William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - PhD Dissertation Advisor.Rochelle Cobbs Prospectus.4.10.13.1[1]

8/20/2019 William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - PhD Dissertation Advisor.Rochelle Cobbs Prospectus.4.10.13.1[1]

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THE POLICING OF JUVENILES IN IDENTIFIED RURAL AREAS OF MISSISSIPPI:

A REPLICATION STUDY

A Dissertation Prospet!s

Presente" to

T#e Fa!$t% an" Depart&ent o' J!stie St!"ies

Co$$e(e o' J!)eni$e J!stie an" Ps%#o$o(%

Prairie Vie* A+M Uni)ersit%

In Partia$ F!$'i$$&ent

o' t#e Re,!ire&ents 'or t#e De(ree o'

Dotor o' P#i$osop#% in J!)eni$e J!stie

-%

ROCHELLE E. CO//S

Apri$ 0123

TA/LE OF CONTENTS

A/STRACT 444444444444444444444444444444.



2

DEDICATION44444444444444444444444444444..

AC5NO6LEDGEMENTS 4444444444444444444444..44TA/LE OF CONTENTS444444444444444444444444.......APPENDICES 44444444444444444444444444444..CHAPTER I 444444444444444444444444444444..INTRODUCTION44444444444444444444444444.44P!rpose o' St!"%44444444444444444444444444444C!rrent St!"%444444444444444444444444444444.

O-7eti)es ....44444444444444444444444444............

Un"erstan"in( 6#at Constit!tes R!ra$ Settin(s8Areas44444444...................Li&itations44444.444444444444444444444444...

Or(ani9ation 44444444444444444444444444444.CHAPTER II 444444444444444444444444444444.LITERATURE REVIE6 4444444444444444444444444.CHAPTER III444444444444444444444444444444METHODS4444444444444444444444444444444Resear# Desi(n44444444444444444444444444444Pro7et Desription 4444444444444444444444444444Meas!res an" Data Co$$etion 44444444444444444444444..Data Ana$%sis444444444444444444444444444444.Li&itations 4444444444444444444444444444444CHAPTER IV444444444444444444444444444444FINDINGS 4444444444444444444444444444444

CHAPTER V 444444444444444444444444444444SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 444444444444444444...........REFERENCES 44444444444444444444444444444.

APPENDICES

Appen"i Pa(e



3

CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION

T#is resear# st!"% "esi(n is a rep$iation o' a pre)io!s st!"% "esi(n -% M%ers

;011<= t#at ea&ine" po$ie>7!)eni$e interations8eno!nters in t#e !r-an areas o'

In"ianapo$is? Minnesota an" St. Peters-!r(? F$ori"a. T#is st!"% 'o!ses on t#e po$ie>

7!)eni$e eno!nters in t#e r!ra$ areas o' t#e Mississippi De$ta. Li@e M%erss ;011<=

st!"%? it *i$$ 'o!s on po$ie -e#a)ior ;i.e.? po$ie !se o' a!t#orit% an" po$ie pro)ision o'

s!pport an" assistane= *#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es. Spei'ia$$%? t#is st!"% see@s to

ea&ine t#e re$ations#ip -et*een t#e t%pes o' -e#a)iors e#i-ite" -% t#e po$ie in t#eir

"ea$in(s *it# t#e p!-$i? s!# as po$ie !se o' a!t#orit% an" etension o' s!pport? t#e

attit!"e an" #arateristi o' in"i)i"!a$ o''iers? an" t#e sit!ationa$ 'ators t#at in'$!ene

o''iers -e#a)ior *#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es on t#e street in t#e r!ra$ areas i"enti'ie"

a-o)e. Moreo)er? t#e st!"% see@s to asertain i' t#e 'in"in(s 'ro& t#is st!"% o' po$ie>

7!)eni$e eno!nters in t#e r!ra$ areas o' t#e Mississippi De$ta s!pport or ne(ate t#at o'

M%ers (i)en t#e !ni,!e ontets o' Mississippi.

T#e o!t$ine o' t#e st!"% is as 'o$$o*s? #apter 2 presents t#e intro"!tion an" t#e

i"enti'iation o' t#e resear# pro-$e&? t#e resear# p!rpose? t#e si(ni'iane o' t#e st!"%?

t#e i&portane o' t#e resear# an" t#e resear# #%pot#eses8epetations. C#apter II

ontains t#e re)ie* o' t#e re$e)ant $iterat!re on /$a@s -e#a)ior o' $a* perspeti)e an"

po$ie -e#a)ior8response to po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters8ontats. C#apter III presents t#e

resear# &et#o"o$o(%. C#apter IV presents t#e interpretation o' t#e "ata o' t#e s!r)e%







6

resear# in re(ar" to r!ra$ ri&e? r!ra$ po$iin(? an" po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in r!ra$

areas. T#ere'ore? t#is setion -e(ins -% pro)i"in( an operationa$ "e'inition o' a r!ra$

settin( an" s!int$% presentin( an in>"ept# re)ie* o' in'or&ation an" resear# on r!ra$

ri&e? r!ra$ po$iin(? an" po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in r!ra$ settin(s.An Account of What Constitutes a Rural Setting/Area

A r!ra$ settin( an"8or s&a$$ to*n are ter&s t#at #a)e &!$tip$e &eanin(s an"

"i&ensions. R!ra$ o&&!nities ten" to )ar% 'ro& ea# ot#er in "e&o(rap#is?

eono&is? !$t!re? (eo(rap#%? an" soia$ str!t!re ;/ea$er? Fern + 6i$$ia&? 2= *#i#

s#ape ri&e an" 7!stie? parti!$ar$% po$iin(. It is i&perati)e to (rasp an !n"erstan"in(

as to *#at is &eant -% t#e ter& r!ra$ 'or t#is parti!$ar st!"%. T#!s? it is i&portant to

"e)e$op an operationa$ "e'inition o' *#at onstit!tes a r!ra$ settin(*#at "oes it &ean

*it#in t#e ontet o' 7!stie an" po$iin(? parti!$ar$% t#e -e#a)ior8praties o' t#e po$ie

*#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es on t#e street in r!ra$ areas. 6eis#eit? Faone? an" 6e$$s

"e$)e into a &eta>ana$%sis t#at o&prise" o' &ore t#an 1 st!"ies. T#e resear#ers note"

t#at 0 perent o' t#e st!"ies "i" not (i)e &eas!rea-$e "e'initions o' t#e r!ra$ ter&. In

a""ition? t#e% note" t#at in so&e st!"ies? ities *it# t#e pop!$ation !p to 2?111 *ere

ate(ori9e" as r!ra$ or s&a$$ to*n. F!rt#er&ore? t#e% in"iate" t#at reent st!"ies

"e'ine" r!ra$ o&&!nities as r!ra$ $oa$es o' ?111 to 1?111 iti9ens. T#is parti!$ar$%

"e'inition is t#e operationa$ "e'inition t#at *i$$ -e !se" to "e'ine r!ra$ o&&!nities 'or

t#e !rrent st!"%.Historical Account of Rural Crime and Rural Policing

D!rin( t#e 211s? t#ere *ere a-o!t 1 K A&erians *#o resi"e" in r!ra$ areas

;Ho--s + Stoops? 0110=. Ear$ier ri&ino$o(ists an" soio$o(ists !n"erstoo" r!ra$

o&&!nities an" to*ns as t#e !nit o' ana$%sis 'ro& *#i# !r-an o&&!nities8$i'e o!$"

-e ea&ine" as a p#eno&enon ;6eis#eit? Fa$one? + 6e$$s? 011=. As ti&e pro(resse"?



7

onte&porar% ri&ino$o(ists "e)iate" 'ro& t#e r!ra$ ori(in o' !nit ana$%ses. /% t#e

21s? a$&ost a$$ t#eoretia$ "e)e$op&ent an" testin( *ere &ore onerne" an" "irete"

to*ar" !r-an -ase" soia$ p#eno&ena ;6eis#eit? Fa$one? + 6e$$s? 011= ;)i9.? po$ie

ontro$ o' 7!)eni$es? t#e i"enti'iation o' sit!ationa$ 'ators t#at ontri-!te to t#e

"eisions o' o''iers ta@in( 7!)eni$e in !sto"%? et=. S!-se,!ent$%? t#ere #as -een

$i&ite" attention to ri&e an" po$iin( in r!ra$ settin(s o&pare" to ri&ina$ re$ate"

ontets o' !r-an areas? e)en t#o!(# r!ra$ ri&e an" po$iin(? parti!$ar$% po$ie>7!)eni$e

eno!nters &a% -e essentia$ to t#e st!"% o' 7!)eni$e "e$in,!en%? ri&e? an" ri&ina$

7!stie.It is i&portant to point o!t t#at po$ie praties )ar% 'ro& one (eo(rap#ia$ area

to t#e net ;Os(oo" + C#a&-ers? 0113= an" st!"%in( t#e )arieties o' po$ie -e#a)ior

&a% %ie$" (reat insi(#t into t#e ro$e o' po$iin( in )ario!s o&&!nities? parti!$ar$% r!ra$

settin(s an" ri&e. Ho*e)er? &ost st!"ies pertainin( to t#e )ariation o' po$ie -e#a)ior?

parti!$ar$% as t#e% re$ate to po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters? ten" to -e on"!te" in !r-an

areas ;e.(.? /$a@ + Reiss? 21B Me%ers? 011<B A$$en? 011= ne($etin( r!ra$ ri&e an"

r!ra$ po$iin(. F!rt#er&ore? t#ere is e)i"ene to s!pport t#at r!ra$ en)iron&ents are

"i''erent 'ro& !r-an en)iron&ents t#at a''et 7!)eni$e "e$in,!en%? ri&e? ri&ina$

7!stie? 7!)eni$e 7!stie an" t#e i&p$e&entation o' po$i%. T#ere'ore? t#e 'o$$o*in(

"is!ssion presents st!"ies8resear# in re$ation to r!ra$ ri&e an" !r-an ri&e )ie*e"

to(et#erB st!"ies pertainin( to r!ra$ ri&e )ie*e" a$oneB st!"ies a-o!t r!ra$ ri&e

po$iin( (enera$$%B an" resear# (eare" &ore to*ar" r!ra$ po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters.

Rural Crime and Urban Crime

In t#e Unite" States? o&pare" to !r-an areas ri&e rates? r!ra$ settin(s ri&e

rates #a)e re)ea$e" a $o*er n!&-er. In s!pport o' t#is )ie*? S&it# ;0110=? /o!''ar" an"



8

M!'ti ;011=? /arnet an" Men@en ;0110=? an" 6e-s"a$e ;2= on$!"e" t#at

ri&e8"e$in,!en% is $ess pre)a$ent in r!ra$ settin(s "!e to &ore re$iane on in'or&a$

soia$ ontro$ &e#anis&s T#e resear# t#at on$!"e" t#at ri&e o!rs $ess in r!ra$

settin(s is '!rt#er s!pporte" -% t#e Uni'or& Cri&e Report ;UCR= ;0121= "ata t#at are

ate(ori9e" -% t%pes o' ri&e an" pop!$ation (ro!p. /ase" on t#e "ata? t#ere is a

re$ations#ip -et*een ri&es in !r-an areas *it# 01?111 or &ore iti9ens an" r!ra$ areas?

*#i# are e$!"e" 'ro& t#e !r-an o&&!nities. Ho*e)er? a'ter ea&inin( t#e UCR

In"e o''enses 'or 0121? it *as note" t#at se)era$ ri&e patterns e&er(e": in"e ri&e

rates parti!$ar$% 'or propert% an" )io$ent o''enses are #i(#er 'or !r-an settin(s o&pare"

to r!ra$ areas. For ea&p$e? t#e propert% o''ense rate 'or r!ra$ areas is 2?<. o&pare"

to t#e propert% o''ense rate 'or !r-an areas? *#i# is 0?21.0B an" t#e )io$ent rate 'or r!ra$

areas is 2.3 as a(ainst 0<.2 'or !r-an areas. T#ere'ore? it is e)i"ent t#at t#ere is a

(reater (ap -et*een r!ra$ an" !r-an ri&e 'or )io$ent o''enses t#an propert% o''enses. In

a""ition? t#e ran@ or"er o' o''enses 'or propert% o''enses appears to -e si&i$ar 'or -ot#

areas ;i.e.? r!ra$ an" !r-an=. For instane? in -ot# areas? &otor )e#i$e t#e't *as t#e $east

reporte" ri&ina$ o''ense to t#e po$ie an" $aren% *as t#e &ost reporte" o''ense. /ase"

on t#e a-o)e>&entione" ri&e statistis? t#ere is a nee" to en#ane t#e (enera$

!n"erstan"in( a-o!t r!ra$ ri&e? r!ra$ po$iin(? an" po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in r!ra$

settin(s.

Rural Crime

So&e resear# at!a$$% 'o!se" on$% on r!ra$ ri&e. For ea&p$e? S&it# an"

H!'' ;20= on"!te" a ,!antitati)e &et#o"o$o(ia$ approa#. T#e% ea&ine" t#e

patterns o' )iti&i9ation eperiene" -% a representati)e sa&p$e o' r!ra$ resi"ents in a



9

r!ra$ o!nt% in t#e &i">*estern part o' t#e Unite" States an" t#eir pereption o' pro-$e&s

o' ri&e. T#e% re'ine" an" eten"e" t#e Nationa$ Cri&e Pane$ )iti&i9ation s!r)e%

&et#o"s to "ra* o!t &ore re'$eti)e )iti&i9ation eperienes? pereptions o' t#e ri&e

pro-$e&? 'ears o' ri&e? an" t#e ations o' partiipants. T#eir 'in"in(s s!((este" t#at

a$-eit? patterns o' )iti&i9ation in r!ra$ settin(s are )er% &!# o&para-$e to !r-an areas?

t#e rates o' )iti&i9ation in t#e r!ra$ s!r)e% in"iate"? spei'ia$$% 'or )io$ent ri&es

*ere (reater t#an t#e a((re(ate rates reporte" -% Gi--s ;2=. T#e resear#ers a$so

o-ser)e" t#at )an"a$is& is pre)a$ent in r!ra$ $oa$es. In ontrast? #istoria$$%? )an"a$is&

#a" -een onsi"ere" an !r-an? (an( re$ate" pro-$e& ;Co#en? 2=. A""itiona$$%?

#o*e)er? t#e resear#ers 'in"in(s s!((este" t#at partiipants "i" not -e$ie)e t#at ri&e

*as inreasin( in t#eir $oa$e *#en o&pare" to ot#er parts o' t#e Unite" States.Anot#er st!"% t#at parti!$ar$% a""resse" r!ra$ ri&e is t#at o' Donner&e%er an"

P#i$$ips ;20=. T#e resear#ers !se" "ata 'ro& an O#io st!"% ;N 3<= t#at in$!"e"

7!niors 'ro& #i(# s#oo$ an" t#e% a$so o$$ete" &ore "ata 'ro& sop#o&ore #i(# s#oo$

st!"ents *#o o&p$ete" a ,!estionnaire in In"iana. T#e resear#ers 'in"in(s s!((est

t#at o)er #a$' o' r!ra$ %o!t# in O#io an" In"iana en(a(e" in )an"a$is&. T#e% in"iate"

t#at t#ree>'o!rt#s o' t#e st!"ents reporte" ases o' )an"a$is& t#at in)o$)e" eit#er "iret

or in"iret eono&i ost ;i.e.? )iti&s $ost ti&e in repairin( or $eanin( !p t#e "a&a(es=

to t#e )iti&. T#e% '!rt#er in"iate" t#at &ost o' t#e respon"ents en(a(e" in )an"a$is&

ats t#ree or 'o!r ti&es in a %ear. Interestin($%? on$% a 'e* )ie*e" t#eir ations as i$$e(a$.

As a &atter o' 'at? &ost respon"ents )ie*e" t#eir ations as a 7o@e or a (a&e. T#e st!"%

'!rt#er re)ea$e" t#at &ost o' t#e )an"a$is& ats too@ p$ae in t#e o!nt% t#at t#e %o!t#



10

resi"e"B an" &ost respon"ents *#o en(a(e" in )an"a$is& ats *ere &a$es an" &ost$%

'ro& sin($e>parent #o!se#o$"s.P#i$$ips ;2= a$so 'o!se" on ri&e in r!ra$ O#io? *#i# *as "!e to an inrease

in ri&e rates an" t#e t%pes o' o''en"ers o&&ittin( t#e o''enses ;e.(.? propert%?

)an"a$is&= in r!ra$ settin(s. He in"iate" t#at t#ere are a #ost o' ri&es not -een

reporte" -% r!ra$ o&&!nities. He o$$ete" "ata 'ro& &!$tip$e Uni'or& Cri&e Report

so!res ;e.(.? )iti&i9ation s!r)e%s? O#io o!nt% s#eri''s o''ies o&pi$ation o'

o''enses an" o''en"ers reor"s? an" <0 &e&-ers o' Far& /!rea! Co!ni$s=. P#i$$ipss

'in"in(s s!((est t#at approi&ate$% perent o' a$$ o''enses *ere not reporte" to

a!t#orities. A$so? #is 'in"in(s s!((est t#at o''en"ers *#o o&&itte" s!# o''enses in

r!ra$ areas *ere &ost$% 6#ite? &a$e? !r-an resi"ents !n"er t#e a(e o' 31. F!rt#er&ore?

ri&es s!# as )an"a$is& an" $aren% *ere t#e &ost pre)a$ent o''enses o&&itte" in

r!ra$ areas o' O#io. In a""ition? t#e s!r)e% "ata? aor"in( to P#i$$ips? re)ea$e" t#at r!ra$

resi"ents o' O#io attri-!te" t#e inrease in ri&e rate to $enien% o' t#e o!rt in "ea$in(

*it# t#ese t%pes o' o''enses an" o''en"ers? $a@ o' $a* en'ore&ent e''orts in "etetin(

s!# o''enses8o''en"ers? t#e -rea@"o*n o' 'a&i$% )a$!es? an" (ro*t# o' pop!$ation in

r!ra$ areas o' O#io.S*anson ;22= note" t#at t#e &a7orit% o' resear# a-o!t ri&e #as -een -ase"

on o-ser)ation t#at ri&e ten" to -e an !r-an pro-$e&? *#i# #as $e" so&e in"i)i"!a$s to

-e$ie)e t#at ri&e in r!ra$ areas &a% not ontri-!te to t#e (enera$ !n"erstan"in( o' ri&e.

Conse,!ent$%? r!ra$ ri&ina$ ontet ;i.e.? r!ra$ ri&e in t#e soia$ en)iron&ent= #as -een

ne($ete" 'ro& t#e (enera$ !n"erstan"in( o' ri&e. He '!rt#er in"iate" t#at s!# a

notion o' i&po)eris#es ;p. 2= ne($et t#e ri&ina$ ontet o' interation -et*een !r-an

an" r!ra$ settin(s. T#ere'ore? t#e p!rpose o' #is in)esti(ation *as to s#e" $i(#t into t#e



11

serio!s nationa$ pro-$e& a-o!t r!ra$ an" a(ri!$t!ra$ ri&es? parti!$ar$% eono&i? -%

proposin( 'o!r propositions *#i# are as 'o$$o*:;2= Proposition one: T#e #arateristis an" )a$!es o' t#e r!ra$

an" a(ri!$t!ra$ en)iron&ents &a@e t#e& attrati)e tar(ets o'eono&i ri&eB

;0= Proposition t*o: T#ere is a si(ni'iant a&o!nt o' reporte"ri&e in r!ra$ an" a(ri!$t!ra$ en)iron&entsB

;3= Proposition t#ree: R!ra$ an" a(ri!$t!ra$ ri&e in)o$)essi(ni'iant $osses.

;<= Proposition 'o!r: Or(ani9e" ri&ina$s an" or(ani9e" ri&eare in)o$)e" in p$annin( an" ee!tin( r!ra$ an" a(ri!$t!ra$ri&es ;pp. 2>03=.

For ea&p$e? to e$a-orate on Proposition 2 o' S*anson? #e note" t#at < &i$$ion iti9ens

$i)e" in r!ra$ areas in 2. Uti$i9in( t#e Uni'or& Cri&e Reports ;UCR= o' 2 an"

2? S*anson o&pare" ri&e rates 'or Part 2 in"e o''enses per 211?111 #a-itants in

r!ra$ an" !r-an settin(s? #is 'in"in(s re)ea$e" t#at t#e perenta(e rose in t#e tota$ a&o!nt

o' in"e ri&e 'or r!ra$ areas eee"in( t#e tota$ a&o!nt o' ri&e reporte" in !r-an areas

to a-o!t <3 perent. Moreo)er? aor"in( to S*anson? t#e #ie' #arateristi o' r!ra$

ri&e is t#at it in)o$)es ri&es t#at are eono&i in nat!re ;e.(.? t#e't o' propert% 'ar&

e,!ip&ent= *#i# $osses an ran(e 'ro& t#o!san"s to &i$$ions o' "o$$ars? )an"a$is&

o''enses *#i# $osses an ran(e 'ro& #!n"re"s to t#o!san"s o' "o$$ars o' propert%

"a&a(esB t#e't o' $i)esto@ ;e.(.? 'ar& ani&a$s= *#i# $osses )a$!e" at nationa$$% in t#e

Unite" States at 20?<?111 in 2B t#e't o' $i&e? &an(o? an" a)oa"oB an" ot#er

ri&es s!# as e&-e99$e&ent an" 'ra!"=.A reent st!"% o' De$$er an" De$$er ;0121= ep$ores Unite" States ri&e patterns

in r!ra$ areas 'o!sin( on soia$ apita$. T#e% e&p$o%e" a ritia$ ri&ino$o(ia$

approa# -% -!i$"in( on t#ree t#eories o' ri&ino$o(% ;)i9.? soia$ "isor(ani9ation?

ano&ie8strain? an" rationa$ #oie= in essene to "e)e$op a &ore 'or&a$ t#eor% an" an

e&piria$ 'ra&e*or@ 'or t#e !rrent s!-7et o' interest. T#e% !se" "ata 'ro& &!$tip$e



12

so!res? s!# as s!r)e% "ata o' t#e Co!nt% /!siness Pattern ;C/P= o&pi$e" -% t#e

Cens!s /!rea! to "e)e$op a set o' )aria-$es re'$etin( a ran(e o' enterprise o' soia$

apita$B an"? "ata 'ro& t#e Nationa$ Center 'or C#arita-$e Statistis 'or t#e n!&-er o'

nonpro'its or(ani9ation? an" "ata 'ro& re$i(io!s or(ani9ations t#at *ere o$$ete" 'ro&

t#e Assoiation o' Re$i(ion Data A#ie)es. T#e% '!rt#er ep$ore" t#e ro$e o' 'o!r

&eas!res o' soia$ apita$ ;i.e.? &eas!res o' ino&e? *ea$t#? an" ine,!a$it%? a(e? raia$>

et#niit% pro'i$es? an" eono&i -ase= to (ain &ore insi(#t into t#e patterns o' ri&e in

r!ra$ $oa$es. T#e resear#ers 'in"in(s s!((est t#at t#e pro(ression o' (ro*t# an" its

e''ets on o&&!nit% #an(e assoiate" *it# t#e (ro*t# are ris@ 'ators o' r!ra$ ri&e

patterns. Moreo)er? aor"in( to De$$er an" De$$er ;0121=? -ot#? r!ra$ eono&i (ro*t#

an" "e)e$op&ent an" r!ra$ settin(s ri&e patterns are )er% $ose$% re$ate"B a$t#o!(#? t#e%

see& "i''erent. T#e% '!rt#er in"iate" t#at soia$ apita$ is i&portant t#eoretia$$% an"

e&piria$$%. For ea&p$e? t#e resear#ers 'in"in(s s!((est t#at a #i(#er onentration o'

or(ani9ations ;e.(.? pro'essiona$s? -!siness? an" $a-or or(ani9ations#a&-er o'

o&&ere? $a-or !nions? i)i or o&&!nit% -ase" entities'raterna$ or(ani9ations?

a$!&ni assoiation? re$i(io!s instit!tions= t#at pro&ote net*or@in( is assoiate" *it#

$o*er rates8$e)e$s o' ri&e in r!ra$ areas. T#e% a$so s!((este" t#at #i(#er $e)e$s o' ri&e

in r!ra$ areas are assoiate" *it# #i(#er onentrations o' art or(ani9ations ;art o!ni$s

an" per'or&in( art (ro!ps= ;p. 0=. Moreo)er? t#e resear#er 'in"in(s s!((est t#at?

in"ee"? soia$ apita$ &atters in respet to r!ra$ ri&e. T#ere'ore? r!ra$ o&&!nities t#at

are onerne" a-o!t t#e (ro*t# o' t#eir eono&% *i$$ *or@ to ste& press!res t#at i&pat

t#e ri&e rate o' t#ose areas. Rural Policing and Rural Societ



13

T#is setion o' t#e re)ie* 'o!ses on resear# pertainin( to po$iin( in r!ra$

areas. T#ere are !ni,!e #a$$en(es to r!ra$ po$iin( in A&eria? *#i# in$!"e: $i&ite"

reso!res 'or t#e #irin( o' *e$$>traine" personne$? $ar(e a(ri!$t!ra$ (eo(rap#ia$ areas to

patro$ *it# a 'e* $a* en'ore&ent personne$? an" a (enera$ ne($et o' $ar(er state an"

'e"era$ $ea"ers *#o are !n"er t#e !n"erstan"in( t#at ri&e o!rs $ess 're,!ent$% in r!ra$

areas *#en o&pare" to !r-an areas ;6eis#eit? Fa$one? + 6e$$s? 011B Ma*-% +

Yar*oo"? 0122=. T#!s 'ar? po$iin( iss!es o' r!ra$ settin(s are &ore "e'ine" an" s#ape"

-% str!t!ra$ an" eono&i 'ators ;De$$er + De$$er? 0121= rat#er t#an -% (eo(rap#ia$

area an" "istane. Ho*e)er? so&e resear# #as ea&ine" t#e ati)ities o' $a*

en'ore&ent in r!ra$ settin(s ;/air">O$son? 0111B 6eis#eit et a$.? 2=. For ea&p$e?

Pa%ne? /er(? an" S!n ;011= ana$%9e" ati)ities per'or&e" in r!ra$ settin(s -% t#e po$ie.

T#e% on"!te" a ontent ana$%sis o' po$ie ati)it% in a sin($e o&&!nit% ;i.e.? a r!ra$

o&&!nit% *it# a pop!$ation o' 0?11 resi"ents $oate" in t#e nort#eastern o'

Penns%$)ania= o)er a t*o %ear span. T#e% ana$%9e" t#e o&&!nit%s &e"ia ri&e report

*#i# in$!"e" < po$ie a$$s o' ser)ies. T#e% e&p$o%e" &ani'est an" $atent ontent

ana$%sis on t#e ase "esriptions to "eter&ine *#et#er ertain patterns an" t#e&es *o!$"

e&er(e. T#e 'in"in(s 'ro& t#e resear# s!((est t#at t#e &ost o&&on ase t#at o''iers

"ea$t *it# in)o$)e" ani&a$s. For instane? a-o!t 2<K ;N 232= o' t#e a$$s 'or ser)ies

in)o$)e" iti9en a$$in( 'or assistane in re(ar" to ani&a$s ;esp.? "o(s=. T#e po$ie a$so

spent a (reat "ea$ o' ti&e "ea$in( *it# intoiate" in"i)i"!a$s. For ea&p$e? o' t#e a$$

o' ser)ies? approi&ate$% t#irteen perent o' t#e a$o#o$ ases in$!"e" in"i)i"!a$s

"ri)in( !n"er t#e in'$!ene o' a$o#o$B an" nineteen perent o' t#e a$$s 'or ser)ie *ere

in re'erene to p!-$i "r!n@enness o''enses ;i.e.? intoiate" in p!-$i in t#e presene o' 0



14

to 3 &ore in"i)i"!a$s=. F!rt#er&ore? t#e resear#ers 'in"in(s in"iate" t#at resi"ents

a$$e" 'or assistane in "ea$in( *it# )ario!s 'or&s o' "%s'!ntiona$ interpersona$

re$ations#ips. In a""ition? aor"in( to Pa%ne et a$. ;011=? on one si"e o' t#e oin? t#e

r!ra$ po$ie &!st respon" to ri&ina$ o''enses s!# as assa!$ts? t#e't? an" )an"a$is&B an"?

on t#e ot#er si"e o' t#e oin? t#e% #a)e to a$so respon" to soia$ ser)ie a$$s ;e.(.? "o(s

r!nnin( at $ar(e or %o!t# !sin( pro'anit% or o-sene $an(!a(e in t#e p!-$i=.Fa$one et a$. ;0110=? !ti$i9in( s!r)e% an" inter)ie* "ata 'ro& n!&ero!s r!ra$

settin(s t#ro!(#o!t t#e Unite" States? ea&ine" )ario!s aspets8iss!es o' ri&e? 7!stie?

an" po$iin(. T#e% 'o!n" t#at po$ie responses8tas@s *ere not stati aross (eo(rap#ia$

r!ra$ areas. For instane? t#e% s!((este" t#at po$ie o''iers tas@s in r!ra$ an" !r-an

areas )arie". R!ra$ an" s&a$$>to*n "epart&ents 'o!s on ri&e pre)ention an" ser)ie

ati)ities *#en o&pare" to !r-an po$ie o''iers *#o &ost$% 'o!s on en'orin( t#e $a*

an" ri&e ontro$ -% arrestin( iti9ens. F!rt#er&ore? aor"in( to Fa$one et a$. ;0110=?

s&a$$ to*n o''iers *ere epete" to arr% o!t a -roa" ran(e o' ati)ities t#an !r-an

o''iers "!e to soia$ ser)ies eit#er -ein( sare or too re&ote to pro)i"e ti&e$%

ser)ies ;p. 33=.Ot#er resear#ers #a)e ea&ine" t#e i&pat o&&!nit%>oriente" po$iin( tatis

in re$ation to r!ra$ po$iin( ;OS#ea? 2B #ao + T#!r&an? 2=. For instane?

OS#ea ;2= in"iate" t#at st%$es o' po$iin( in r!ra$ areas ten" to s#o* t#at t#ere is a

re$ations#ip -et*een t#e po$ie an" iti9ens t#at &a% -e &ore o&&!nit% oriente"

;OS#ea? 2B #ao + T#!r&an? 2= in nat!re. Genera$$%? as state" a-o)e? r!ra$

o&&!nities are $ose @nit o&&!nitiesB t#!s? r!ra$ po$ie ten" to -e &ore responsi)e to

t#e nee"s o' iti9ens t#at resi"e in t#eir $oa$es. It is not !no&&on 'or r!ra$ o''iers to

reei)e a$$s 'or ser)ie t#at are non>o&pensate" in nat!re an" &inor 'ro& #o&e ;Pa%ne



15

et a$.? 011=. T#ere'ore? r!ra$ po$ie 're,!ent$% pre'er to #an"$e pro-$e&s o' t#e

o&&!nit% in'or&a$$% rat#er t#an arrestin( t#e perpetrator 'or &inor o''enses? s!# as

s#op$i'tin(. T#is $e)e$ o' e&pat#% o' r!ra$ po$ie o''iers ten"s to -e s#ape" -% t#e soia$

$i&ate in r!ra$ areas ;/air">O$son? 0111B Marenin + Cop!s? 22=? s!# as? t#e in'or&a$

soia$ ontro$ &e#anis&s t#at are in p$ae to "eter ri&e ;/o((s? 22=.

Rural Policing and Police!"u#enile Encounters in Rural Areas

R!ra$ po$iin(? parti!$ar$% as it re$ates to po$ie 7!)eni$e eno!nters? #as -een a

ne($ete" topi o' "is!ssion in t#e 'ie$"s o' ri&ino$o(% an" ri&ina$ 7!stie. On$% t*o

st!"ies *ere 'o!n" in re(ar" to t#e !rrent area o' interest. One st!"% *as t#at o'

Lie"er-a# ;011=. T#e resear#er ea&ine" t#e nat!re o' po$ie eno!nters *it#

7!)eni$es a(e" 23 to 2 in t*ent% s!-!r-an an" s&a$$>to*n 7!ris"itions o' so!t#*estern

O#io in re$ation to t#e t%pe o' pro-$e&s non!r-an po$ie o''iers eno!nter *#en

interatin( *it# 7!)eni$esB t#e ations ta@en -% o''iers to reso$)e t#e eno!ntere"

sit!ationB an" t#e "isretionar% "eision &a@in( proess o' o''iers *#o ta@e 7!)eni$es

into !sto"%. Data *ere o$$ete" t#ro!(# s%ste&ati soia$ o-ser)ation ;Mastro's@i et

a$.? 2= o' po$ie>iti9en eno!nters -% t#e Uni)ersit% o' Cininnati? Di)ision o'

Cri&ina$ J!stie. On one #an"? t#e resear#er 'o!n" t#at po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in

non!r-an areas appear to -e si&i$ar to t#ose eno!nters in !r-an areas? parti!$ar$% t#e

t%pe o' o''enses o''iers eno!nter *#en "ea$in( *it# 7!)eni$es. O''enses s!# as &inor

"ist!r-anes? $oiterin(? an" &is"e&eanor t#e'ts *ere &ost$% *#at non!r-an o''iers

eno!ntere" *#en "ea$in( *it# 7!)eni$es in t#e streets. T#ese o''enses *ere a$so &ore



16

pre)a$ent in prior resear# onernin( street>$e)e$ eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$es in !r-an

areas.In a""ition? t#e ten"en% o' po$ie o''iers to reso$)e 7!)eni$e iss!es8pro-$e&s

&ore in'or&a$$% *it#o!t ta@in( 7!)eni$es into !sto"% *ere pre)a$ent in non!r-an an"

!r-an areas. On t#e ot#er #an"? resear# 'in"in(s a$so s#o* t#at t#ere *ere "i''erenes

-et*een po$ie response to 7!)eni$e o''en"in( in -ot# r!ra$ an" !r-an settin(s.

Spei'ia$$%? Lie"er-a# 'o!n" t#at in r!ra$ areas &ost tra''i re$ate" o''enses *ere &ost

o&&on$% "etete" in po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters rat#er t#an ri&ina$ o''enses ;or"er

&aintenane or ser)ie ati)ities= *#en o&pare" to t#ose "etete" -% po$ie in !r-an

areas. He on$!"e" t#at in r!ra$ areas? t#ere is $ess stress an" pro-$e&s t#an t#ose 'o!n"

in !r-an areas.M!#a&&a" ;0110= presente" a so&e*#at #istoria$ re)ie* o' resear# in re(ar"

to r!ra$ ri&e an" r!ra$ po$iin(. T#e resear#ers 'in"in(s s!((este" t#at t#e (reatest

"i''erene -et*een r!ra$ an" !r-an ri&e is ro--er%? *#i# o!rs a$&ost < ti&es &ore

're,!ent$% per 211?111 iti9ens in !r-an areas. He '!rt#er in"iate" t#at r!ra$ resi"ents

*ere &ore )!$nera-$e to ro--er% *#en )isitin( !r-an areas. He note" t#at in 02>03

st!"ies? ri&e inrease" 'aster t#an t#e pop!$ation in r!ra$ o&&!nities *it# rapi"

(ro*t# "!e to t#e #an(es in t#e soia$ str!t!re an" i&pair&ents o' in'or&a$ soia$

ontro$. F!rt#er&ore? #e in"iate" t#at r!ra$ areas #a)e t#eir s#are o' serio!s ri&es?

s!# as? rape? #o&ii"e? *i$"$i'e an" a(ri!$t!ra$ ri&es. Pertainin( to r!ra$ po$iin(? "!e

to $o* $e)e$s o' &o-i$it% an" $o* pop!$ation "ensit%? $a* en'ore&ent o''iers are $i@e$%

to @no* t#e &a7orit% o' o''en"ers an" t#eir 'a&i$ies. T#!s? st%$es o' po$iin(? as state"

a-o)e? are &ore responsi)e to iti9ens? are part$% re'$etion o' t#e re$ations#ip -et*een

t#e po$ie an" t#e o&&!nit%. Po$ie o''iers ten" to eerise st%$es o' po$iin( t#at is



17

&ore (!i"e" -% o&&!nit% 'ators rat#er t#an or(ani9ationa$ 'ators. A$so? po$ie

o''iers in r!ra$ areas -e$ie)e t#at t#e% reei)e &ore p!-$i s!pport 'or -ein( to!(#?

parti!$ar$% *it# 7!)eni$es. In a""ition? t#e ations o' po$ie o''iers in r!ra$ areas are

@no*n to &ost o' t#e iti9enr% -ea!se o' t#e e''eti)e in'or&a$ o&&!niation

net*or@s t#at are present.T#is setion o' t#e re)ie* presents in'or&ation an" resear# re$ate" to r!ra$

ri&e? r!ra$ po$iin(? an" po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in r!ra$ areas. T#e re)ie* o' t#e

$iterat!re s!((ests t#at t#e in'or&ation an" resear# re$e)ant to t#e resear# s!-7et o'

interest ten" to -e sattere"? "ate"? an" se(&ente" not on$% in $oation? -!t a$so in o!r

"isip$ines ;i.e.? ri&ino$o(% an" ri&ina$ 7!stie=B an" !r-an>entere". Ho*e)er? t#e

re)ie* a$so s!((ests t#at resear# onernin( r!ra$ ri&e? r!ra$ po$iin(? an" po$ie>

7!)eni$e eno!nters in r!ra$ areas is o' i&portane to t#e (enera$ !n"erstan"in( o'

ri&ina$ an" soia$ ontetsB an" #as -een ne($ete" ;S*anson? 22=. T#is &a% -e

-ea!se resear#ers -e$ie)e" t#at ri&e an" st%$es o' po$iin( *ere o&&on 'or -ot#

settin(sB an" t#at &ost ri&ina$ -e#a)ior *as not as pre)a$ent in r!ra$ areas as o&pare"

to !r-an areas. T#ere'ore? t#e% too@ t#e approa# t#at is !se" in -ot# settin(s t#at

pro"!e si&i$ar res!$ts.T#e re)ie* o' $iterat!re a$so re)ea$e" t#at r!ra$ an" !r-an ri&e is si&i$ar in so&e

respets. For instane? t#e ran@ or"er 'or propert% ri&e see&s to -e si&i$ar 'or -ot#

settin(s in re(ar" to &otor )e#i$e an" $aren% o''enses UCR ;0121=B #o*e)er? t#ese

ri&es ten" to -e &ore pre)a$ent in !r-an settin(s ;6eis"a$e? 2=. In a""ition?

propert% ri&e is #i(#er 'or !r-an o&&!nities *#en o&pare" to r!ra$ o&&!nities.

T#is an -e attri-!te" to t#e $ar(er an" #etero(eneo!s pop!$ation o' !r-an settin(sB an"

t#e $a@ o' r!ra$ o&&!nities reportin( ri&ina$ o''enses.



18

F!rt#er&ore? in re(ar" to r!ra$ ri&e? so&e st!"ies note" t#at patterns o'

)iti&i9ation are o&para-$e to !r-an )iti&i9ation ;S&it# + H!''? 20B Gi--s? 2=

an" )io$ent o''enses in r!ra$ areas *ere (reater *#en o&pare" to !r-an areas? 'or

instane? a"o$esents o' r!ra$ settin( se$'>reporte" t#at t#e% en(a(e in a (reat a&o!nt o'

)io$ent ats ;P#i$$ips? 2=. T#e reason t#is is not re'$ete" on t#e UCRs &a% -e

-ea!se a-o!t perent o' a$$ r!ra$ o''enses are not reporte" to t#e po$ie ;P#i$$ips?

2=B an" t#e soia$ $i&ate ;i.e.? t#e !ni,!e #arateristis o' r!ra$ $oa$es=.In a""ition? t#ere *ere st!"ies t#at 'o!n" t#at po$ie response8-e#a)ior )aries

'ro& one (eneration to t#e net ;Fa$one et a$.? 0110=? in$!"in( in r!ra$ areas. Ot#er

resear# in"iate" t#at r!ra$ o''iers ten" to -e &ore responsi)e to iti9ens *it# a 'o!s

on ri&e pre)ention as o&pare" to !r-an po$ie o''iers *#o are &ore intereste" in

ri&e ontro$ tatis ;Fa$one et a$.? 0110=. T#e strate(ies e&p$o%e" -% r!ra$ o''iers

&a% -e t#e reason 'or t#e e''eti)eness o' t#e in'or&a$ soia$ ontro$ &e#anis&s in

p$ae in r!ra$ o&&!nities.So&e resear# in"iate" t#at po$ie o' r!ra$ areas are epete" to arr% o!t

)ario!s ro$es an" per'or& "i''erent ati)ities at t#e sa&e ti&e "!e to $a@ o' reso!res?

personne$ an" (eo(rap#ia$ area ;OS#ea? 2B #ao + T#!r&an? 2=. Ot#er resear#

s!((este" t#at s&a$$>to*n an" r!ra$ po$ie an" iti9ens are (enera$$% 'a&i$iar *it# one

anot#er. It is e)i"ent 'ro& one st!"% ;Pa%ne et a$.? 011= *#i# i"enti'ie" one pattern

onernin( &et#o"s8strate(ies *#i# o&&!nit% &e&-ers !se" to o&&!niate *it#

r!ra$ o''iers ;e.(.? t#e reei)in( o' a$$s 'or ser)ie in re(ar" to persona$ iss!es 'ro&

#o&e an" t#e pattern o' in'or&a$ soia$ ontro$ strate(ies= an" t#e nat!re o' a$$s 'ro&

resi"ents.



19

As 'ina$ *or"s? t#e r!ra$ ri&ina$ soia$ ontet s#o!$" -e &ore re'$ete" in t#e

a")ane&ent o' t#e st!"% o' ri&e an" st%$es o' po$iin( or po$ie -e#a)ior *#en

eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es. Soio$o(ists? ri&ino$o(ists? an" ot#er resear#ers nee" to -e

a*are t#at )aria-i$it% "o in"ee" pro)i"e a)en!es 'or o&parison to (i)e !s &ore in "ept#

!n"erstan"in( o' soia$ p#eno&ena to a$$o* !s to &a@e &ore (enera$i9ations aross

)ario!s (eo(rap#ia$ areas ;!r-an an" r!ra$=. T#ere'ore? to en#ane t#e !n"erstan"in( o'

r!ra$ settin(s in re(ar" to po$ie -e#a)ior *#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es? t#e propose"

st!"% see@s to a""ress t#at onern.Pur$ose of the Stud

T#e p!rpose o' t#is st!"% is to rep$iate M%erss st!"% "esi(n t#at ea&ine"

po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters at t#e street>$e)e$ in !r-an areas. Spei'ia$$%? $i@e M%ers? t#is

st!"% *i$$ 'o!s on t#e re$ations#ip -et*een t*o t%pes o' po$ie -e#a)ior ;po$ie

a!t#orit% an" po$ie pro)ision o' s!pport an" assistane=? t#e attit!"e an" #arateristis

o' in"i)i"!a$ o''iers an" t#e sit!ationa$ 'ators *#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es at t#e street>

$e)e$ in r!ra$ areas. T#e present st!"% *i$$ "eter&ine *#et#er? an" t#e "e(ree to *#i#?

t#e !n"erstan"in( an" t#e interpretation o' M%erss ;011<= 'in"in(s s!pport or ne(ate t#e

potentia$ 'in"in(s o' po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in t#e r!ra$ areas o' t#e Mississippi De$ta.

Moreo)er? t#e !rrent st!"% "esi(n is a rep$iation o' M%erss st!"% t#at is a )ita$

in(re"ient to sienti'i in,!ir% to t#e a")ane&ent o' @no*$e"(e in st!"%in( r!ra$ an"

s&a$$>to*n po$iin( *#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es at t#e street>$e)e$.

T#e net setion presents t#e resear# #%pot#eses an" ,!estions !n"er t#e present

in)esti(ation.Research %uestions/H$otheses

D!e to t#e !rrent st!"% "esi(n -ein( a rep$iation o' M%erss ;011<= st!"%

"esi(n? t#e sa&e t#ree sets o' s!&&aries o' #%pot#eses8epetation *i$$ a$so -e



20

teste"8ea&ine" to "eter&ine i' its 'in"in(s s!pports or ne(ate t#at o' M%ers? *#i# are

"e$ineate" -e$o*:Summar of H$otheses/E&$ectations for Personal and 'ac(ground

Characteristics of )fficers*

+Use of Authorit

H1 - Sex >> It is epete" t#at 'e&a$e o''iers *i$$ !ti$i9e $ess a!t#orit% an" ta@e

'e*er a!t#oritati)e ations t#an t#eir &a$e o!nterparts.

H2 - Race It is epete" t#at &inorit% o''iers *i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to ta@e

a!t#oritati)e ations ;an" $ess $i@e$% to &a@e arrests= t#an t#eir *#ite

o!nterparts.

H3 - Training It is epete" t#at o''iers *it# &ore trainin( on spei'i topis

t#at &i(#t epan" t#eir repertoire o' responses? $i@e onepts an" prinip$es

o' o&&!nit% po$iin(? *i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to ta@e &ore a!t#oritati)e ations

t#an o''iers *it#o!t or *it# $ess trainin(.

H4 - Length of Service > It is epete" t#at as o''ier $en(t# o' ser)ie inreases

t#e% *i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to ta@e &ore a!t#oritati)e ations.

H5 - Education > It is epete" t#at o$$e(e e"!ate" o''iers *i$$ !se $ess

a!t#orit% an" -e $ess $i@e$% to ta@e a!t#oritati)e ations t#an o''iers *it#o!t

o$$e(e e"!ations.

H6 - Communit !o"icing #$$ignment > It is epete" t#at o''iers *#o are

Co&&!nit% speia$ists *i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to resort to a!t#oritati)e ations t#an

patro$ o''iers.Pro#ision of Su$$ort/Assistance



21

H% - Sex>> It is epete" t#at 'e&a$e o''iers *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to o''er so&e

'or& o' s!pport an" assistane? an" t#at t#e% *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to ta@e

s!pporti)e ations t#an t#eir &a$e o!nterparts.

H& - Race It is epete" t#at &inorit% o''iers *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% t#an t#eir

*#ite o!nterparts to pro)i"e s!pporti)e ations.

H' - Training It is epete" t#at o''iers *it# &ore trainin( on se$ete" topis

&i(#t -e &ore $i@e$% to pro)i"e assistane an" s!pport to 7!)eni$es t#an t#ose

o''iers *it# $ess trainin(.

H1( - Length of Service > It is epete" t#at as o''ier $en(t# o' ser)ie inreases

t#e% *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to pro)i"e s!pport an" assistane. H11 - Education > It is epete" t#at o$$e(e e"!ate" o''iers *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$%to ta@e s!pporti)e ations t#an o''iers *it#o!t o$$e(e e"!ations. H12 - Communit !o"icing #$$ignment > It is epete" t#at o''iers *#o are

o&&!nit% speia$ists *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to pro)i"e s!pport an" assistanet#an re(!$ar patro$ o''iers ;pp. <<><=.

Summar of H$otheses/E&$ectations for )fficer Attitudes:+Use of Authorit

H13- Cnici$m It is epete" t#at o''iers *it# &ore ne(ati)e )ie*s o' iti9ens

*i$$ !se &ore a!t#orit% an" *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to &a@e arrests t#an o''iers

*it# &ore positi)e )ie*s o' iti9ens.

H14 - #ggre$$ivene$$ It is epete" t#at o''iers *#o 'a)or an a((ressi)e st%$e

*i$$ !se &ore a!t#orit% an" *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to &a@e arrests t#an o''iers

*#o "o not 'a)or s!# an a((ressi)e st%$e. Ho*e)er? one s#o!$" a$$o* 'or t#e

o&petin( #%pot#esis t#at o''iers *#o 'a)or an a((ressi)e approa# &a%

initiate &ore eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$es t#at are o' a &inor $e(a$ nat!re an"



22

in)o$)e $itt$e &ore t#an ,!estionin( t#e 7!)eni$e? #ene it &a% appear in t#e

a((re(ate t#at t#ese o''iers !se $o*er $e)e$s o' a!t#orit%.

H15 - Se"ectivit O''iers *it# &ore se$eti)e attit!"es a-o!t en'orin( t#e $a*

are epete" to !ti$i9e $ess a!t#orit% an" -e $ess $i@e$% to &a@e arrests t#an

t#eir $ess se$eti)e o!nterparts.

H16 - Ro"e )rientation > O''iers *it# a &ore epansi)e )ie* o' t#eir ro$e ;i.e.?

t#e% in$!"e &inor )io$ations an" "isor"ers as part o' t#eir ro$e= are epete"

to !ti$i9e $ess a!t#orit% an" to -e $ess $i@e$% to &a@e arrests t#an o''iers *it#

a narro* ro$e oneption.

H1% - Se"ective and *ot #ggre$$ive > O''iers *#o attit!"ina$$% 'a)or se$eti)it%

an" *#o "o not 'a)or an a((ressi)e approa# are epete" to -e $ess $i@e$% to ta@e

a!t#oritati)e ations t#an t#eir o!nterparts ;o''iers *#o "o not 'it t#is

attit!"ina$ &o$"=.

H1& - #$$i$tance O''iers *#o -e$ie)e assistin( iti9ens is i&portant are

epete" to -e $ess $i@e$% to ta@e a!t#oritati)e ations t#an t#ose o''iers *#o "o

not reo(ni9e t#e i&portane o' assistin( iti9ens.

Pro#ision of Su$$ort/Assistance

H1' - Cnici$m It is epete" t#at o''iers *it# ne(ati)e )ie*s to*ar" iti9ens

*i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to o''er 7!)eni$es assistane an" o&'ort t#an o''iers *it#

&ore positi)e )ie*s.

H2( - Ro"e )rientation O''iers *it# a &ore epansi)e )ie* o' t#eir ro$e are

epete" to -e &ore $i@e$% to o''er 7!)eni$es assistane an" o&'ort t#an

t#ose o''iers *it# a $ess epansi)e ro$e "e'inition.



23

H21 - #$$i$tance O''iers *#o -e$ie)e assistin( iti9ens is i&portant are

epete" to o''er &ore assistane an" o&'ort to 7!)eni$es t#an o''iers *#o "o

not -e$ie)e assistin( iti9ens is an i&portant aspet o' t#eir *or@.

H22 - #ggre$$ivene$$ > It is epete" t#at o''iers *#o 'a)or a &ore a((ressi)e

approa# to po$iin( *i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to ta@e s!pporti)e ations t#an t#ose

o''iers *#o "o not 'a)or an a((ressi)e approa#.

H23 - Se"ective and *ot #ggre$$ive > O''iers *#o attit!"ina$$% 'a)or se$eti)it%

an" *#o "o not 'a)or an a((ressi)e approa# are epete" to -e &ore $i@e$% to

o''er s!pport an" to o''er &ore s!pport t#an t#eir o!nterparts ;o''iers *#o

"o not 'it t#is attit!"ina$ &o$" ;pp. <>=.Summar of H$otheses/E&$ectations for ,egal -actors:+Use of Authorit

H24 - Seriou$ne$$ It is epete" t#at po$ie *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to !se

a!t#oritati)e ations *#en t#e o''ense is o' a serio!s $e(a$ nat!re.

H25 - Evidence > It is epete" t#at as t#e stren(t# o' t#e e)i"ene inreases? t#e

a&o!nt o' a!t#orit% !ti$i9e" *i$$ inrease as *e$$.

H26 - +$e of #"coho" and,or rug$ > It is epete" t#at t#e po$ie *i$$ -e &ore

$i@e$% to ta@e a!t#oritati)e ations *#en t#e 7!)eni$e appears to -e !n"er t#e

in'$!ene o' a$o#o$ an"8or "r!(s t#an *#en a 7!)eni$e s#o*s no s!# si(ns..ictim !reference:

H2% - Re/ue$t$ #rre$t > It is epete" t#at *#en a o&p$ainant re,!ests t#at t#e

po$ie arrest a 7!)eni$e t#e o''ier *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to &a@e an arrest an"

&ore $i@e$% to !ti$i9e ot#er t%pes o' a!t#orit% t#an *#en t#e iti9en "oes not

&a@e t#is re,!est.



24

H2& - Re/ue$t$ *o #rre$t > It is epete" t#at *#en a o&p$ainant re,!ests t#at

T#e po$ie "o not arrest a 7!)eni$e s!spet t#e o''ier *i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to &a@e

an arrest an" $ess $i@e$% to !se a!t#orit% t#an i' t#e iti9en "oes not &a@e t#is

re,!est.Pro#ision of Su$$ort/Assistance

H2' - Seriou$ne$$ It is epete" t#at *#en t#e o''ense is a serio!s one t#e po$ie

*i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to o''er s!pport an" assistane t#an *#en t#e o''ense is o'

a $ess serio!s nat!re.

H3( - Evidence > It is epete" t#at as t#e stren(t# o' t#e e)i"ene inreases? t#e

$i@e$i#oo" o' po$ie o''erin( s!pport an" assistane to*ar" t#e 7!)eni$e *i$$

"erease.

H31 - +$e of #"coho" and,or rug$ > It is epete" t#at t#e po$ie *i$$ -e $ess

Li@e$% to o''er s!pport an" assistane to a 7!)eni$e *#o is s#o*in( -e#a)iora$

e''ets o' -ein( !n"er t#e in'$!ene o' a$o#o$ an"8or "r!(s..ictim !reference0

H32 - Re/ue$t$ #rre$t > It is epete" t#at *#en a o&p$ainant re,!ests t#at t#e

po$ie arrest a 7!)eni$e t#e o''ier *i$$ -e $ess $i@e$% to o''er s!pport an"

assistane H33 - Re/ue$t$ *o #rre$t > Ho*e)er? it is epete" t#at i' a o&p$ainant re,!estst#at t#e po$ie not arrest a 7!)eni$e t#e po$ie *i$$ -e &ore $i@e$% to o''er

s!pport an" assistane to t#e 7!)eni$e t#an i' t#e )iti& #a" sai" not#in( at a$$;pp. 0>3=

Significance of the Stud

As state" a-o)e? t#e p!rpose o' t#is st!"% is to rep$iate a pre)io!s st!"% "esi(n

o' M%ers *#i# ea&ine" po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in t#e !r-an areas o' In"ianapo$is?

In"iana an" St. Peters-!r(? F$ori"a. T#e !rrent st!"% is i&portant 'or t#e 'o$$o*in(



25

reasons: ;2= It #as t#e potentia$ to en#ane t#e !n"erstan"in( o' street $e)e$ po$ie>

7!)eni$e eno!nters -ea!se po$ie are t#e (ate@eepers to t#e 7!)eni$e 7!stie s%ste& ;as

state" -% M%ers= an" t#e% are t#e ones t#at &a@e t#e initia$ "eisions *#en #an"$in(

ini"ents in)o$)in( 7!)eni$esB ;0= It &a% en#ane soiet% an" po$ie !n"erstan"in( o'

e''eti)e an" proper &et#o"s o' street $e)e$ po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!ntersB ;3= It &a%

ontri-!te to t#e &iti(ation o' street $e)e$ po$ie>7!)eni$e on'$itB ;<= It &a% ontri-!te

to t#e reo(nition an" e$e)ation o' s#o$ar$% resear#B an" ;= It &a% i&pro)e t#e

!n"erstan"in( an" t#e interpretation o' M%ers ;011<= *or@ "!e to t#is st!"% -ein( a

rep$iation o' M%erss ;011<= st!"% "esi(n *#i# *o!$" pro)i"e a seon" opinion on #er

#%pot#eses? &et#o"s? an" res!$tsB ;= It &a% #e$p to restore an" i&pro)e t#e re$ations#ip

-et*een po$ie? 7!)eni$es? an" t#e o&&!nit%B an" ;= I' &a% ontri-!te to a &ore

o&pre#ensi)e !n"erstan"in( o' t#e proess o' #o* po$ie &a@e t#eir "eisions in re(ar"

to 7!)eni$es an" #o* po$ie i&pat '!t!re o''en"in( an"8or "e$in,!en%. T#e net setion

*i$$ ep$iate t*o "i&ensions o' po$ie -e#a)ior.Defining .o Dimensions of Police 'eha#ior

T#ere #as -een etensi)e resear# on"!te" o)er t#e %ears to ep$iate

po$ie #an"$in( o' a$$e(e" )io$ators ;/$a@? 21? 5$in(er? 2? 6or"en? 2=? an"

aor"in( to M%ers ;011<=? po$ie -e#a)ior &a% -e onept!a$i9e" in at $east t*o

apparent "i&ensions ;po$ie !se o' a!t#orit% an" po$ie pro)ision o' s!pport an"

assistane=. On one #an"? t#e po$ie ro$e is &ore o)ert *#en respon"in( to "e)iant

-e#a)ior. T#e% ten" to -e onern *it# ontro$$in( s!# -e#a)iors. An"? on t#e ot#er

#an"? t#e ro$e o' t#e po$ie is &ore $atent. Meanin(? t#e po$ie is &ore onerne" *it#

o''erin( )ariation o' s!pport ;C!&&in(? C!&&in(? an" E"e$$? 2=. Moreo)er? po$ie

is @no*n to !se &ore oeri)e a!t#orit% *#en "ea$in( *it# "e)iant -e#a)ior. Ho*e)er?



26

t#is "oes not onstit!te t#e on$% approa# to respon"in( to or #an"$in( ats o'

"e$in,!en%B an" s!re$% "o not e$!"e anot#er t%pe o' "i&ension ;i.e.? pro)i"in(

pro)ision o' s!pport an" assistane= in t#eir $ine o' *or@. As state" a-o)e? po$ie o''iers

#a)e a "!a$ ro$e -ot# as a(ents o' 'or&a$ an" in'or&a$ soia$ ontro$. To e$a-orate &ore

in "ept#? po$ie o''ier *#o are -etter e,!ippe" in -a$anin( -ot# ontro$ an" s!pport

ro$es? )er% *e$$ &a% -e t#e &ost e''eti)e an" ee&p$ar% *#en o&pare" to ot#er

o''iers. to -a$ane s!# a "!a$ ro$e? in$!"in( ontro$$in( an" p? t#e% &a@e "eisions

eit#er to arrest or not arrest an in"i)i"!a$? in t#is ase? spei'ia$$% a 7!)eni$e as a res!$t o'

po$ie>7!)eni$e interation8eno!nter.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIE6A per!sa$ o' t#e etant $iterat!re on po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters %ie$"e" sant% "ata

aor"in( to /$a@ + Reiss ;21=. T#is is !n$i@e st!"ies 'o!sin( on a"!$t iti9ens>

po$ie eno!nters t#at #a)e reei)e" si(ni'iant soio$o(ia$ attention an" ana$%sis.

In'erenes #o*e)er? #a)e -een "ra*n -ase" on t#ese st!"ies to i"enti'% a n!&-er o'



27

'ators t#at &a% a''et t#e $i@e$i#oo" o' po$ie ta@in( 7!)eni$es into !sto"% or in'or&a$$%

a""ressin( t#e sit!ation. S!# in'or&a$ ations -% t#e po$ie in$!"e pro)i"in( neessar%

s!pport or *arnin( to t#e 7!)eni$e instea" o' ta@in( 'or&a$ ation s!# as arrestin( t#e

7!)eni$e. /e'ore "e$)in( into t#e $iterat!re on 'ators t#at in'$!ene po$ie response to

7!)eni$es t#e% eno!nter "!rin( patro$? a re)ie* o' t#e t#eoretia$ 'ra&e*or@ t#at

!n"erpins t#is st!"% is i&perati)e. Ass!&ptions t#at in'or& t#is st!"% is t#at po$ie

-e#a)ior is in'$!ene" -% t#e soia$ en)iron&ent or i&&e"iate sit!ation in *#i# t#e% are

on'ronte" *it# an" t#e "istri-!tion o' "i''erent aspet o' soia$ $i'e ;e.(.? t#e serio!sness

o' t#e o''ense? t#e "e&eanor o' an in"i)i"!a$? -%stan"ers? t#e a&o!nt o' e)i"ene present

at t#e ri&e sene? etra $e(a$ 'ators? $e(a$ 'ators=. In ot#er *or"s? t#e soia$ str!t!re

o' t#e sit!ation #as si(ni'iant in'$!ene on po$ie response8-e#a)ior ;M%ers? 011<=. It is

i&portant to reiterate t#at t#e 'o!s o' t#is st!"% is t#e "eter&ination o' *#et#er /$a@s

;2= st!"% on po$ie -e#a)ior s#e"s $i(#t on t#e !n"erstan"in( o' po$ie -e#a)ior *#en

eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es in r!ra$ areas.To ao&p$is# t#is o-7eti)e? t#is st!"% see@s t#e rep$iation o' M%erss ;011<=

resear#. M%ers st!"% "esi(n e&p$o%e" a ps%#o$o(ia$>soia$ t#eoretia$ 'ra&e*or@ to

ep$iate t#e "eision &a@in( an"8or -e#a)ior o' po$ie *#en eno!nterin( iti9ens?

parti!$ar$% 7!)eni$es in !r-an $oa$es. Ho*e)er? t#e 'o!s o' t#is st!"% is to see i' t#e

sa&e p#eno&enon o!$" -e rep$iate" in t#e r!ra$ areas !sin( /$a@s -e#a)iora$ o' $a*

'ra&e*or@ *#i# pro)i"es a &ore in "ept# !n"erstan"in( o' t#e "eision &a@in( an"8or

-e#a)ior o' po$ie eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es at t#e street $e)e$ espeia$$% in t#e r!ra$ areas.

To (et so&e !n"erstan"in( o' /$a@s -e#a)iora$ o' $a* t#esis? a -rie' o)er)ie* o' #is

perspeti)e is !n"erta@en -e$o*:'lac(0s Sociolog of ,a Pers$ecti#e



28

/$a@s -e#a)ior o' $a* perspeti)e eno&passes an ao!nt o' $a* in ation or

in &otion ;/$a@ + Reiss? 21B /$a@? 2= *it#o!t in$!"in( t#e onse,!ene o' t#e

"e)iane to t#e )iti& as a "i&ension o' t#e t#eor% ;Gott're"son + Hin"e$an(? 2? p.

3=. /$a@ "e'ines $a* as (o)ern&enta$ soia$ ontro$ ;/$a@? 2? p. 0=. He onten"s

t#at $a* is a ,!antitati)e "epen"ent )aria-$e t#at ten"s to )ar% aross #arateristis o'

in"i)i"!a$s? ti&e an" spae ;Gott're"son + Hin"e$an(? 2=. T#e ,!antit% o' $a* ;i.e.?

t#e "e(ree o' 'ore'!$ (o)ern&enta$ soia$ ontro$ ;A)a@a&e? F%'e? + MCo%? p. =

is &eas!re" in an or"ina$ position ;i.e.? a spei'ie"8or"ere" position= 'ro& 'o!r points

pena$? o&pensator%? t#erape!ti? an" oni$iator% ;A)a@a&e? F%'e? + M5o%? 2=.

F!rt#er&ore? #is t#eor% see@s to pre"it t#e ,!antit% o' $a* ;Ho* &!# $a* is app$ie" or

in ation= as it )aries aross in"i)i"!a$ #arateristi o' in"i)i"!a$s? ti&e an" spae in

re$ation to ot#er aspets o' soia$ $i'e ;e.(.? strati'iation? &orp#o$o(%? !$t!re?

or(ani9ation? an" soia$ ontro$ ;/$a@? 2? p. 2=. 6#at t#is &eans is t#at t#e ,!a$it%

o' $a* inreases or "ereases aor"in( to t#e "i''erent p#ases o' soia$ $i'e t#at is

eno!ntere". His t#eor% '!rt#er pre"its t#at t#e "iretion o' $a* ;i.e.? *#et#er t#e $e(a$

instr!&ent is e&p$o%e" &ore or $ess is a '!ntion o' t#e sit!ationa$ 'ators an" t#e

#arateristi o' t#e o''ier app$%in( t#e $a*. T#ere'ore? t#e sit!ationa$ 'ators s!# as

t#ose en!&erate" a-o)e in'$!ene t#e ,!antit% o' (o)ern&enta$ soia$ ontro$ ati)ities

aor"in( to ;A)a@ea&e? F%'e? + M5o%? 2=. T#is is o' o!rse as *#en )ie*e" 'ro&

t#e perspeti)e o' ri&ina$ 7!stie or(ani9ations s!# as $a* en'ore&ent a(enies as

soia$ ontro$ instr!&ents o' t#e (o)ern&ent.Aor"in( to /$a@? ea# o' t#e a-o)e>&entione" 'ators o' soia$ $i'e pro)i"es a

(enera$i9e" propositiona$ str!t!re t#at ep$ains $a* an" its i&p$e&entation as )ar%in(



29

aor"in( to sit!ationa$ 'ators. /$a@s 'irst proposition ar(!es t#at t#e "iretion o' t#e

,!antit% o' $a* )ar% "iret$% in re$ation *it# soia$ strati'iation. /$a@ "e'ines soia$

strati'iation as t#e )ertia$ "istane -et*een in"i)i"!a$s in a soia$ en)iron&ent? *#i#

ten"s to -e &eas!re" -ase" !pon *ea$t# or soia$ stan"in( in soiet% t#at a$so )aries *it#

(en"er? rae? an" a(e ;Linton? 23=. In /$a@s )ie*? peop$e *#o are a''$!ent in soiet%

ten" to -e -etter protete" -% t#e $a* o&pare" to in"i)i"!a$s *#o are not &ateria$$%

reso!re'!$. Upper>$ass in"i)i"!a$s ten" to en7o% -etter protetion !n"er t#e $a*? -etter

aess to $a*? an" are &ore *i$$in( to &o-i$i9e or e)o@e t#e $a* *#en o&pare" to

peop$e in t#e $o*er soia$ eono&i s%ste&. For ea&p$e? *#en a''$!ent peop$e are

)iti&i9e"? t#e% ten" to #a)e a #i(#er pro-a-i$it% to a$$ 'or (o)ern&enta$ inter)ention?

parti!$ar$% po$ie? *#en o&pare" to $ess a''$!ent in"i)i"!a$s./$a@s seon" proposition is t#at $a* )aries *it# soia$ &orp#o$o(%? *#i# is

t#e #ori9onta$ aspet o' soia$ $i'e. For ea&p$e? t#is proposition re'ers to t#e soia$

"istane -et*een in"i)i"!a$s in re$ation to one anot#er. Aor"in( to /$a@? $a* is

so&e*#at inati)e a&on( inti&ate persons -ea!se t#ese in"i)i"!a$s ten" to reso$)e t#eir

on'$its a&on( t#e&se$)es in'or&a$$% *it# no assistane 'ro& state inter)ention./$a@s t#ir" proposition is t#at $a* )aries in re$ation to !$t!re. He posits t#at

t#e ,!antit% o' $a* t#at o!rs *it#in peop$es $i)es is pre"ite" -ase" on t#e )ariation o'

!$t!re ;e.(.? t#e $e)e$ o' e"!ation? )a$!es? an" -e$ie's= *it#in t#eir $i)es. /$a@

onten"s t#at t#e ,!antit% o' !$t!re )aries aross soiet%. So&e in"i)i"!a$s in soiet%

ten" to #a)e &ore !$t!re o&pare" to ot#ers. Moreo)er? aor"in( to /$a@? $a* is

!ne)en$% "istri-!te" aross !$t!ra$ spae ;p. <=. F!rt#er&ore? t#e sa&e onept

app$ies to t#e !$t!re o' $a*. T#is in e''et? s!((ests t#at $a* ten"s to )ar% "iret$% *it#in

its o*n !$t!ret#e ,!a$it% o' its "otrines an" r!$es.



30

/$a@s 'o!rt# proposition is t#at $a* a$so )aries !ns*er)in($% *it# soia$

or(ani9ation. Aor"in( to /$a@? or(ani9ation is t#e orporate aspet o' soia$ $i'e ;p.

=. /$a@ t#eori9es t#at peop$e in (ro!ps #a)e t#e apait% 'or o$$etion ation ;p.

= o&pare" to an in"i)i"!a$ ator. T#ere'ore? in"i)i"!a$s in (ro!ps are &ore $i@e$% to

&o-i$i9e t#e $a* &ore an" to s!ee" or -e &ore s!ess'!$ in attainin( t#eir (oa$s.

Ho*e)er? a soia$ or(ani9ations apait% 'or o$$eti)e ation ten"s to )ar% in ti&e an"

spae. 6#en it is &eas!re"? t#e apait% 'or o$$eti)e ation ten"s to pre"it an"

ep$iate t#e ,!antit% o' $a*. /$a@ onten"s t#at $a* )aries "iret$% *it# or(ani9ation

an" its o$$eti)e ation *it#in a soiet%. A$so? t#e st%$e o' $a* )aries aross ti&e an"

spae. For ea&p$e? t#e st%$e o' po$iin( in !r-an areas &a% "i''er 'ro& t#e st%$es o'

po$iin( in r!ra$ areas./$a@s 'i't# proposition "esri-es t#e e''et o' soia$ ontro$ on t#e ,!antit% o'

$a*B an" t#at $a* )aries in)erse$% *it# ot#er soia$ ontro$ instr!&ents s!# as eti,!ette?

!sto&? et#is? -!rea!ra%? an" t#e treat&ent o' &enta$ i$$ness ;/$a@? 2? p. 21=.

/$a@ posits t#at t#is proposition is t#e nor&ati)e aspet o' soia$ $i'e t#at "itates *#at

is ri(#t an" *ron(. Soia$ ontro$ o!rs *#en an" *#ene)er a soiet% o' peop$e #o$"s

ea# ot#er to soia$$% a(ree" !pon stan"ar"s. Conse,!ent$%? it ten"s to "i)i"e peop$e into

t*o (ro!ps: t#ose *#o are aepta-$e an" t#ose *#o are not. F!rt#er&ore? /$a@ ar(!es

t#at soia$ ontro$ is a ,!antitati)e )aria-$e. One settin( ;e.(.? !r-an po$ie or(ani9ation=

&a% eerise &ore (o)ern&enta$ ;'or&a$= soia$ ontro$ to*ar" its iti9enr% *#en

o&pare" to anot#er settin( ;e.(.? r!ra$ po$ie "epart&ent= *#i# &a% app$% $ess

(o)ern&enta$ soia$ ontro$ o)er its iti9enr%.T#e a-o)e>$iste" propositions o$$eti)e$% are *#at /$a@ a$$e" t#e -e#a)ior o'

$a*. Aor"in( to /$a@? t#ese (enera$ propositions an -e !se" to ep$ain an% soia$



31

p#eno&ena. T#ere'ore? /$a@ #a$$en(es soia$ siene to e&piria$$% test #is t#eor% to

"eter&ine i' its ep$anations are )a$i". His t#eor% *as a &a7or ontri-!tion to t#e 'ie$"

o' soio$o(% -ea!se o' #is inte(rati)e approa# to t#e !n"erstan"in( o' "i''erent aspets

o' soia$ $i'e? in$!"in(? strati'iation? &orp#o$o(%? !$t!re? or(ani9ation? an" soia$

ontro$ to ep$ain? as "esri-e" a-o)e? t#e ,!antit% o' $a* as it )aries aross in"i)i"!a$

#arateristis o' in"i)i"!a$s? ti&e an" spae./$a@ #as propose" a n!&-er o' pre"itions onernin( t#e -e#a)ior o' $a* in

(enera$? an" $a* in ation as app$ie" -% $e(a$ (o)ern&enta$ a(enies? parti!$ar$% t#e

po$ie. For ea&p$e? /$a@ an" Reiss ;21= ar(!e t#at t#ere are sit!ationa$ 'ators rat#er

t#an $a* )io$ations t#at in'$!ene o''iers "eisions to eit#er arrest or not arrest a

7!)eni$e en(a(in( in "e$in,!ent -e#a)ior. T#e% "e'ine "e)iane as -e#a)ior in a $ass

'or *#i# t#ere is a pro-a-i$it% o' santion s!-se,!ent to its "etetiona ontro$

approa# ;/$a@ + Reiss? 21? p. 3=. T#e% '!rt#er note t#at t#ere are )ariations o'

"e)ianet#ree '!n"a&enta$ t%pes. One t%pe ;i.e.? !n"etete" "e)iane= in$!"es

-e#a)iors t#at o!r in pri)ate $oations t#at are inre"i-$% se$"o& "etete" -% po$ie? -!t

)er% *e$$ #a)e a )er% #i(# pro-a-i$it% to -e santione". T#e seon" t%pe is "e)iane t#at

is "etete" -!t is !nsantione". T#is "e)iane is t#e opposite o' t#e 'irst t%pe. For

ea&p$e? t#e po$ie "etet "e$in,!ent -e#a)iors -!t t#e po$ie "o not santion or arrest

t#ose in"i)i"!a$s en(a(in( in s!# -e#a)iors. Aor"in( to t#e ri&ina$ $a* an"

proe"!re? t#e t#ir" t%pe o' "e)iane in$!"es -e#a)ior ;i.e.? santione" "e)iane= t#at is

"etete" an" santione".A$$ t#ree t%pes o' "e)iane re'$et t#e &e#anis&s o' t#e esta-$is#e" soia$

ontro$ 'ra&e*or@. F!rt#er&ore? t#e% note" t#ere are a$so t*o ot#er i&portant

"istintions t#at nee" to -e &a"e in re$ation to t#e soia$ ontro$ approa# -et*een



32

o''iia$8'or&a$ "etetion santionin( an" in'or&a$ "etetion an" santionin( ;/$a@ +

Reiss? 21=. I' t#ere is an approa# t#at "oes not &a@e in,!iries into t#e re$ations#ip

-et*een o''iia$8'or&a$ an" in'or&a$ soia$ ontro$ s%ste&s? t#en t#at approa# is

"e'iient. T#!s? an approa# to "e)iane s#a$$ #a)e a s%ste& or or(ani9ationa$ 'ra&e o'

re'erene. In a""ition? it is i&portant to &a@e a "istintion -et*een t#e "etetion o'

"e)iant -e#a)ior an" t#e "etetion o' in"i)i"!a$s *#o o&&it "e)iant ats. T#e *i"e>

ran(in( &et#o"s 'or *#i# in"i)i"!a$s an -e assoiate" *it# "e)iant ats are

pro-$e&ati to en(a(e in in)esti(ation. Re(ar"$ess o' t#e soia$ ontro$ s%ste&s?

in'or&a$ or 'or&a$? t#ere *i$$ -e so&e t%pe o' in)esti(ation to asertain e)i"ene to

s!pport one or t#e ot#er s%ste&. T#ere'ore? aor"in( to /$a@ an" Reiss? t#ere is a nee"

to ea&ine ase -% ase po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters8responses -ea!se t#ere are ot#er

sit!ationa$ 'ators ;-esi"es r!$e>)io$ati)e -e#a)ior itse$'= ;p. = t#at "itates *#et#er

po$ie o''iers arrest or not arrest iti9ens? parti!$ar$% 7!)eni$es. T#!s? t#e !rrent st!"%

is ea&inin( ase -% ase po$ie 7!)eni$e eno!nters in t*o Mississippi r!ra$ $oa$es to

i"enti'% sit!ationa$ 'ators t#at &a% ontri-!te to o''iers -e#a)ior arrestin( or not

arrestin( 7!)eni$es in)o$)e" in "e)iant ati)ities./$a@ an" Reiss ;21= an" /$a@ ;2= e&p$o%e" t#e -e#a)ior o' $a* t#esis to

appraise t#e -e#a)ior o' po$ie o''iers onept!a$i9in( $a* as a ,!antitati)e )aria-$e.

/$a@ an" Reiss ;21= ea&ine" po$ie>7!)eni$e sit!ationa$ eno!nters *it#in t#ree

$ar(e &etropo$itan areas ;!r-an=? /oston? C#ia(o? an" 6as#in(ton? D.C? "!rin( t#e

s!&&er o' 2 ;as note" a-o)e=. T#e% e&p$o%e" &ie" &et#o"s "ata o$$etion

te#ni,!es ;i.e.? 'ie$" s%ste&ati o-ser)ation an" s!r)e%=. A tota$ o' ?23 po$ie>iti9en

eno!nters *ere o-ser)e" an" "o!&ente". Ho*e)er? on$% 02 o' t#ese eno!nters



33

in)o$)e" a 7!)eni$e. T#ere'ore? /$a@ an" Reiss assesse" 02 street $e)e$ po$ie>7!)eni$e

eno!nters. T#e% 'o!n" t#at o!t o' 02 ases? 0K ;010= *ere a$$ 'or ser)ie -% iti9ens

an" t#e po$ie *#i$e on patro$ initiate" 0K ;=. /$a@ an" Reisss 'in"in(s s!((est t#at

t#e &a7orit% o' "e$in,!ent ats o&&itte" -% 7!)eni$e are "etete" -% iti9ens rat#er t#an

-% po$ie>initiate" operations. A$so? t#e% propose" a set o' #%pot#eses in re$ation to $a*

t#at s!((este" t#at in"i)i"!a$s? parti!$ar$% po$ie? )ar% in t#eir *i$$in(ness pertainin( to

t#e app$iation o' $a*? t#eir &enta$ an" p#%sia$ a-i$ities to !ti$i9e $a*? t#e ,!antit% o'

$a* t#e% *i$$ !se? an" *#et#er or not t#e% *i$$ -e e''eti)e or not in app$%in( t#e $a*

;La*ton? 011=. T#e set o' #%pot#eses pro)i"e" t#e -e(innin( o' an e&piria$ portrait o'

t#e !n"erstan"in( o' po$iin( 7!)eni$es ;/$a@ + Reiss? 21B L!n"&an? S%@es? + C$ar@?

2= an" s!pporte" t#e (enera$ t#eor% o' soia$ ontro$ as propose" -% /$a@ ;2=.

T#e #%pot#eses are as 'o$$o*: ;2= "etetion o' 7!)eni$e "e)ianeB ;0= serio!sness o'

7!)eni$e "e)ianeB ;3= arrest ratesB ;<= $e(a$ serio!sness an" arrestB ;= iti9en pre'erene

an" arrestB ;= rae an" arrestB ;= e)i"ene an" arrestB an" ;= "e&eanor an" arrest

;L!n"&an? S%@es? + C$ar@? 2=.To "eter&ine i' /$a@s ;2= soio$o(% o' $a* an pro)i"e a t#eoretia$ $ens

&o"e$ an -e (enera$i9e" to po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in r!ra$ areas? parti!$ar$% t#e

Mississippi De$ta? an assess&ent is neessar%. An e&piria$ assess&ent o' /$a@s ;2=

&o"e$ in re$ation to r!ra$ areas *i$$ inrease t#e s!pport o' #is 'in"in(s an" t#e

!&!$ati)e e''et o' t#e -e#a)ior o' $a*. T#ere'ore? t#e entra$ ai& o' t#e present st!"%

is to ea&ine t#e etent to *#i# M%ers ;011<= 'in"in(s asertain 'ro& !r-an areas are

app$ia-$e to po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in r!ra$ areas? parti!$ar$% in t#e Mississippi

De$ta? !ti$i9in( t#e t#eoretia$ 'ra&e*or@ o' t#at o' /$a@ ;2=.Pre#ious Studies Utili1ing 'lac(0s 234567 Sociolog of ,a .heoretical -rameor(



34

T#is setion o' t#e re)ie* pro)i"es an o)er)ie* o' resear# t#at e&p$o%e"

/$a@s ;2= &o"e$ to t#eir st!"% o' interest. For ea&p$e? /rait#*aite an" /i$es

;21= in"iate" t#at /$a@s ;2= *or@ *as a &a7or ontri-!tion to soio$o(% -ea!se

o' t#e inte(rati)e approa# it -ro!(#t to(et#er to propositions a-o!t strati'iation?

&orp#o$o(%? !$t!re? or(ani9ation? an" soia$ ontro$ to ep$ain )ariations aross ti&e

an" spae in t#e ,!antit% o' $a*. T#e% note" t#at /$a@ ;2= o&pro&ise" #is o*n

t#eor%. T#is a&e a-o!t in #is e''ort to "e'en" #is -oo@ a(ainst a non>s!pporte"

e&piria$ test -% Gott're"son an" Hin"e$in( ;2a=. /$a@ #as a$so ne!tra$i9e" t#e

onsi"era-$e *ort# o' so&e o' #is ear$ier *or@ ;/$a@? 21B 22=. /$a@s t#eor% *as

'!rt#er p!t to test -% Gottre"son an" Hin"e$an( ;2a= *#o !se" )iti& s!r)e% to test

*#et#er? in $ine *it# /$a@s t#eor%? t#e *ea$t#%? t#e e&p$o%e"? t#e &arrie"? are &ore

$i@e$% to report to t#e po$ie e)ents re(ar"e" as ri&es t#an are )ario!s ot#er (ro!ps. T#e

test see&e" reasona-$e as /$a@ states $ear$% a o&p$aint to a $e(a$ o''iia$? 'or

ea&p$e? is &ore $a* t#an no o&p$aint ;/$a@? 2? p. 3=. Ho*e)er? t#e% '!rt#er

in"iate" t#at /$a@ re7ets Gott're"son an" Hin"e$an(s !se o' )iti& s!r)e% "ata

-ea!se s!# s!r)e%s re,!ire s!-7ets to report on$% ini"ents t#e% onsi"er ri&es.

T#ere'ore? aor"in( to /$a@? t#eir "ata s#o* on$% *#et#er peop$e a$$e" t#e po$ie

*#en t#e% onsi"ere" an ini"ent a ri&e? not *#et#er so&e ini"ents *ere &ore or $ess

$i@e$% to -e interprete" as ri&es in t#e 'irst p$ae. Moreo)er? Gott're"son an" Hin"e$an(

*ere a-$e to s#o* t#at /$a@ "i" in 'at inten"e" t#at #is t#eor% to #a)e a $e)e$ o'

(enera$it%B an"? t#at #e inten"e" 'or t#e t#eor% to &a@e pre"itions a-o!t t#e ,!antit% o'

$a* on"itiona$ !pon t#e ini"ent #a)in( rea#e" so&e prior sta(e o' proessin(: an"

t#at #e inten"e" )iti& s!r)e% "ata to -e re$e)ant to testin( t#e t#eor%.



35

S&it# ;2= app$ie" /$a@s t#eor% to t#e ontet!a$ $e)e$ o' ana$%sis -%

ea&inin( "ata 'ro& 1 nei(#-or#oo"s aross t#ree ities on ontet!a$ $e)e$ )aria-$es

in$!"in( &eas!res o' rae #etero(eneit% an" soioeono&i stat!s an" an in"iation o'

*#et#er or not o''iers e&p$o%e" &eas!res o' oeri)e a!t#orit% *#en interatin( *it# a

iti9en. He ana$%9e" #is "ata -% !sin( -i)ariate an" &!$ti)ariate ana$%sis o' 'i)e

&eas!res o' po$ie -e#a)ior an" 22 nei(#-or#oo" #arateristis to test t#e nei(#-or#oo"

ontet #%pot#esis. S&it#s 'in"in(s 'o!n" a onsistent i&pat o' raia$ #etero(eneit% on

t#e "eision o' t#e o''iers to e&p$o% oeri)e a!t#orit% "!rin( t#e o!rse o' t#e

interation. T#e resear#er '!rt#er in"iate"? Po$ie are si(ni'iant$% &ore $i@e$% to !se

or t#reaten 'ore a(ainst s!spets eno!ntere" in pri&ari$% -$a@ or raia$$% &ie"

nei(#-or#oo"s ;p. 30=.F%'e? 5$in(er? an" F$a)in ;2= ana$%9e" t#e response o' t#e C#ester?

Penns%$)ania? po$ie to 30 onse!ti)e$% reporte" 'e$on%>(ra"e assa!$ts -% persons

*#ose i"entities *ere @no*n to t#e )iti&s an" po$ie. T#e% 'o!n" s!pport 'or /$a@s

t#eor% in t#e "e)e$op&ent o' t#e $enien% t#esis? or t#e i"ea t#at &a$es are $ess $i@e$% to

-e arreste" 'or assa!$tin( t#eir spo!ses t#an t#e% *o!$" -e 'or an% ot#er t%pe o' assa!$t.

T#eir ta-!$ar ana$%sis "e&onstrates t#at arrests o!rre" in 23K o' &a$e>on>'e&a$e

spo!sa$ assa!$ts an" 0K o' ot#er assa!$ts. T#eir res!$ts '!rt#er s!((est t#at in t#ese

interations? *it# a s#ort re$ationa$ "istane? &en are $ess $i@e$% to -e arreste" 'or

assa!$tin( spo!ses t#an 'or ot#er ri&es.A)a@a&e? F%'e? an" MCo% ;2= !ti$i9e" "ata 'ro& t#e Nationa$ Cri&e

Viti&i9ation S!r)e% ;20>2<=? to test /$a@s t#eor% a-o!t t#e -e#a)ior o' $a*?

spei'ia$$% t#e "eision to &o-i$i9e soia$ ontro$ t#ro!(# $e(a$ a(enies. T#e% '!rt#er

"e$ineate" operati)e resear# ,!estions? *#i# *ere /$a@s ;2= pre"itions a-o!t t#e



36

-e#a)ior o' $a* in (enera$? an" t#e &o-i$i9ation o' $e(a$ a(enies? s!# as po$ie in

parti!$ar. T#ere'ore? t#e resear#ers teste" t#e e&piria$ )a$i"it% o' t#ese propositions

-% !ti$i9in( &!$ti)ariate ana$%sis. T#e a!t#ors 'in"in(s s!((este" t#at n!&ero!s

etra$e(a$ 'ators ;e.(.? rae? (en"er? *ea$t#? e"!ation= a''et -ot# ri&e )iti&s

"eisions to a$$ 'or po$ie inter)ention an" po$ie "eisions to arrest. T#e%'!rt#er s!((este" t#at 'ators pre"itin( a$$s to po$ie &a%-e "i''erent 'ro& t#ose

pree"in( arrest. T#ere'ore? t#e% on$!"e t#at t#e "e(ree o' soia$ ontro$ ;or? in /$a@s

ter&s? t#e ,!antit% o' $a*= &o-i$i9e" is not ep$aine" si(ni'iant$% -% &an% o' t#e

'ators t#at t#e% pre"it: T#e poor re$ie" on t#e po$ie &ore t#an "i" &i""$e>$ass peop$e

an" *o&en !se" t#e $a* &ore t#an t#e &en "i".La*ton ;011= ea&ine" t#e "eter&inants o' t#e $e)e$ o' non$et#a$ 'ore

e&p$o%e" -% P#i$a"e$p#ia po$ie !sin( 2 %ear o' ar#i)a$ se$'>reports ;N<=. T#e

resear#er so!(#t to i&pro)e ear$ier resear# o' /$a@s t#eor% -% !ti$i9in( &!$ti$e)e$

&o"e$s to "eter&ine *#et#er $e)e$s o' 'ore )ar% aross $oa$es. T#e resear#er teste"

/$a@s t#eor% t#at o''ier>iti9en raia$ o&-inations a''et 'ore'!$ness. T#e resear#er

a$so "e$ineate" /$a@s series o' #%pot#eses8propositions on t#e nat!re o' $a*. Aor"in(

to t#e resear#er? /$a@s t#eor% in"iate" t#at a&o!nt o' $a* app$ie" a(ainst iti9ens in

interation *i$$ )ar% as a res!$t o' #arateristis o' t#e o''ier an" iti9en in a soia$

settin(. T#is s!((este" *#en ea&inin( t#e i&pat o' rae on t#e ,!antit% o' $a* app$ie"

;i.e.? $e)e$ o' 'ore=? t#e raia$ o&-ination? rat#er t#an in"i)i"!a$ &eas!res o' rae? is

re$e)ant. T#e resear#er '!rt#er in"iate" t#at /$a@ a@no*$e"(es t#at &inorities are

$ess a-$e t#an t#eir 6#ite o!nterparts to aess -ot# t#e ,!antit% an" ,!a$it% o' $a*B

t#ere'ore? /$a@ *o!$" s!((est t#at t#e $east a&o!nt o' $a* *o!$" -e app$ie" *#en a

non>6#ite o''ier interat *it# a 6#ite iti9en. S!-se,!ent$%? t#e resear#er 'or&!$ate"



37

#is #%pot#esis -ase" on /$a@s t#eor%: In"i)i"!a$s eno!ntere" in pre"o&inate$%

&inorit% areas *i$$ #a)e #i(#er $e)e$s o' 'ore !se" a(ainst t#e& -% po$ie. Ana$%9in(

po$ie responses to a se$'>reporte" s!r)e% onernin( t#e !se o' non>$et#a$ 'ore in

P#i$a"e$p#ia in 0110? t#e resear#ers 'in"in(s s!((este" neit#er o''ier nor iti9en rae

nor t#e o''ier>iti9en rae o&-ination p$a%e" a si(ni'iant ro$e. His 'in"in(s a$so

s!((este" t#at on t#e in"i)i"!a$ $e)e$? t#ere 'ai$e" to -e s!pport 'or /$a@s t#eor%

onernin( t#e a&o!nt o' $a* app$ie". His 'in"in(s s#o*e" on$% a &ar(ina$$% si(ni'iant

s!pport 'or rae at t#e ontet!a$ $e)e$. Ho*e)er? t#e rae oe''iients "i" non>

si(ni'iant$% 'o$$o* t#e pattern s!((este" -% /[email protected] -actors and Police Decisions/'eha#ior hen Encountering "u#eniles

So&e st!"ies #a)e 'o!se" on $e(a$ an" sit!ationa$ 'ators t#at in'$!ene po$ie

"eisions to ta@e 7!)eni$es into !sto"% ;M%ers? 011<=. For ea&p$e? a st!"% -%

Patta)ina? /!9a*a? Hirs#e$? an" Fa((iani ;011= 'o!se" on *#et#er t#e i&pat o'

p$ae? po$i%? an" perpetrator 'ators in pre"itin( arrest o!to&es in inti&ate partner

)io$ene ini"ents? in$!"in( 7!)eni$es in)o$)e" in "o&esti )io$ene ini"ents. T#eir

'in"in(s in"iate t#at resi"in( in an !r-an area *as orre$ate" *it# $o*er o""s o' arrest in

assa!$ts o' inti&ate partners -!t not in t#e assa!$ts o!rrin( a(ainst ot#er 'a&i$%

&e&-ers. In a""ition? a st!"% s!((este" t#at o''en"ers *#o are o)er t#e a(e o' 02 *ere

&ore $i@e$% to -e arreste" in inti&ate partner assa!$ts -!t $ess $i@e$% t#an %o!n(er

o''en"ers to -e arreste" in ini"ents in)o$)in( ot#er 'a&i$% &e&-ers ;Hirs#e$? /!9a*a?

Patta)ina? + Fa((iani? 011=. Stro&? 6arner? Ti#a)s@%? an" a#n ;0121=? t#ro!(#

&!$ti)ariate $o(isti re(ression ana$%ses? "eter&ine *#et#er "o&esti )io$ene arrest

po$iies? a$on( *it# ini"ent? o''en"er? an" )iti& #arateristis? in'$!ene t#e "eision

&a@in( proess o' o''iers in "o&esti )io$ene o''enses o&&itte" -% 7!)eni$es a(ainst



38

t#eir parents. T#e% 'o!n" t#at "o&esti )io$ene arrest po$iies #a" positi)e e''ets on

arrest o!to&es -ot# 'or 7!)eni$e 'e&a$es an" 'or &a$es *#o *ere a!se" o' t#e o''ense

o' "o&esti )io$ene in)o$)in( t#eir parents. Spei'ia$$%? t#e% a$so 'o!n" t#at (ir$s

inreasin($% *ere &ore $i@e$% to -e arreste" 'or assa!$ts a(ainst parents o)er t#e 'i)e>%ear

perio" *#en o&pare" to -o%s.A$$en ;011= a$so ai&e" to i"enti'% sit!ationa$ 'ators t#at in'$!ene po$ie

o''iers "eisions to ta@e 7!)eni$es into !sto"%. He i"enti'ie" 'i)e stron( orre$ates

re(ar"in( t#e "eision &a@in( proess o' o''iers ta@in( 7!)eni$es into !sto"%? *#i#

in$!"e: ;2= a"o$esents *#o are "isrespet'!$ to*ar" po$ie o''iersB ;0= a"o$esents

*#o are o!t $ate at ni(#t in t#e streetsB ;3= t#e appearane o' a"o$esents $oo@in(

s!spiio!s o' o&&ittin( a "e$in,!ent atB i' so? t#e% s#o!$" -e stoppe" an" ,!estione"

aor"in($%B ;<= a"o$esent &a$es ten" to #a)e a &ore s!spiio!s "e&eanor t#an 'e&a$e

a"o$esentsB an"? ;= t#e a(e o' t#e o''ier. F!rt#er&ore? #e e&p$o%e" t#e o"" ratio

statisti to in"iate t#e $i@e$i#oo" t#at o''iers *o!$" ta@e 7!)eni$es into !sto"%. His

'in"in(s '!rt#er s!((este" t#at a"o$esents *#o are "isrespet'!$ to po$ie o''iers are

'o!r ti&es &ore $i@e$% to -e ta@en into !sto"%. J!)eni$es *#o are o!t $ate in t#e streets

are t#ree ti&es &ore $i@e$% to a$so -e ta@en into !sto"% -% po$ie o''iers. J!)eni$es

*#o appear to #a)e s!spiio!s "e&eanors are t*o ti&es &ore $i@e$% to -e ta@en into

!sto"%. In a""ition? #is 'in"in(s in"iate" t#at o''iers *#o &ost$% ta@e 7!)eni$es into

!sto"% &a% -e %o!n(er t#an 3< %ears o' a(e.M%ers ;011<= a$so ea&ine" sit!ationa$ 'ators t#at o''iers are on'ronte" *it#

*#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$e s!spets. T#e% '!rt#er ea&ine" t#e re$ations#ip -et*een

-e#a)iors o' a!t#orit% an" s!pport an" t#e attit!"es an" #arateristis o' o''iers. S#e

'o!n" t#at po$ie !se t#eir a!t#orit% in're,!ent$% to 'or&a$$% ta@e 7!)eni$es into !sto"%.



39

A$so? po$ie o''iers are &ore $i@e$% to arrest 7!)eni$es *#en t#e sit!ation or t#e o''ense

is &ore serio!s an" *#en t#e% ;t#e po$ie= #a)e eno!(# s!pportin( e)i"ene in t#e

"iretion o' t#e a!se". In a""ition? a"o$esents are &ore t#an $i@e$% to -e ta@en into

!sto"% *#en t#e% are )er-a$$% or -e#a)iora$$% -ein( "isrespet'!$ to*ar"s t#e o''iers.

S#e a$so in"iate" t#at po$ie o''iers are &ore $i@e$% to arrest 7!)eni$es *#en *eapons

are in)o$)e" an" *#en t#e o''iers are @no*$e"(ea-$e o' prior o''enses o&&itte" -% t#e

7!)eni$es. In a""ition? po$ie o''iers are &ore t#an $i@e$% to &a@e an arrest *#en a

po$ie s!per)isor is present. S#e '!rt#er s!((este" t#at po$ie arrest "eisions *ere not

patterne" -% #arateristis an" attit!"es o' o''iers./ro*n? No)a@? an" Fran@ ;011= ep$ore" t#e -asis o' o''ier "eision &a@in(

"!rin( eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$e o''en"ers? an" o&pare" t#ese eno!nters to t#ose o'

a"!$ts. T#e% ea&ine"? spei'ia$$%? t*o t%pes o' o''ier -e#a)ior *#i# in$!"e t#e

"eision to arrest an" t#e eerise o' a!t#orit%. T#eir 'in"in(s s!((este" t#at t#e 'ators

s#apin( o''ier -e#a)ior )aries aross a(e o' s!spet? na&e$%? t#e o&&!nit% ontet an"

t#e o''iers rae o''ere" si(ni'iant$% "i''erent in'$!enes on t#e arrest o' 7!)eni$es t#an

a"!$ts. T#eir 'in"in(s '!rt#er s!((este" t#at t#e 7!)eni$e *it# a "isrespet'!$ "e&eanor

a$so in'$!ene" t#e o''ier "eision to ta@e a 7!)eni$e into !sto"%. F!rt#er&ore? t#eir

'in"in(s 'o!n" t#at po$ie o''iers -e#a)ior "!rin( eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$es is "i''erent

'ro& eno!nters *it# a"!$ts.Attitudinal -actors and Police Decisions/'eha#ior hen Encountering "u#eniles

Ot#er st!"ies #a)e 'o!se" on po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters *it# iti9ens? in$!"in(

7!)eni$es? to esti&ate t#e in'$!enes "isrespet o' t#e po$ie #a)e in ta@in( 7!)eni$es into

!sto"%. For ea&p$e? L!n"&an? S%@es? an" C$ar@ ;2= post!$ate" t#at -$a@ an"

*#ite 7!)eni$es *#o *ere &ore anta(onisti are &ore t#an $i@e$% to -e arreste" t#an



40

7!)eni$es *#o *ere not a")ersaria$ *it# t#e po$ie. Mastro's@i? Reisi(? an" MC$!s@e%

;0110= resear# a$so arrie" o!t t#ro!(# s%ste&ati o-ser)ations an" &!$ti)ariate

ana$%sis? esti&ate" t#ree in'$!enes o' po$ie "isrespet: #o* s!spets -e#a)e? t#eir

persona$ #arateristis? an" t#e $oation o' t#e eno!nter. T#e% 'o!n" t#at t#e &ost

in'$!entia$ pre"itor o' po$ie "isrespet *as in response to t#e s!spets -e#a)ior.

S!spets *#o resiste" arrest? #a" stron( e)i"ene a(ainst t#e&? an" *ere not in on'$it

*it# ot#ers *it# *#o& t#e% *ere $ose *ere not at si(ni'iant (reater ris@ o' po$ie

"isrespet. In a""ition? t#e s!spets se? a(e? ino&e? an" "e(ree o' nei(#-or#oo"

"isa")anta(e *ere a$so si(ni'iant. T#e% '!rt#er 'o!n" t#at 6#ite 7!)eni$es *ere &ore

"isrespete" -% po$ie o''iers t#an non>*#ites *ere. In a""ition? so&e resear# s#o*s

t#at t#e "eision to arrest is 're,!ent$% -ase" on 'ators? s!# as "ress? attit!"e? spee#?

an" $e)e$ o' #osti$it% to*ar" t#e po$ie ;p. 0=.Race as a -actor Influencing Arrest Decisions

Ot#er resear# #as 'o!se" on rae as -ein( a ontri-!tin( 'ator in po$ie

"eisions to arrest 7!)eni$es. For ea&p$e? Pope an" S%n"er ;0113=? t#ro!(# s%ste&ati

o-ser)ation o' po$ie o''iers? 'o!n" no e)i"ene to s!pport #er resear# #%pot#esis t#at

po$ie are &ore $i@e$% to arrest non*#ite 7!)eni$e o''en"ers t#an *#ite 7!)eni$e o''en"ers.

Ho*e)er? #er 'in"in(s s!((este" t#at t#ere is so&e e)i"ene t#at s!pport t#e on$!sion

t#at one a )io$ent o''ense is reporte" or *itnesse" -% an o''ier? t#e $i@e$i#oo" o' arrest

is (reater 'or *#ite 7!)eni$e o''en"ers *#en o&pare" to non*#ite o''en"ers.

Ne)ert#e$ess? t#e "ata o$$ete" in #er st!"% "i" in 'at in"iate an in"iret -ias e''et

in t#e arrest o' non*#ite 7!)eni$es in t#at t#e% are &ore $i@e$% to -e arreste" *#en t#e

)iti&s are *#ite t#an *#en t#e% are non*#ite )iti&s.



41

F!rt#er&ore? a st!"% in"iate" t#at rae is one o' t#e &ost po*er'!$

'ators8)aria-$es *#en ep$ainin( p!-$i attit!"es to*ar" po$ie. T#e resear#ers

spei'ia$$% ep$ore" *#et#er t#e po$ie )ie*s o' A'rian A&erians an" Latinos "i''er

'ro& t#e o&parison (ro!ps!# as -$a@ an" *#ite o''en"ers8s!spets. T#e% 'o!n"

t#at a #i(#er perenta(e o' A'rian A&erian st!"ents ;1K= an" Latino st!"ents ;K=

reporte" t#at t#e% #a" -een stoppe" -% t#e po$ie. In t#eir st!"%? t#e% in"iate" t#at

approi&ate$% 0K o' A'rian A&erians an" 1K o' Latinos reporte" t#at t#e po$ie

#a" "isrespete" t#e& "!rin( po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters. T#e st!"% '!rt#er in"iate" t#at

*#en -ot# &inorit% (ro!ps *ere stoppe" an" "isrespete" -% t#e po$ie? t#ese eno!nters

ne(ati)e$% a''ete" t#eir pereption o' *#et#er po$ie o''iers are a-o!t t#eir

nei(#-or#oo"s. S#e "i" i"enti'% se)era$ si&i$arities 'o!n" -et*een Latino an" A'rian

A&erian st!"ents -ase" on #er "epen"ent &eas!res ;i.e.? po$ie a!t#orit% an" s!pport

an" assistane=. /ot# &inorit% (ro!ps? *#o #a" -een stoppe" an" "isrespete" -%

o''iers? *ere $ess $i@e$% *i$$in( to assist t#ese o''iers ;L!ri(io? Green$ea'? + F$eon?

011=. In a""ition? /$a@ an" Reiss ;21= s!((este" t#at *#en po$ie o''iers are

respon"in( to a o&p$ainant? t#e% onsi"er t#e o&p$ainants pre'erene *#en &a@in(

"eision onernin( 7!)eni$es. For ea&p$e? *#en o&p$ainants re,!est o''iers to arrest

a 7!)eni$e? o''iers *ere &ore $i@e$% to arrest t#e 7!)eni$e.Pre#ious Research and -indings on Police!"u#enile Encounters in Non!Urban Areas

T#ere #a)e -een $i&ite" st!"ies t#at #a)e a""resse" t#e po$ie>7!)eni$e

eno!nters in non!r-an areas? espeia$$% in s&a$$ to*ns an" r!ra$ areas ;F$an(an? 2B

Lie"er-a# + Fran@? 0113=. On$% a 'e* st!"ies ea&ine" po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in

s!-!r-an an" s&a$$>to*n 7!ris"itions. For ea&p$e? Lie"er-a# ;011= ea&ine" t#e

nat!re o' po$ie eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$es a(e" 23 to 2 in 01 s!-!r-an an" s&a$$>to*n



42

7!ris"ition in re$ation to t#e t%pe o' pro-$e&s non!r-an po$ie o''iers eno!nter *#en

interatin( *it# 7!)eni$esB t#e ations ta@en -% o''iers to reso$)e t#e eno!ntere"

sit!ationB an" t#e "isretionar% "eision &a@in( proess o' o''iers *#o ta@e 7!)eni$es

into !sto"%. On one #an"? #e 'o!n" t#at po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters in non!r-an areas

appear to -e si&i$ar to t#ose eno!nters in !r-an areas? parti!$ar$% t#e t%pe o' o''enses

o''iers eno!nter *#en "ea$in( *it# 7!)eni$es. O''enses s!# as &inor "ist!r-anes?

$oiterin(? an" &is"e&eanor t#e'ts *ere &ost$% *#at non!r-an o''iers eno!ntere" *#en

"ea$in( *it# 7!)eni$es in t#e streets. T#ese o''enses *ere a$so &ore pre)a$ent in prior

resear# onernin( street>$e)e$ eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$es in !r-an areas. In a""ition? t#e

ten"en% o' po$ie o''iers to reso$)e 7!)eni$e iss!es8pro-$e&s &ore in'or&a$$% *it#o!t

ta@in( 7!)eni$es into !sto"% *ere pre)a$ent in non!r-an an" !r-an areas. On t#e ot#er

#an"? resear# 'in"in(s a$so s#o* t#at t#ere *ere "i''erenes -et*een po$ie response to

7!)eni$e o''en"in( in -ot# r!ra$ an" !r-an settin(s. Spei'ia$$%? #e 'o!n" t#at in

non!r-an areas &ost tra''i re$ate" o''enses *ere &ost o&&on$% "etete" in po$ie>

7!)eni$e eno!nters rat#er t#an ri&ina$ o''enses ;or"er &aintenane or ser)ie ati)ities=

t#at are -een "etete" -% po$ie in !r-an areas. He on$!"e" t#at in non!r-an areas?

t#ere is $ess stress an" pro-$e&s t#an t#ose in !r-an areas. Ho*e)er? M!#a&&a" ;0110=

note" t#at non!r-an areas #a)e t#eir s#are o' serio!s ri&es? s!# as? rape? #o&ii"e?

*i$"$i'e an" a(ri!$t!ra$ ri&es.

T#e !rrent st!"% annot state *it# ertaint% *#i# sit!ationa$ 'ators are &ore

in'$!entia$ in t#e arrest o' 7!)eni$es in t#e r!ra$ areas o' Mississippi. T#ere'ore? t#is st!"%

*i$$ see@ to rep$iate M%ers ;011<= st!"% "esi(n to ea&ine t#e interations -et*een

po$ie o''iers an" 7!)eni$es in non!r-an o&&!nities !ti$i9in( /$a@s soio$o(% o' $a*



43

as a t#eoretia$ $ens t#e !n"erstan"in( o' t#e "eision &a@in(8-e#a)ior o' po$ie *#en

eno!nterin( 7!)eni$e in t#e street. As t#is &eas!re&ent instr!&ent #as -een !se" an"

teste" -% M%ers? it is 'air to ass!&e t#at t#e )a$i"it% an" re$ia-i$it% o' t#e instr!&ent an

-e o!nte" !pon 'or t#e present resear#. T#ere'ore? t#e entra$ ai& o' t#e present st!"%

is to ea&ine t#e etent to *#i# M%ers 'in"in(s are app$ia-$e to t#e r!ra$ areas o'

Mississippi *it# re(ar" to po$ie>7!)eni$e sit!ationa$ eno!nters.T#e 'o$$o*in( setion presents #o* /$a@s ;2= &o"e$ is a"e,!ate 'or t#e

!rrent st!"% "!e to t#e a-o)e&entione" s!pporte" resear# ;e.(.? /$a@ + Reiss? 21B

L!n"&an? et a$.? 2= an" po$i% i&p$iations. /ase" on /$a@ an" Reiss ;21= st!"%

*#i# propose" an e&piria$ portrait o' t#e po$iin( o' 7!)eni$es po$ie 7!)eni$es an"

*#i# esta-$is#e" a 'o!n"ationa$ o!t$ine o' a (enera$ t#eor% o' ri&e ;t#e -e#a)ior o'

$a*= ;as in"iate" a-o)e=? pro)i"e" an a"re on t#e o''iia$ "etetion an" santionin( -%

po$ie ;i.e.? an arrest= o' 7!)eni$e "e$in,!en%? *#i# *as in'or&ati)e in re$ation to

t#eor%. /$a@s &o"e$ in,!ires into t#e properties t#at (enerate" a ontro$ response?

*#i# ass!&es t#at t#e $i@e$i#oo" o' santionin( a 7!)eni$e 'or a "e$in,!ent at is

on"itiona$ !pon ot#er soia$ 'ators rat#er t#an si&p$e non>on'or&in( -e#a)ior ;i.e.?

r!$e )io$ati)e -e#a)ior=. For ea&p$e? /$a@ ;2= an" /$a@ an" Reiss ;21= &o"e$s

presente" t#e -e#a)ior o' $a* an" "e)ianeB an"? as a res!$t? pro)i"e" a si$#o!ette to

"iso)er t#e soia$ or(ani9ation o' "e)iane an" ontro$ ;/$a@ + Reiss? 21=. In

a""ition? /$a@ an" Reiss st!"% e&p$o%e" t#e soio$o(% o' $a* into t#e !n"erstan"in( o'

po$ie $e(a$ -e#a)ior. At t#e sa&e ti&e? t#e% onept!a$i9e" $a* as a ,!antitati)e

)aria-$e. T#eir st!"% i$$!strates #o* soia$ ontro$ is asserti)e in ri&ina$ an" 7!)eni$e

7!stie s%ste&sparti!$ar$% -% po$ie o''iers. Ho*e)er? note as to "ate? a s&a$$



44

portion o' st!"ies #as a"e,!ate$% pro)i"e" s!pport o' a$$ /$a@ an" Reisss ei(#t

propositions ;see L!n"&an et a$.? 2=. Ne)ert#e$ess? so&e resear# #as pro)i"e"

e&piria$ s!pport 'or one or &ore o' t#eir propositions ;S&it#? 2B L!n"&an et a$.?

2B M%ers? 011<B Patta)ina et a$.? 011=.T#ere'ore? it is i&portant to ea&ine po$ie -e#a)ior *#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es

at t#e street $e)e$ in r!ra$ areas. T#is *i$$ a$$o* t#e ri&ina$ 7!stie arena to #a)e a &ore

o&pre#ensi)e !n"erstan"in( o' po$ie praties. In a""ition? t#is *i$$ a$$o* ri&ina$

7!stie pratitioners i&pro)e !pon t#eir !n"erstan"in( o' t#e "i''erene an" si&i$arities

-et*een r!ra$ an" !r-an po$ie praties? spei'ia$$% *#en eno!nterin( 7!)eni$es at t#e

street $e)e$. /ase" on /$a@s ;2= perspeti)e-e#a)iora$ o' $a*? r!ra$ po$ie

praties )ar% aross in"i)i"!a$ #arateristis o' in"i)i"!a$s? ti&e? an" o&&!nities.

CHAPTER IIIMETHOD

Data 'or t#is st!"% is -ase" part$% on 'in"in(s 'ro& a resear# pro7et ear$ier

!n"erta@en -% Ro#e$$e Co--s? t#e Prinipa$ In)esti(ator? an" O@o E$e#i? t#e o>



45

Prinipa$ In)esti(ator. T#is st!"% *as '!n"e" -% Mississippi Va$$e% State Uni)ersit% in

0122. T#is Fa!$t% S!&&er Resear# De)e$op&ent Grant *as sponsore" -% t#e U.S.

Depart&ent o' E"!ation? Tit$e III? P$an / Pro(ra& to !n"erta@e a st!"% entit$e"? T#e

Po$iin( o' J!)eni$es in t#e State o' Mississippi: A Rep$iation St!"%. T#e 'o!s o' t#is

"issertation is t#e rep$iation o' M%erss ;011<= st!"% t#at ea&ine" po$ie>7!)eni$e

eno!nters 'ro& a street>$e)e$ sit!ationa$ perspeti)e. Ho*e)er? t#is 'o!ses on po$ie>

7!)eni$e eno!nters in t#e r!ra$ areas rat#er t#an 'ro& !r-an settin(s. To ao&p$is# t#is

o-7eti)e? t#is st!"% see@s to epan" on t#e ear$ier st!"% "esri-e" a-o)e t#at *as

s!pporte" -% a (rant -% t#e Mississippi Va$$e% State Uni)ersit% in 0122.

Fin"in(s 'ro& t#e epan"e" resear# e''orts *i$$ -e !se" to o&p$e&ent t#e "ata

'ro& t#e 0122 st!"% "esri-e" a-o)e. It is reiterate" #ere? t#e pri&ar% 'o!s o' t#is st!"%

is t#e ea&ination o' po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters 'ro& a street>$e)e$ sit!ationa$

perspeti)e in t#e i"enti'ie" r!ra$ areas o' t#e state o' Mississippi? parti!$ar$% t#e

Mississippi De$ta. To ao&p$is# t#is tas@? t#e resear#er? Ro#e$$e Co--s? see@s to

a!(&ent t#e "ata 'ro& t#e resear# pro7et arrie" o!t in 0122. /ot# "ata sets *i$$ -e

ana$%9e" to "eter&ine i' t#e resear# pro7ets 'in"in(s s!pport or ne(ate t#at o' M%ers

(i)en t#e !ni,!e ontet o' Mississippi. T#ere is no $ai& -ein( &a"e #ere t#at t#e

'in"in(s 'ro& t#is st!"% are (enera$i9a-$e -e%on" t#e areas *#ere t#e st!"ies *ere

!n"erta@en. T#e &oti)ation 'or t#is st!"% is t#at t#is st!"% is si(ni'iant in t#e

!n"erstan"in( o' po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters an" so t#e st!"% is *ort# t#e e''orts 'or its

o*n sa@e an" *i$$ not -e (enera$i9a-$e to ot#er po$ie "epart&ents *#i# ser)e ot#er

r!ra$ areas in t#e Unite" States. T#e ana$%ses o' t#e propose" "ata o$$etions *i$$ -e



46

!n"erta@en 'o$$o*in( appro)a$ 'ro& t#e Prairie Vie* A+M Uni)ersit% Instit!tiona$

Re)ie* /oar".

T#e net setion ep$iates M%erss st!"% "esi(n *#i# *as t#e st!"% 'ra&e*or@

t#e ear$ier st!"% *as &o"e$e" a'ter.Patrol )fficers Sur#es

A 20 ite& s!r)e% *i$$ -e a"&inistere" to o''iers in a pri)ate settin( "!rin( t#eir

assi(ne" s#i't ;see Appen"i /? o''ie s!r)e%=. T#e o''iers partiipatin( in t#e s!r)e%

*i$$ -e in'or&e" t#at t#eir opinions t#e% epress are on'i"entia$. T#e s!r)e% instr!&ent

*i$$ -e app$ie" to e$iit in'or&ation re$atin( to po$ie interations *it# 7!)eni$es

eno!ntere" *#i$e t#e% are on street patro$? on o''iers persona$ attri-!tes? -a@(ro!n"s

an" attit!"es to*ar"s t#eir ro$es as o''iers. To reiterate? t#e !rrent st!"% see@s to

rep$iate a pre)io!s st!"% "esi(n !n"erta@en -% M%ers ;011<=? *#i# ea&ine" po$ie

response to 7!)eni$e o''en"in( in t#e !r-an areas o' In"ianapo$is? Minnesota an" St.

Peters-!r(? F$ori"a. T#is st!"% see@s to asertain i' its 'in"in(s s!pport t#at o' M%ers

(i)en t#e !ni,!e ontets o' Mississippi.)bser#ation of Police )fficer

To o&p$e&ent t#e "ata o-taine" t#ro!(# s!r)e%? a s%ste&ati o-ser)ation a$on(

M%ers st!"% &et#o" *i$$ a$so -e !n"erta@en. Ho* t#e po$ie respon" to "e)iant

-e#a)ior s!# as $oiterin(? reatin( a "ist!r-ane? en(a(in( in "isor"er$% on"!t?

)io$atin( tra''i $a*s an" ot#er eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$es *i$$ -e o-ser)e" an" note" -%

t#e resear#er. T#e resear#er *i$$ "o!&ent8note #o* t#e po$ie an" iti9ens are

o&&!niatin( *it# ea# ot#er. In a""ition? s#e *i$$ "esri-e t#e t%pe o' en)iron&ent in

*#i# t#e interation o!rs. T#e o-ser)er *i$$ ri"e *it# patro$ o''iers "!rin( t#eir

assi(ne" s#i'ts. T#e o-ser)er *i$$ &a@e notations o' e)er%t#in( t#at o''iers "o "!rin(

t#eir entire s#i't? in$!"in( t#e ati)ities t#at t#e o''ier per'or&s an" in'or&ation in



47

re(ar" to t#e nat!re o' t#eir interations *it# 7!)eni$es an" ot#er iti9ens. T#e instr!&ent

t#at *i$$ -e !se" to reor" t#e "ata is a$$e" t#e Ri"e For& ;see Appen"i C=. A$so?

ea# "a% a'ter t#e resear#er ret!rns 'ro& a 'ie$" trip? s#e *i$$ *rite a narrati)e *#i#

(i)es ao!nts o' t#e o''iers ati)ities "!rin( a *or@ "a% an" a$so o"e in'or&ation

a-o!t t#e o''iers eno!nters *it# iti9ens *it# *#o& t#e o''ier interate"? an" ot#er

ati)ities t#e o''iers per'or&e". T#e po$ie o''iers s!r)e% "ata *i$$ -e $in@e" *it# t#e

o-ser)ation "ata -% an o''ier i"enti'ier o"e assi(ne" to o''iers 'or t#is resear# -% t#e

resear#er. T#is i"enti'ier o"e *i$$ -e in"iate" on t#e o''ier s!r)e% an" t#e ri"e 'or&

o' t#e o-ser)ation "ata..he Pro$osed Analtical Plan

Patternin( M%ers st!"% "esi(n? t#e present st!"% *i$$ onentrate on po$ie>

7!)eni$e eno!nters? in)o$)in( %o!t#s ran(in( 'ro& a(es to 2. T#e st!"% *i$$ on"!t

o&parati)e ana$%ses o' teste" 'or&!$ate" #%pot#eses pertainin( to #o* po$ie !se o'

a!t#orit% an" pro)ision o' s!pport orre$ate *it# po$ie o''iers attit!"es?

-a@(ro!n"s? an" t#e sit!ations *it# *#i# t#e% eno!nter. T#e narrati)e an" t#e o"e"

"ata re$atin( to t#e sit!ationa$ eno!nters *it# 7!)eni$es t#at *i$$ -e reor"e" "!rin( t#e

o-ser)ation proess *i$$ a$so -e !se" to &eas!re t*o onstr!ts: po$ie !se o'

a!t#orit% an" pro)ision o' s!pport? *#i# &eas!re t*o "i&ension o' po$ie -e#a)ior.

Li@e M%ers? -ot# 'ators *i$$ -e !se as ep$anator%8"epen"ent )aria-$es. To &eas!re

s!# onstr!ts? Appen"i A is an i$$!stration o' t#e )ario!s t%pes o' po$ie ations ;e.(.?

as aor"in( to M%ers? in,!irin( into t#e nat!re o' t#e pro-$e&? $istenin( to one or &ore

si"es o' t#e pro-$e&? ta@in( a report? o&&an"in( or t#reatenin( t#e 7!)eni$e to $ea)e an

area? iss!in( a itation= t#at *i$$ -e "esri-e"? !ti$i9e"? an" &eas!re". T#ese ations *i$$

a$so -e assi(ne" n!&-ers 'ro& 2 ;t#e $east a&o!nt o' oeri)eness= to ;-ein( t#e &ost



48

a&o!nt o' oeri)eness= to re'$et t#e $e)e$ o' a!t#orit%? ran@in( ea# ation 'ro& t#e

$east to t#e &ost as it re$ates to t#e $e)e$ o' oeri)eness. Last$%? t#e s!r)e% "ata *i$$

"e$)e into t#e in'or&ation re$atin( to t#e persona$ attri-!tes o' o''iers? s!# as? (en"er?

se? trainin( ;o&&!nit% po$iin(=? t#eir attit!"es onernin( t#eir po$ie ro$e an" t#e

iti9ens *#o t#e% pro)i"e ser)ie. In t#e ana$%sis? t#ese 'ators *i$$ a$so -e !se" as

ep$anator% 'ators ;see Appen"i /=.De$endent 8ariables

Use of Authorit

T#is st!"% *i$$ on"!t o&parati)e ana$%ses o' t#e 'in"in(s o' Co--s an" E$e#i

'or t#e resear# pro7et o' 0122 an" t#e propose" !rrent resear# pro7et. D!e to t#e

pro7ets -ein( rep$iations o' M%erss st!"% "esi(n? t#e pro7ets *i$$ a$so e&p$o% t#e !se

o' a "i#oto&% )aria-$e ;i.e.? t#e "eision to arrest or not= to apt!re po$ie !se o'

a!t#orit% onstr!t. In or"er to &eas!re t#e arrest o' 7!)eni$es? $i@e M%ers? t#e

resear#er *i$$ a$so !se o"es s!# as one to in"iate t#at t#e po$ie arreste" a 7!)eni$eB

an"? a 9ero to in"iate t#at t#e po$ie "i" not arrest a 7!)eni$e.

Pro#ision of Su$$ort

As "e&onstrate" -% M%ers9 t#e pro)ision o' s!pport -% po$ie to iti9ens *i$$ -e

&eas!re" in t#e sa&e *a% as t#e a!t#orit% onstr!t an" o&pare" to t#e 'in"in(s in r!ra$

areas. N!&-ers *i$$ a$so -e !se" to in"iate t#e $e)e$ o' s!pport an" assistane o'

ations o' t#e po$ie. T#e ations o' t#e po$ie o''iers !se" 'or t#is &eas!re&ent onsist

o' t#e 'o$$o*in(: partia$$% o&p$%in(? '!$$% o&p$%in( *it#? an" -ein( s%&pat#eti to

t#e sit!ation ;p. =. T#e onstr!t *i$$ -e &eas!re" -% !ti$i9in( a "i#oto&o!s

)aria-$e. I' o''iers pro)i"e an% t%pe o' s!pport? t#e o-ser)er *i$$ reor" a 2. I' o''iers



49

"i" not pro)i"e an% s!pport? t#e o-ser)er *i$$ note a 1 ;see Appen"i A? po$ie !se o'

a!t#orit% an" po$ie pro)ision o' s!pport8assistane=.Inde$endent 8ariables

Uti$i9in( M%ers 'ra&e*or@? t#e in"epen"ent )aria-$es 'or t#e present st!"%

in$!"e: o''ier #arateristis? o''ier attit!"es? #arateristi o' t#e sit!ation? an"

#arateristis o' t#e s!spets.)fficer Characteristics

T#e o''iers #arateristis *i$$ -e i"enti'ie" t#ro!(# t#e o''iers o&p$etin( t#e

o''ier s!r)e% ;see Appen"i /=. T#ese #arateristis *i$$ in$!"e t#e o''iers se? rae?

$e)e$ o' e"!ation? $en(t# o' ser)ie? t%pes o' trainin( ;i.e.? o&&!nit% po$iin(=. T#e

o''iers se an" rae *i$$ -e onsi"ere" as "!&&% )aria-$es. T#e o''ier e"!ation *i$$

-e a ate(oria$ )aria-$e *#i# "i''erentiates -et*een t#ose o''iers *#o #a)e so&e $e)e$

o' o$$e(e e"!ation an" t#ose t#at "o not #a)e o$$e(e e"!ation. O''ier $en(t# o'

ser)ie *i$$ -e ate(ori9e" as a ontin!o!s )aria-$e. In re(ar" to trainin( in o&&!nit%

po$iin(? t#e resear#ers *i$$ onsi"er t#is )aria-$e as an or"ina$ )aria-$e *#i#

"istin(!is#es -et*een o''iers a&o!nt o' trainin(. T#is a&o!nt o' trainin( &a% ran(e

'ro& one "a% to t#ree &ont#s o' trainin(.)fficer Attitudes

To ea&ine o''iers attit!"es to*ar" iti9ens? ro$e orientation? se$eti)it%? an"

a((ressi)eness? si &eas!res *i$$ -e onstr!te". As in"iate" -% M%ers? attit!"ina$

&eas!res onsist o' %niis&? assistane? a((ressi)eness? se$eti)it%? an" ro$e orientation

*#i# *i$$ -e re(resse" on t#e "epen"ent )aria-$es. Aor"in( to #er representation?

%niis& *i$$ represent o''iers )ie*s o' t#e proportion o' iti9ens *#o *o!$" -e *i$$in(

to #e$p an" ooperate *it# t#e po$ie ;p. 3=. Aor"in( to M%ers? t#ree s!r)e% ite&s

*ere a""e" to t#e s!r)e% to apt!re t#is &eas!re ;a$$ ite&s are o"e" as 2 &ost? 0



50

so&e? 3 'e*? < none ;p. <=. As i$$!strate" -% M%ers? t#e o"es represente" are as

'o$$o*:

;2= Ho* &an% iti9ens in %o!r -eat *o!$" a$$ t#e po$ie i' t#e% sa*

so&et#in( s!spiio!sB

;0= Ho* &an% iti9ens in %o!r -eat *o!$" pro)i"e in'or&ation a-o!t a ri&e

i' t#e% @ne* so&et#in( an" *ere as@e" a-o!t it -% po$ieB

;3= Ho* &an% o' t#e iti9ens in %o!r -eat are *i$$in( to *or@ *it# po$ie to

tr% to so$)e nei(#-or#oo" pro-$e&s ;p. <=.Assistance

T#e assistane onstr!t *i$$ &eas!re #o* t#e po$ie o''iers attit!"e is to*ar"

pro)i"in( assistane to iti9ens. T#is onstr!t *i$$ -e apt!re" -% !ti$i9in( a sin($e

s!r)e% &eas!re t#at as@s o''iers to in"iate t#eir $e)e$ o' a(ree&ent *it# a state&ent

;i.e.? aor"in( to M%ers? Assistin( iti9ens is as i&portant as en'orin( t#e $a*= ;p.

=? *#i# is o"e" as 2 "isa(ree stron($%? 0 "isa(ree so&e*#at? 3 a(ree

so&e*#at? < a(ree stron($%=.Aggressi#eness

D!e to t#e present st!"% -ein( a rep$iation o' M%ers? t#e resear#er *i$$ !ti$i9e

t#e sa&e &eas!re o' t#at o' M%ers to apt!re t#e a((ressi)eness o' o''iers to*ar"

iti9ens? parti!$ar$% 7!)eni$es. T#is )aria-$e *i$$ -e &eas!re" *it# a sin($e s!r)e% ite&

*#i# *i$$ -e -ase" on t#e a(ree&ent *it# t#e 'o$$o*in( state&ent: A (oo" patro$

o''ier is one *#o patro$s a((ressi)e$% -% stoppin( ars? #e@in( o!t peop$e? r!nnin(

$iense #e@s? et. T#e responses 'or t#is state&ent *i$$ -e o"e" ;e.(.? "isa(ree

stron($% 2? "isa(ree so&e*#at 0? a(ree so&e*#at 3? a(ree stron($% <=.Selecti#it



51

In a""ition? t#is st!"% *i$$ a$so &o"e$ M%ers st!"% -% !ti$i9in( t#e sa&e sin($e

s!r)e% ite&s to apt!re o''iers attit!"es to*ar" se$eti)e en'ore&ent )ia o&parati)e

ana$%sis o' -ot# pre)io!s resear# pro7ets to t#at o' M%ers. T#e ite& o' t#e s!r)e% *i$$

as@: Ho* 're,!ent$% *o!$" %o! sa% t#ere are (oo" reasons 'or not arrestin( so&eone

*#o #as o&&itte" a &inor ri&ina$ o''ense ;p. =. T#e response *i$$ onsist o' an"

o"e" as ne)er 2? rare$% 0? so&eti&es 3? o'ten <.Roles )rientation

T#e ro$es orientation onstr!t *i$$ -e apt!re" in t*o "i''erent &eas!res an"

o&pare" *it# 'in"in(s o' t#e present st!"% an" t#at o' M%ers. One &eas!re o' t#e

o''iers orientation *i$$ eno&pass t#e o''iers persona$ 'ee$in(s in re(ar" to $a*

en'ore&ent *#i# is &eas!re" -% on$% one ite& on t#e s!r)e%. T#is ite& as@e" t#e

o''iers to eit#er a(ree or "isa(ree *it# t#e 'o$$o*in( state&ent: En'orin( t#e $a* is -%

'ar a patro$ o''iers &ost i&portant responsi-i$it% ;p. =. T#e seon" &eas!re *i$$

(i)e a pit!re o' t#e o''iers ro$e orientation as to #o* o''iers "e'ine t#eir ro$es. Si

ite&s o' t#e s!r)e% *i$$ -e ta$$ie" as one onept 'ro& responses o' o''iers *#i#

in,!ire" o' o''iers as to #o* 're,!ent$% t#e% are to -e epete" to #an"$e )ario!s

pro-$e&s ;e.(.? p!-$i n!isanes? nei(#-or "isp!tes? 'a&i$% "isp!tes? $itter an" tras#?

parents *#o "ont ontro$ t#eir @i"s? n!isane -!sinesses ;p. =. T#e responses *i$$ -e

o"e" ;i.e.? 2 ne)er? 0 so&eti&es? 3 &!# o' t#e ti&e? an" < a$*a%s=."u#enile Encounters* Characteristics of the Situation

T#e po$ie>7!)eni$e eno!nters sit!ationa$ #arateristis onstr!t is &eas!re" in

ter&s o' $e(a$ an" etra$e(a$ 'ators? *#i# is t#e sa&e as M%ers an" t#e present st!"%.

T#e $e(a$ 'ators *i$$ onsist o' t#e serio!sness o' t#e pro-$e& an" )iti& arrest

pre'erene ;p. =. T*o in"iators *i$$ -e !se" to i"enti'% t#e serio!sness o' t#e

pro-$e& -% ea&inin( t#e nat!re o' t#e pro-$e& an" e&p$o%in( a serio!sness sa$e. T#e



52

nat!re o' t#e pro-$e& in"iator *i$$ onsist o' one to t*e$)e a((re(ate" ate(ories *#i#

t#e responses o' o''iers *i$$ -e ran@e". For ea&p$e? t#e &o"a$ ate(or% *i$$ onsist o'

pro-$e&s s!# as "isor"er? !r'e* )io$ations? p!-$i n!isane? "isor"er? "ea$in( *it# $itter

tras#? "isor"er? et. In a""ition? t#e seon" in"iator? *#i# is a$so t#e sa&e as M%ers? t#e

serio!sness o' t#e sit!ation? *#i# *i$$ -e onsi"ere" an or"ina$ )aria-$e t#at *i$$ $assi'%

pro-$e&s -ase" on t#e potentia$ #ar& an" $e)e$ o' serio!sness to t#e )iti&. T#ese

pro-$e&s *i$$ -e p$ae" into 'i)e ate(ories t#at "eri)e 'ro& Se$$in an" 6o$'(an(s

;2<= ;see Appen"i D? eno!nter 'or&=. T#e etra$e(a$ 'ators o' eno!nters

#arateristis *i$$ -e in$!"e" an" "e$ineate" as s!#: ;2= *#o initiate" t#e eno!nterB

;0= t#e $oation o' t#e eno!nterB ;3= *#et#er or not t#e o&p$ainant *as a &inorit%B an"?

;<= *#et#er or not a s!per)isor *as present ;M%ers? 011<? p. 211=. A M!$ti>)ariant

ana$%sis *i$$ -e e&p$o%e" &eas!rin( o''iers proati)it% "i#oto&o!s$%? *#i# *i$$

"i''erentiate eno!nters t#at are initiate" -% t#e o-ser)er o''iers ;o"e" 2= an"

eno!nters initiate" -% so&eone e$se ot#er t#an t#e o-ser)e" o''ier ;o"e" 1=.Characteristics of the Sus$ects

T#is setion *i$$ a$so 'o$$o* M%ers -$!eprint *#i# apt!res t#e #arateristis

o' t#e s!spet. Li@e M%ers? t#e #arateristis o' t#e s!spet onstr!t *i$$ -e $assi'ie"

into one or t*o (ro!psna&e$%? $e(a$ or etra$e(a$ 'ators? 'or t#e present st!"%. T#e

present 'in"in(s *i$$ -e o&pare" to t#at o' M%ers. T#e $e(a$ 'ators *i$$ onsist o' t#e

a&o!nt o' e)i"ene a)ai$a-$e to po$ie t#at $in@e" t#e 7!)eni$e to so&e *ron("oin(?

e)i"ene o' a$o#o$ or "r!( !se? an" *eapon possession ;p. 213=. T#e etra$e(a$ 'ators

*i$$ in$!"e t#e s!spets se? "e&eanor? rae? $e)e$ o' *ea$t#? *#et#er or not t#e po$ie

#a" so&e @no*$e"(e o' t#e s!spet prior to t#e eno!nter ;p. 213=. A point sa$e *i$$ -e

e&p$o%e" to &eas!re t#e points assi(ne" to t#e s!-se,!ent on"itions. For ea&p$e? i' a



53

iti9en at t#e sene #as o-ser)e" t#e 7!)eni$e in an i$$e(a$ at 'irst #an"? t#ere *i$$ -e an

in"iation o' one point on t#e sa$e. I' a 7!)eni$e pro)i"es a '!$$ on'ession o' an

o''ense? t#ere *i$$ -e a reor"in( o' t*o points on t#e sa$e ;see Appen"i E? iti9en

'or&=.T#e a$o#o$ an" "r!( !se &eas!re *i$$ "esri-e *#et#er or not t#ere *ere an%

in"iations o' !se an" i' t#ere *ere an% o-ser)a-$e -e#a)iora$ e''ets. T#is )aria-$e *i$$

-e ate(oria$ an" it *i$$ &a@e a "istintion -et*een t#ose 7!)eni$es *#o s#o*e" no

si(ns o' a$o#o$ or "r!( !se an" no -e#a)iora$ pro-$e&s? t#ose 7!)eni$es *#o s#o*e"

so&e in"iations o' !se -!t "i" not s#o* an% si(ns o' -e#a)iora$ pro-$e&s? an" t#ose

7!)eni$es *#o "i" not s#o* an% -e#a)iora$ "e'ets at a$$.T#e &eas!res *#i# apt!re" t#e 7!)eni$es persona$ #arateristis? s!# as? rae?

se? $e)e$ o' *ea$t#? *i$$ -e onsi"ere" as "!&&% )aria-$es "istin(!is#in( -et*een

)ario!s s!-(ro!ps ;e.(.? aor"in( to M%ers? &inorities an" *#ites? &a$es an" 'e&a$es?

an" 7!)eni$es 'ro& $o*er $e)e$s o' *ea$t# an" 7!)eni$es 'ro& #i(#er $e)e$s o' *ea$t# ;p.

21<=.In a""ition? t#e &eas!re o' t#e "e&eanor o' t#e 7!)eni$e *i$$ -e a "!&&% )aria-$e

too. It *i$$ "i''erentiate -et*een t#ose 7!)eni$es *#o are "isrespet'!$ an" t#ose

7!)eni$es *#o are respet'!$.T#e &eas!re o' po$ie #a)in( prior @no*$e"(e o' 7!)eni$es *#o t#e% eno!nter

*i$$ -e onsi"ere" as a "!&&% )aria-$e. T#is onstr!t *i$$ -e ate(ori9e" eit#er -%

7!)eni$es *#o are @no*n -% t#e po$ie or -% 7!)eni$es *#o are not @no*n -% t#e po$ie.

In on$!sion? t#e p!rpose o' t#is st!"% is t#e ea&ination o' t#e po$ie>7!)eni$e

eno!nters8interations 'ro& a street>$e)e$ sit!ationa$ perspeti)e. T#is st!"% see@s to

rep$iate an ear$ier st!"% -% M%ers ;011<= an" Co--s8E$e#i ;0122= in t#e proess=. T#e



54

Co--s an" E$e#i ;0122= st!"% *as a rep$iation o' M%ers ;011<= resear#. T#is st!"%?

si&i$ar to Co--s an" E$e#i ;0122= an" M%ers ;011<=? ea&ine t#e re$ations#ip -et*een

t#e t%pes o' -e#a)ior o' po$ie ;na&e$%a!t#orit% an" s!pport=? t#e attit!"e an"

#arateristis o' in"i)i"!a$ o''iers? an" t#e sit!ationa$ 'ators t#at o''iers eno!nter

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