• Pampero

• Plantation Rum


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• Beenleigh

• Bermudez

• Black Seal

• Bounty Rum

• Braddah Kimo's

Maui Rum• Brinley Gold Rum

• Brugal

• Bundaberg

• Cockspur

• Cacique

• Caney

• Captain Morgan

• Carupano

• Cavalier

• Coronation Khukuri

XXX Rum• Cortez, Ron Cortez,

Panamà

• Coruba

• Cruzan

• Diplomatico

• Gosling's

• Green Island

• Havana Club

• Honey Rum

• Hoochery

•

Jolly Roger• Lemon Hart

• Lambs Rum

• Macuro

• Malibu Rum

• Mathuros Rum,

Kingdom of Thailand

• Matusalem

• McDowell's No.1

Celebration Rum

• Mitjans

•

Mount Gay• Montilla

• Myers

• Newfoundland Screech

• New Grove Oak Aged

Rum• New Grove Plantation

Rum

• Pusser's

• Pyrat

• RedRum

• Ronrico

• Ron Cortez

•

Ron Diaz• Ron Viejo de

Caldas

• Ron ZacapaCentenario

• Royal Reserve

• Rum Nation

• Santa Teresa

• Santiago De Cuba

• Sailor Jerry

• Silver Kiss Rum

•

Stroh• Tanduay

• Varela Rum,151 proof, Panamà

• VooDoo Spiced

Rum• Wray and Nephews

• Zaya


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Sake

Sake barrels at Itsukushima Shrine.

Sake (Japanese: ; pronounced [sa.k ɛ] is a Japanese alcoholic beverage made from rice.

In Japanese, the word sake (usually preceded by the honorific prefix o-) does notexclusively apply to this specific single beverage; instead, the word Nihonshu

(literally, "Japanese alcoholic beverage") is used to distinguish it from other beverages. InEnglish, the word sake never refers to anything other than Nihonshu. This article uses the

word "sake" as it is used in English.

Sake is also commonly referred to in English as "rice wine", but the characterisation

implied is not accurate. Wine is made from the single fermentation of plant juices (Other

than sparkling wine, which can be a double fermentation to create the carbonation.). Sake

is produced by multiple fermentation of rice, which is more similar to how beer is produced. Also, outside Japan there exist other beverages known as "rice wine" that are

significantly different from Nihonshu.

Other beverages

The word "sake" can also refer to different beverages in different regions of Japan:

• In Southern Kyūshū, sake usually refers to a distilled beverage, sweet potato

shōchū ( imo-jōchū ). Shōchū is a distilled spirit made with k ō ji-kin ( or

), Aspergillus oryzae.• In Okinawa, sake may refer to shōchū made from sugar cane, awamori ( ,

literally "heaping bubbles") or k ūsu ( , literally "ancient drink").

History

The history of sake is not well documented and there are multiple theories on how it was

developed. One theory suggests that the brewing of rice started in China, along the


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Yangtze River and was subsequently exported to Japan. Another theory traces sake

brewing back to 3rd century Japan with the advent of wet rice cultivation. Thecombination of water and rice lying around together would have resulted in molds and

fermentation.

Regardless, the first sake was called kuchikami no sake, (Japanese for "chewing themouth sake" or mouth chewed sake) and was made by people chewing rice, chestnuts,millet, acorn and spitting the mixture into a tub. The enzymes from the saliva allowed the

starches to saccharify (convert to sugar). This sweet mixture was combined with freshly

cooked grain and allowed to naturally ferment. This early form of sake was likely low inalcohol and consumed like porridge. This method was used by Native Americans; see

cauim, and pulque. Chinese millet wine, xǐao mǐ j ǐu ( ), made the same way, is

mentioned in inscriptions from the 14th century BC as being offered to the gods inreligious rituals. Later, from approximately the 8th century BC, rice wine, mǐ j ǐu ( )

with a formula almost exactly like that of the later Japanese sake, became popular in

China.

Centuries later, chewing was rendered unnecessary by the discovery of k ō ji-kin ( Aspergillus oryzae), a mold whose enzymes convert the starch in the rice to sugar, which

is also used to make amazake, miso, and soy sauce. Rice inoculated with k ō ji-kin is called

"kome-k ō ji" ( ), or malt rice. A yeast mash, or shubo ( ), is then added to convertthe sugars to ethanol. This development can greatly increase sake's alcohol content

(18%–25% by vol.); as starch is converted to sugar by k ō ji, sugars are converted to

alcohol by yeast in one instantaneous process.

K ō ji-kin was discovered most likely by accident. K ō ji spores and yeast floating in the air

would land in a soupy rice-water mixture left outside. The resulting fermentation would

create a sake porridge not unlike the kuchikami no sake but without the hassle of needinga whole village to chew the rice. This porridge was probably not the best tasting, but theintoxication was enough to keep people interested in making it. Some of this mash would

be kept as a starter for the next batch.

Experimentation and techniques from China sometime in the 7th century AD gave rise to

higher quality sake. Sake eventually became popular enough for a brewing organizationto be established at the Imperial Palace in Kyoto, then the capital of Japan. This resulted

in full-time sake brewers, and these craftsmen paved the way for many more

developments in technique. It was during the Heian Era (794-1185) that the development

of the three step addition in the brewing process was developed (a technique to increase

alcohol content and reduce chance of souring).

For the next 500 years the quality and techniques used in brewing sake steadily

improved. The practice of using a starter mash or "moto" was adopted, for the purpose ofcultivating the maximum possible amount of yeast cells before brewing . Brewers were

also able to isolate k ō ji for the first time and, thus, were able to control with some

consistency the saccharification (converting starch to sugar) of the rice.


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Previously, it had been discovered that small amounts of alcohol could be added to sake

to improve aroma and texture. But by government decree, pure alcohol and glucose wereadded to small quantities of rice mash, increasing the yield by as much as four times.

95% of today's sake is made using this technique, left over from the war years. There

were even a few breweries that were able to produce "sake" that contained no rice at all.

Naturally, the quality of sake during this time suffered greatly.

After the war, breweries slowly began to recover, and the quality of sake gradually went

up. However, new players on the scene — beer, wine, and spirits — became very popular

in Japan, and in the 1960s beer consumption surpassed sake for the first time. Sakeconsumption continued to go down while, in contrast, the quality of sake steadily

improved.

Today, sake has become a world beverage with a few breweries springing up in China,Southeast Asia, South America, North America, and Australia. More breweries are also

turning to older methods of production.

While the rest of the world may be drinking more sake and the quality of sake has been

increasing, it is not clear sailing for the sake industry. In Japan, the sale of sake is still

declining and it is uncertain if the exportation of sake to other countries can saveJapanese breweries. There are around 1,500 breweries in Japan now, whereas there were

about 2,500 in 1988.

Brewing

Moromi, a stage in the brewing process

Sake is produced by the multiple parallel fermentation of polished rice. The process of

milling removes the protein and oils from the exterior of the rice grain, leaving behindstarch. A more thorough milling leads to fewer congeners and generally a more desirable

product. Multiple fermentation means that there are multiple steps in the fermentation process — the starch is converted to sugar by enzyme action, and then the sugar is

converted to alcohol by yeast. This is typical of beverages created from starchy sources,

such as beers.

Sake brewing differs from beer brewing in two significant ways. In sake brewing,

enzymes for the starch conversion come from the action of a mold called k ō ji, but in beer

brewing the enzymes come from the malt itself. In sake brewing, the multiple processes


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• Nigorizake ( ), is cloudy sake. The sake is passed through a very loose weave

to separate it from the mash. It is of course not filtered thereafter and there ismuch rice sediment in the bottle. Before serving, the bottle is shaken to mix the

sediment and turn the sake white or cloudy.

• Doburoku ( ) is the classic home-brew style of sake and is traditionally a

cloudy milky color, as the most delicious flavors are found in the white residue. Doburoku is created by adding steamed rice at the end of fermentation, starting a

second fermentation and raising the alcohol level. It is also unpasteurized. Please

note that although the kanji for doburoku and nigorizake are the same and bothare opaque, they are in fact different styles of sake, with doburoku being the

"chunkier" of the two.

By creating a starter-culture of micro-organisms, a higher-quality brew is possible. Thestarter-culture, called "moto" ( ) is stored at 5-10°C, allowing the lactic acid micro-

organisms to become dominant in the culture. Lactic acid is important to flavor and

preventing un-wanted infections. Subsequently, the rice, k ō ji, and water is added at three

separate stages. The mixture is called moromi ( or ), and grows the mass by threeadditions. By initiating a brew with a starter-culture, the subsequent batches to moromi

also increase the alcohol levels.

Varieties

An American-produced bottle of ginjō-shu sake.

Various types of sake offered for sale at a Japanese grocery in the United States.


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There are two basic types of sake: futsū-shu ( ), "normal sake"; and tokutei

meishōshu ( ) "special designation sake". Futsū-shu does not qualify for anylevels of special designation. It is the equivalent of table wine and is over 75% of all sake

produced. On the other hand, the tokutei meishōshu or "special designation sake" is

distinguished by the degree to which the rice is polished and the added percentage of jōzō

alcohol or absence of such additives.

There are four types of tokutei meishōshu (actually six, due to mixing and matching the

junmai and ginjō varieties).

• honjō zō-shu ( ), with a slight amount of distilled alcohol added. Thedistilled alcohol helps pull some extra flavors out of the mash. This term was

created in the late 1960s to distinguish it (a premium, flavorful sake) from cheaply

made liquors to which large amounts of alcohol were added simply to increasevolume and/or give it a high alcohol content.

• junmai-shu ( , literally "pure sake"), made from rice only. Before 2004, the

Japanese government mandated that at least 40% of the rice be polished away,with no alcohol added, if the sake was to be considered junmai. Today, it canrepresent any sake milled to any degree, that contains no additives or distilled

alcohol.

• ginjō-shu ( ), rice weight polished to 40% or less.

• daiginjō-shu ( ), rice weight polished to 50% or less.

The term junmai can be added in front of either ginjō or daiginjō if no alcohol is added toresult in either junmai ginjō or junmai daiginjō. However, distilled alcohol often is added

in small amounts to ginjō and daiginjō to heighten the aroma, not to increase volume, so

a junmai daiginjō without added alcohol is not necessarily a better product than daiginjō.

In fact, most brews that win the gold medals at the Hiroshima Kanpyō

kai (one of themost prestigious judging events) cannot be called junmai due to the small amounts of

alcohol added.

In addition, there are some other terms commonly used to describe sake:

• kuroshu ( ), sake using unpolished rice (brown rice), more like the Chinese

production method.

• koshu ( ), aged sake. Most sake does not age well, but this specially made typecan age for decades, turning the sake yellow and giving it a honeyed flavor.

• taruzake ( ), sake aged in cedar barrels. The barrel aging gives this type its

characteristic spiciness. Also refers to sake casks broken open for the opening of buildings, businesses, parties, etc. As the cedar barrels imparts a flavor, premium

sake is rarely used for this type.

• seishu ( ), the official name for Japanese sake, but excluding nigorizake anddoburoku.

• tei-seihaku-shu ( ), sake with low rice polishing ratio.

Generally and traditionally, it has been said that the lower the "seimai-buai" rice polishing ratio is (see below), the

Documents

Williams, James - Origin of Beverages.pdf