Wiley Organizational Behavior - Chapter 3 - 13th Edition

7/26/2019 Wiley Organizational Behavior - Chapter 3 - 13th Edition

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56 CHAPTER 3 Perception, Attribution, and Learning

hard-working. Once formed, person schemas are stored in long-term memory andretrieved only when needed for a comparison of how well a person matches theschemas features.4

Interpretation Once your attention has been drawn to certain stimuli and you havegrouped or organized this information, the next step is to uncover the reasons behind theactions. Even if your attention is called to the same information and you organize it in thesame way your friend does, you may still interpret it differently or make different assump-tions about what you have perceived. As a team leader, for example, you might interpretcompliments from a team member as due to his being eager and enthusiastic about atask; your friend might interpret the team members behavior as an attempt at insincereattery.

Retrieval Each stage of the perception process becomes part of memory. Tis infor-mation stored in our memory must be retrieved if it is to be used. But all of us at timeshave trouble retrieving stored information. Memory decays, so that only some of theinformation may be retrieved. Schemas can make it diffi cult for people to rememberthings not included in them. If you hold the prototype of a good worker as someoneshowing lots of effort, punctuality, intelligence, articulateness, and decisiveness, you mayemphasize these traits and overlook others when evaluating the performance of a teammember whom you generally consider good.

Perception, Impression Management, and Social Media

Richard Branson, CEO of the Virgin Group, is one of the richest and most famous execu-tives in the world. He may also be the ultimate master of impression management, thesystematic attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain desired impressionsin the eyes of others.5One of Bransons early business accomplishments was the success-ful start-up of Virgin Airlines, now a global competitor to the legacy airlines. In a memoir,the former head of British Airways, Lord King, said, If Richard Branson had worn a shirtand tie instead of a goatee and jumper, I would not have underestimated him.6

Dont you wonder if creatinga casual impression was part ofBransons business strategy?Whether intended or not, thechances are hes used this per-sona to very good advantage inother business dealings as well.Its an example of how much ourimpressions can count, both pos-itive and negative, in how othersperceive us. And its not a newlesson; weve all heard it before.

Who hasnt been told whenheading off to a job interviewDont forget to make a good rstimpression?

Te fact is that we alreadypractice a lot of impression man-agement as a matter of routine ineveryday life. Impression man-agement is taking place whenwe dress, talk, act, and surround

Impression managementisthe systematic attempt toinuence how others

perceive us.

Dont let your social media presence get out of control. Impression managementcounts online as well as face to face, and here are some things to help you makeit work for you.

Ask: How do I want to be viewed? What are my goals in this forum?

Ask: What am I communicating, or about to communicate, to my publicaudience?

Ask: Before I post this item, is it something that I want my family, loved ones,or a potential employer to see?

Do: Choose a respectable username.

Do: Prole yourself only as you really would like to be known to others; keepeverything consistent.

Do: View your online persona as a brand that you are going to wear for a longtime; make sure your persona and desired brand are a t and not a mist.

Do: Post and participate in an online forum only in ways that meet your goalsfor your personal brand; dont do anything that might damage it.

How to Build Your Personal Brand ThroughImpression Management in Social Networks


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Common Perceptual Distortions

ourselves with what reinforces a desirable self-image and helps to convey that imageto other persons. When well done, that can help us to advance in jobs and careers,form relationships with people we admire, and even create pathways to group mem-berships. We manage impressions by such activities as associating with the rightpeople, dressing up and dressing down at the right times, making eye contact whenintroduced to someone, doing favors to gain approval, attering others to impressthem, taking credit for a favorable event and apologizing for a negative one, and agree-ing with the opinions of others.7

One of the most powerful forces in impression management today might be the oneleast recognizedhow we communicate our presence in the online world of socialmedia. It might even be the case that this short message deserves to go viral: User beware!Te brand you are building through social media may last a lifetime. For tips to remem-ber, check the sidebar on How to Build Your Personal Brand Trough Impression Man-agement in Social Networks. Its no secret that more and more employers are intensely scouring the Web to learnwhat they can about job candidates. What they are gathering are impressions left in thetrails of the candidates past social media journeys. One bad photo, one bad nickname, orone bad comment sends the wrong impression and can kill a great job opportunity. Weare creating impressions of ourselves whenever we are active in the online world. Teproblem is that those impressions may be fun in social space but harmful in professionalspace. Teres a lot to learn about impression management and social media. At a mini-mum it pays to keep the two social media spacesthe social and the professionalseparated with a good rewall between them.

Common Perceptual DistortionsL E A R N I N GR O A D M A P

SEREOYPES HALO EFFECS SELECIVE PERCEPIONPROJECION CONRAS EFFECS SELFFULFILLING PROPHECIES

Given the complexity of the information streaming toward us from various environ-ments, we use various means of simplifying and organizing our perceptions. However,these simplications can cause inaccuracies in our impressions and in the perceptionprocess more generally. Common perceptual distortions trace to the use of stereo-types, halo effects, selective perception, projection, contrast effects, and self-fulllingprophecies.

Stereotypes

One of the most common simplifying devices in perception is the stereotype. Itoccurs when we identify someone with a group or category, and then use the attri-butes perceived to be associated with the group or category to describe the individual.

Although this makes matters easier for us by reducing the need to deal with uniqueindividual characteristics, it is an oversimplication. Because stereotypes obscureindividual differences, we can easily end up missing the real individual. For managersthis means not accurately understanding the needs, preferences, and abilities of othersin the workplace.

Some of the most common stereotypes, at work and in life in general, relate tosuch factors as gender, age, race, and physical ability. Why are so few top executivesin industry African Americans or Hispanics? Legitimate questions can be askedabout racial and ethnic stereotypesand about the slow progress of minority managersinto Americas corporate mainstream.8Why is it that women constitute only a small

Astereotypeassignsattributes commonlyassociated with a group

to an individual.


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percentage of American managers sent abroad to work on international businessassignments? A Catalyst study of opportunities for women in global business pointstogender stereotypesthat place women at a disadvantage compared to men for thesetypes of opportunities. he tendency is to assume women lack the ability and/orwillingness to work abroad.9Gender stereotypes may cause even everyday behaviorto be misconstrued. For example, consider Hes talking with co-workers (Interpreta-tion: Hes discussing a new deal) and Shes talking with co-workers (Interpretation:Shes gossiping).10

Ability stereotypes and age stereotypes also exist in the workplace. Physically ormentally challenged candidates may be overlooked by a recruiter even though theypossess skil ls that are perfect for the job. A talented older worker may not be pro-moted because a manager assumes older workers are cautious and tend to avoidrisk.11 Yet a Conference Board survey of workers age 50 and older reports that 72percent felt they could take on additional responsibilities, and two-thirds were inter-ested in further training and development.12hen theres the flip side: Can a youngperson be a real leader, even a CEO? Facebooks founder and CEO Mark Zuckerbergis still in his twenties. When current CEO Sheryl Sandberg was being recruited fromGoogle, she admits to having had this thought: Wow, Im going to work for a CEOwho is quite young. Mark is a great leader, she now says. After working for him, herperception has changed. Mark has a real purity of vision. . . . He brings people alongwith him.13

Halo Effects

A halo effectoccurs when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop anoverall impression of that individual or situation. Like stereotypes, these distortions aremore likely to occur in the organization stage of perception. Halo effects are common inour everyday lives. When meeting a new person, for example, a pleasant smile can lead toa positive rst impression of an overall warm and honest person. Te result of a haloeffect is the same as that associated with a stereotype, however, in that individual differ-ences are obscured. Halo effects are particularly important in the performance appraisal processbecause they can inuence a managers evaluations of subordinates work perfor-mance. For example, people with good attendance records may be viewed as intelli-gent and responsible while those with poor attendance records are considered poorperformers. Such conclusions may or may not be valid. It is the managers job to try toget true impressions rather than allowing halo effects to result in biased and errone-ous evaluations.

Selective Perception

Selective perception is the tendency to single out those aspects of a situation,person, or object that are consistent with ones needs, values, or attitudes. Its stron-

gest impact occurs in the attention stage of the perceptual process. Tis perceptualdistortion was identied in a classic research study involving executives in a manu-facturing company.14 When asked to identify the key problem in a comprehensivebusiness policy case, each executive selected a problem consistent with his or herfunctional area work assignments. Most marketing executives viewed the key prob-lem area as sales, whereas production people tended to see the problem as one ofproduction and organization. Tese differing viewpoints would likely affect how eachexecutive would approach the problem; they might also create diffi culties as theexecutives tried to work together to improve things.

A halo effectuses oneattribute to develop an overallimpression of a person orsituation.

Selective perceptionis thetendency to dene problems

from ones own point of view.


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Common Perceptual Distortions

Projection

Projectionis the assignment of ones personal attributes to other individuals. It is espe-cially likely to occur in the interpretation stage of perception. A classic error is projectingyour needs, values, and views onto others. Tis causes their individual differences to get

lost. Such projection errors can be controlled through a high degree of self-awareness andempathythe ability to view a situation as others see it.

Suppose, for example, that you enjoy responsibility and achievement in your work.Suppose, too, that you are the newly appointed leader of a team whose jobs seem dulland routine. You may move quickly to expand these jobs so that members getincreased satisfaction from more challenging tasks. Basically, you want them to expe-rience what you value in work. However, this may not be a good decision. Instead ofdesigning team members jobs to best t their needs, you have designed their jobs tobest t yours.

Projectionassigns persoattributes to otherindividuals.

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

The consulting firm McKinsey & Company reports thatwomen are hired to fill more than 50 percent of profes-sional jobs in Americas large corporations. Then they start

leaking from the career pipeline. They hold 3 percent of CEO

positions, 14 percent of C-suite jobs, and 28 percent of direc-

tor positions on corporate boards. Thats the good news.

Data from the rest of the world are worse. Women hold just

13.7 percent of seats on corporate boards in Europe and

7.1 percent elsewhere in the world.

The low percentage of women serving at the top of cor-

porate hierarchy doesnt match well with data showing their

presence has a positive performance impact. A Millward

Brown Optimor study found that top global companies

with women on their boards showed 66 percent brandgrowth over a 5-year period and those with no female

board members had 6 percent brand growth. An Ernst &

Young study concludes, The undisputed conclusion from

all the research is that having more women at the top im-

proves financial performance. The report went on to say

that Performance increased significantly once a certain

critical mass was attained, namely at least three women on

management committees for an average membership of 10

people.

Rather than leave the future of female representation on

corporate boards to chance, Europe has started to consider

quotas. Norway, Spain, Iceland, and France have already

passed 40 percent quotas. When legislation requiring allEU-listed companies to appoint women to 40 percent of

nonexecutive board seats by 2020 was proposed by the

European Commission, it was later pulled for lack of sup-

port. Some member countries say they plan to file it again in

the future.

Not Enough Women on Board?Europe Turns to Quotas

A Heidrick & Struggles survey showed 51 percen

women directors supporting quotas like those appearin

Europe. Only 25 percent of men directors voiced si

support.

Do the AnalysisIs Europe on the right path with quotas to correct ge

disparities in corporate boards? Should this conversatiolimited to women in general? What about women of cWhat about other minoritiesmale or female? Whecomes to career advancement for women and minoritithe corporate world, is it time for quotas, or are we beoff waiting for changes to take a natural course?

Trista Weibell/iStock


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Contrast Effects

We mentioned earlier how a bright red sports car would stand out from a group of graysedans. Tis shows a contrast effectin which the meaning or interpretation of somethingis arrived at by contrasting it with a recently occurring event or situation. Tis form ofperceptual distortion can occur, say, when a person gives a talk following a strong speakeror is interviewed for a job following a series of mediocre applicants. A contrast effect

occurs when an individuals characteristics are contrasted with those of others recentlyencountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

Self-Fullling Prophecies

A nal perceptual distortion is the self-fullling prophecy: the tendency to create ornd in another situation or individual that which you expected to nd in the rst place.A self-fullling prophecy is sometimes referred to as the Pygmalion effect, named for amythical Greek sculptor who created a statue of his ideal mate and then made her cometo life.15

Self-fullling prophecies can have both positive and negative outcomes. In effect, theymay create in work and personal situations that which we expect to nd. Suppose youassume that team members prefer to satisfy most of their needs outside the work settingand want only minimal involvement with their jobs. Consequently, you assign simple,

A contrast effectoccurswhen the meaning ofsomething that takes place isbased on a contrast withanother recent event or

situation.

A self-fullling prophecyis creating or nding in asituation that which youexpected to nd in the rst

place.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Workers ReportViews on Ethical

Workplace ConductThese data on ethical workplace conduct are from asurvey conducted for Deloitte & Touche USA.

42 percent of workers say the behavior of their manag-

ers is a major influence on an ethical workplace.

Most common unethical acts by managers and supervi-

sors include verbal, sexual, and racial harassment, misuse

of company property, and giving preferential treatment.

Most workers consider it unacceptable to steal from

an employer, cheat on expense reports, take credit for

anothers accomplishments, and lie on time sheets. Most workers consider it acceptable to ask a work

colleague for a personal favor, take sick days when not

ill, and use company technology for personal affairs.

Top reasons for unethical behavior are lack of personal

integrity (80 percent) and lack of job satisfaction

(60 percent). Among workers, 91 percent are more likely to behave

ethically when they have worklife balance; 30 percent

say they suffer from poor worklife balance.

Whose Ethics Count? Shouldnt an individual be accountable for her or his own ethical reasoning andanalysis? How and why is it that the ethics practices of others, including managers, influence our ethics behaviors?

What can be done to strengthen peoples confidence in their own ethical frameworks so that even bad management

wont result in unethical practices?

Izvorinka Jankovic/iStockphoto


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Perception, Attribution, and Social Learning

highly structured tasks designed to require little involvement. Can you predict whatresponse they will have to this situation? In fact, they may show the very same lack ofcommitment you assumed they would have in the rst place. In this case your initialexpectations get conrmed as a negative self-fullling prophecy.

Self-fullling prophecies can also have a positive side. In a study of army tankcrews, one set of tank commanders was told that some members of their assignedcrews had exceptional abilities whereas others were only average. However, the crewmembers had been assigned randomly so that the two test groups were equal in abil-ity. Te commanders later reported that the so-called exceptional crew membersperformed better than the average ones. Te study also revealed that the command-ers had given more attention and praise to the crew members for whom they had thehigher expectations.16Dont you wonder what might happen with students and work-ers in general if teachers and managers adopted more uniformly positive and optimis-tic approaches toward them?

Perception, Attribution,

and Social LearningL E A R N I N GR O A D M A P

IMPORANCE OF ARIBUIONS ARIBUION ERROR SARIBUION AND SOCIAL LE ARNING

One of the ways in which perception exerts its inuence on behavior is through

attribution. Tis is the process of developing explanations or assigning perceived causesfor events. It is natural for people to try to explain what they observe and what happensto them. What happens when you perceive that someone in a job or student group isntperforming up to expectations? How do you explain this? And, depending on the expla-nation, what do you do to try and correct things?

Importance of AttributionsAttribution theor y helps us understand how people perceive the causes of events,assess responsibility for outcomes, and evaluate the personal qualities of the peopleinvolved.17It is especially concerned with whether the assumption is that an individ-uals behavior, such as poor performance, has been internally or externally caused.Internal causes are believed to be under an individuals controlyou believe Jakesperformance is poor because he is lazy. External causes are seen as coming fromoutside a personyou believe Kellies performance is poor because the software shesusing is out of date. According to attribution theory, three factors inuence this internal or externaldetermination of causality: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.Distinctivenessconsiders how consistent a persons behavior is across different situations. If Jakes

performance is typically low, regardless of the technology with which he is working, wetend to assign the poor performance to an internal attributiontheres somethingwrong with Jake. If the poor performance is unusual, we tend to assign an externalcause to explain ittheres something happening in the work context. Consensustakesinto account how likely all those facing a similar situation are to respond in the sameway. If all the people using the same technology as Jake perform poorly, we tend toassign his performance problem to an external attribution. If others do not performpoorly, we attribute Jakes poor performance to internal causation. Consistency con-cerns whether an individual responds the same way across time. If Jake performspoorly over a sustained period of time, we tend to give the poor performance an

Attributionis the procesof creating explanationsfor events.


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internal attribution. If his low performance is an isolated incident, we may well attri-bute it to an external cause.

Attribution ErrorsPeople often fall prey to perception errors when making attributions about what causedcertain events.18Look, for example, at the data reported in Figure 3.2. When executiveswere asked to attribute causes of poor performance among their subordinates, theymost often blamed internal deciencies of the individuallack of ability and effort,rather than external deciencies in the situationlack of support. Tis demonstrateswhat is known as fundamental attribution errorthe tendency to underestimate theinuence of situational factors and to overestimate the inuence of personal factorswhen evaluating someone elses behavior. When asked to identify causes of their ownpoor performance, however, the executives mostly cited lack of supportan external,or situational, deciency. Tis demonstrates self-serving biasthe tendency to denypersonal responsibility for performance problems but to accept personal responsibility

for performance success. Te managerial implications of attribution errors trace back to the fact that percep-tions inuence behavior.19For example, a team leader who believes that members arenot performing well and perceives the reason to be an internal lack of effort is likely torespond with attempts to motivate them to work harder. Te possibility of changingexternal, situational factors that may remove job constraints and provide better organi-zational support may be largely ignored. Tis oversight could sacrice major perfor-mance gains for the team.

Attribution and Social Learning

Perception and attribution are important components in social learning theory, which

describes how learning takes place through the reciprocal interactions among people,

Fundamental attributionerroroverestimates internalfactors and underestimatesexternal factors as inuenceson someones behavior.

Self-serving bias

underestimates internalfactors and overestimatesexternal factors as inuenceson someones behavior.

Social learning theorydescribes how learningoccurs through interactionsamong people, behavior, andenvironment.

FIGURE 3.2 Attributionerrors by executives whenexplaining poor performanceby others and themselves.

Cause of PoorPerformance

by Themselves

FewFewMany

Most FrequentAttribution

Lack of abilityLack of effortLack of support

Cause of PoorPerformance by

Others

ManyManyFew

Bias against Black LeadersFound on the Football Field

Are black leaders at a disadvantage when leadership

success is evaluated? The answer is yes according

to research reported in the Acad emy of Management

Journal.

Scholars Andrew M. Carton and Ashleigh ShelbyRosette studied how the performance of football

quarterbacks was reported in the news. They found

that successful performances by black quarterbacks

were attributed in news articles less often to the

players competence, such as

making decisions under

pressure, and more often to

factors that made up for

incompetence, such as having

the speed to get away. The

researchers expressed concern

that black leaders may suffer

from poor career advance-

ment because of biased

evaluations. Sportschrome/NewsCom


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Perception, Attribution, and Social Learning

behavior, and environment. According to the work of Albert Bandura, an individual usesmodeling or vicarious learning to acquire behavior by observing and imitating others.20Ina work situation, the model may be a higher manager or co-worker who demonstratesdesired behaviors. Mentors or senior workers who befriend younger and more inexperi-enced protgs can also be important models. Indeed, some have argued that a shortage

of mentors for women in senior management has been a major constraint to their pro-gression up the career ladder.21

he symbolic processes shown in Figure 3.3 are important in social learning.Words and symbols used by managers and others in the workplace help communi-cate values, beliefs, and goals and thus serve as guides to an individuals behavior.For example, a thumbs up or other signal from the boss lets you know your behav-ior is appropriate. At the same time, the persons self-control is important in inf lu-encing his or her own behavior. And self-efficacythe persons belief that he or shecan perform adequately in a situationis an important part of such self-control.Closely associated with the concept of self-efficacy are such terms as confidence,competence, and ability.22

People with high self-effi cacy believe that they have the necessary abilities for a

given job, that they are capable ofthe effort required, and that nooutside events will hinder themfrom attaining their desiredperformance level.23 In contrast,people with low self-effi cacybelieve that no matter how hardthey try, they cannot managetheir environment well enoughto be successful. If you feel highself-effi cacy as a student, a lowgrade on one test is likely to

encourage you to study harder,talk to the instructor, or do otherthings to enable you to do wellthe next time. In contrast, aperson low in self-effi cacy wouldprobably drop the course or giveup studying. Of course, even peo-ple who are high in self-effi cacydo not control their environmententirely.

FIGURE 3.3 Simplified model of social learning.

Symbolic ProcessesVerbal/mental imageshelp guide behavior

Self-controlSelf-efcacy controlsbehavior

Modeling behavior

acquired by observingand imitating others

Behavior Environment

Scholars generally recognize the following four ways of building or enhancin

our self-effi cacy:

1. Enactive masterygaining condence through positive experience. T

more you work at a task, so to speak, the more your experience builds an

the more condent you become at doing it.

2. Vicarious modelinggaining condence by observing others. When someon

else is good at a task and we are able to observe how they do it, we gain con

dence in being able to do it ourselves.3. Verbal persuasiongaining confidence from someone telling us o

encouraging us that we can perform the task. Hearing others praise ou

efforts and link those efforts with performance successes is often very

motivational.

4. Emotional arousalgaining condence when we are highly stimulate

or energized to perform well in a situation. A good analogy for arousal i

how athletes get psyched up and highly motivated to perform in key

competitions.

Four Ways to Build or Enhance Self-Efficacy


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Learning by Reinforcement

rewards immediately upon completing a casting that has no cracks or gaps. In this way

behavior is shaped gradually rather than changed all at once.

Scheduling Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement can be given oneither continuous or intermittent schedules. Continuous reinforcementadministers a

reward each time a desired behavior occurs, whereas intermittent reinforcement

rewards behavior only periodically. In general, continuous reinforcement draws forth a

desired behavior more quickly than does intermittent reinforcement. However, it is easily

extinguished when reinforcement is no longer present. Behavior acquired under inter-

mittent reinforcement is more resistant to extinction and lasts longer upon the discon-

tinuance of reinforcement. Tis is why shaping typically begins with a continuous rein-

forcement schedule and then gradually shifts to an intermittent one.

Figure 3.4 shows that intermittent reinforcement can be given according to xed or

variable schedules. Variable schedules typically result in more consistent patterns of

desired behavior than do xed reinforcement schedules.Fixed-interval schedulesprovide

Continuous reinforcem

administers a reward eacha desired behavior occurs

Intermittent reinforcem

rewards behavior onlyperiodically.

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Positive

Reinforcement andBig Bang TheoryLearning is an important part of an individuals devel-

opment. In the workplace, reinforcement can be used

to help employees learn proper behavior. Through the

principle of operant conditioning, reinforcement uses

consequences to help mold the behavior of others.

In one episode of The Big Bang Theory, Leonard,

Penny, and Sheldon are watching anime on television.

Penny is bored with a show she does not understand

and begins to tell a story about a high school class-mate named Anna Mae. Sheldon uses chocolate to

get her to stop talking. Later, when Pennys cell phone

rings, Sheldon again uses chocolate to get Penny to

take the call in the hallway. Leonard discovers the

tactic and forbids Sheldon from experimenting with

Penny. Sheldon then sprays Leonard with a water

bottle (punishment).

The episode is hilarious yet serious. It demonstrahow easily behavior can be influenced through t

proper application of operant conditioning techniqu

However, its important to remember that what works

one point in time may not work at another. If Sheld

continues to give Penny chocolates, for example, w

she eventually lose her desire for them and t

reinforcement will no longer be effective?

Get to Know Yourself Better Take Assessment 12, The Downside of Punishment, in the OB SkWorkbook. Have you ever experienced punishment as a student or an employee? What was your reaction? Ha

you ever seen a boss punish an employee in front of co-workers or customers? Is this an effective way to chanbehavior? If you were a teacher, how would you handle a behavior problem with a studentsuch as unwanted t

messaging in class?

Cliff Lipson/CBS/Getty Ima


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rewards at the rst appearance of a behavior after a given time has elapsed. Fixed-ratioschedulesresult in a reward each time a certain number of the behaviors have occurred.A variable-interval schedulerewards behavior at random times, whereas a variable-ratioschedulerewards behavior after a random number of occurrences.

Negative Reinforcement

A second reinforcement strategy in operant conditioning is negative reinforcementoravoidance learning. It uses the withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the like-lihood of desirable behavior being repeated. An example might be the manager regularlynags a worker about being late for work and then doesnt nag when the worker nextshows up on time. Te term negative reinforcementcomes from this withdrawal of thenegative consequences. Te strategy is also called avoidance learningbecause its intentis for the person to avoid the negative consequence by performing the desired behavior.Tink of it this way. Even when the streets are deserted, we still stop at red lights to avoidgetting a traffi c ticket.

Punishment

Unlike positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement which are intended to encour-age desired behavior, punishmentintends to discourage undesirable behavior. It is theadministration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences toreduce the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Evidence does show that punishment administered for poor performance can lead tobetter performance. Yet, when punishment is perceived as arbitrary and capricious, itleads to low satisfaction and low performance.32Te lesson here and highlighted in theHow to Make Positive Reinforcement and Punishment Work for You sidebar is thatpunishment can be handled poorly, or it can be handled well. If it is necessary to usepunishment as a reinforcement strategy, be sure to do it well.

Negative reinforcementstrengthens a behavior bymaking the avoidance of anundesirable consequencecontingent on its occurrence.

Punishmentdiscourages abehavior by making anunpleasant consequencecontingent on its occurrence.

FIGURE 3.4 Alternative ways to schedule positive reinforcement.

Fixed interval

Reinforcer given after a given timeWeekly or monthly paychecksRegularly scheduled exams

Fixed ratio

Reinforcer given after a given number of behavior occurrencesPiece-rate payCommissioned salespeople: certain amount is given for each dollar of sales

Variable interval

Reinforcer given at random timesOccasional praise by boss on unscheduled visitsUnspecified number of pop quizzes to students

Variable ratio

Reinforcer given after a random number of behavior occurrencesRandom quality checks with praise for zero defectsCommissioned salespeople: a varying number of calls are required to obtain a given sale

Interval Ratio

Fixed

Variable

Time-based Behavior occurrencebased


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Study Guide

Its also worth noting that punishment may beoffset by positive reinforcement received fromanother source. ake the case of someone beingpositively reinforced by peers at the same time ashe or she is receiving punishment from a boss,parent, or teacher. Sometimes the positive value ofpeer support is so great that the individual choosesto put up with punishment and continues the badbehavior. As many times as a child may be verballyreprimanded by a teacher for playing jokes, forexample, the grins offered by classmates maykeep the jokes owing in the future.

Extinction

Te nal reinforcement strategy is extinctionthewithdrawal of reinforcing consequences in order toweaken undesirable behavior. For example, Enya isoften late for work and co-workers provide positive

reinforcement by covering for her. Te managerinstructs Enyas co-workers to stop covering, thuswithdrawing the positive consequences of her tardiness. Tis is a use of extinction to tryand get rid of an undesirable behavior. Still, even though a successful extinction strategydecreases the frequency of or weakens behavior, the behavior is not unlearned. It simply isnot exhibited and will reappear if reinforced again.

Reinforcement Pros and Cons

Te effective use of the four reinforcement strategies presented in these pages can help inthe management of human behavior at work, but their use is not without criticism. 33

A major criticism is that using reinforcement to inuence human behavior is demeaningand dehumanizing.34Another criticism is that it becomes too easy for managers to abusethe power of their positions when they exert this type of external control over individualbehavior. Advocates of the reinforcement approach attack its critics head on. Tey agree thatbehavior modication involves the control of behavior, but they also argue that such con-trol is an irrevocable part of every managers job. Te real question, they say, is how toensure that the reinforcement strategies are done in positive and constructive ways.35

Extinctiondiscourages abehavior by making theremoval of a desirableconsequence contingent its occurrence.

Positive Reinforcement

Clearly identify desired work behaviors.

Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards. Inform everyone what must be done to get rewards.

Recognize individual differences when allocating rewards.

Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcemen

Punishment

ell the person what is being done wrong.

ell the person what is being done right.

Make sure the punishment matches the behavior.

Administer the punishment in private.

Follow the laws of immediate and contingent reinforcemen

How to Make Positive Reinforcementand Punishment Work for You

Key Questions and AnswersWhat is perception, and why is it important?

Individuals use the perception process to select, organize, interpret, and retrieve infor-mation from the world around them.

Perception acts as a lter through which all communication passes as it travels fromone person to the next.

Study Guide3


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Because people tend to perceive things differently, the same situation may be interpretedand responded to differently by different people.

Factors inuencing perceptions include characteristics of the perceiver, the setting,and the perceived.

What are the common perceptual distortions?

Stereotypes occur when a person is identied with a category and is assumed to displaycharacteristics otherwise associated with members of that category.

Halo effects occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop anoverall impression of the person or situation.

Selective perception is the tendency to single out for attention those aspects of a situa-tion or person that reinforce or emerge and are consistent with existing beliefs, values,and needs.

Projection involves the assignment of personal attributes to other individuals. Contrast effects occur when an individuals characteristics are contrastedwith those of others recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the samecharacteristics.

What is the link between perception, attribution,and social learning?

Attribution theory addresses tendencies to view events or behaviors as primarily theresults of external causes or internal causes.

Tree factors that inuence the attribution of external or internal causation are distinc-tiveness, consensus, and consistency.

Fundamental attribution error occurs when we blame others for performance prob-lems while excluding possible external causes.

Self-serving bias occurs when, in judging our own performance, we take personal creditfor successes and blame failures on external factors.

Social learning theory links perception and attribution by recognizing how learningis achieved through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, andenvironment.

What is involved in learning by reinforcement?

Reinforcement theory recognizes that behavior is inuenced by environmentalconsequences.

Te law of effect states that behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to berepeated; behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated.

Positive reinforcement is the administration of positive consequences that tend toincrease the likelihood of a persons repeating a behavior in similar settings.

Positive reinforcement should be contingent and immediate, and it can be scheduledcontinuously or intermittently depending on resources and desired outcomes. Negative reinforcement, or avoidance learning, is used to encourage desirable behav-

ior through the withdrawal of negative consequences for previously undesirablebehavior.

Punishment is the administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal ofpositive consequences to reduce the likelihood of an undesirable behavior beingrepeated.

Extinction is the withdrawal of reinforcing consequences to weaken or eliminate anundesirable behavior.


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Self-Test 3

Self-Test 3

Multiple Choice

1. Perception is the process by which people ____________ and interpret information.

(a) generate (b) retrieve

(c) transmit (d) verify

2. When an individual attends to only a small portion of the vast information availablein the environment, this tendency in the perception process is called ____________.

(a) interpretation (b) self scripting (c) attribution (d) selective screening

3. Self-serving bias is a form of attribution error that involves ____________.

(a) blaming yourself for problems caused by others

(b) blaming the environment for problems you caused

(c) poor emotional intelligence

(d) low self-effi cacy

4. In fundamental attribution error, the inuence of ____________ as causes of aproblem are ___________.

(a) situational factors, overestimated (b) personal factors, underestimated

(c) personal factors, overestimated

(d) situational factors, underestimated

5. If a new team leader changes tasks for persons on his or her work team mainlybecause I would prefer to work the new way rather than the old, she may be com-mitting a perceptual error known as ____________.

(a) halo effect (b) stereotype

(c) selective perception (d) projection

Terms to KnowAttribution (p. 61)

Classical conditioning(p. 64)

Continuous reinforcement(p. 67)

Contrast effect (p. 60)

Extinction (p. 69)

Extrinsic rewards (p. 65)

Fundamental attributionerror (p. 62)

Halo effect (p. 58)

Impression management(p. 56)

Intermittent reinforcement(p. 67)

Law of contingentreinforcement (p. 65)

Law of effect (p. 65)

Law of immediatereinforcement (p. 65)

Negative reinforcement(p. 68)

Operant conditioning (p. 64)

Organizational behaviormodication (p. 65)

Perception (p. 52)

Positive reinforcement(p. 65)

Projection (p. 59)

Prototype (p. 55)

Punishment (p. 68)

Reinforcement (p. 64)

Schemas (p. 54)

Selective perception (p. 58)Selective screening (p. 53)

Self-fullling prophecy(p. 60)

Self-serving bias (p. 62)

Shaping (p. 65)

Social learning theory(p. 62)

Stereotype (p. 57)


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6. Use of special dress, manners, gestures, and vocabulary words when meeting aprospective employer in a job interview are all examples of how people use____________.

(a) projection

(b) selective perception

(c) impression management

(d) self-serving bias

7. Te perceptual tendency known as a/an ____________ is associated with thePygmalion effect and refers to nding or creating in a situation that which wasoriginally expected.

(a) self-effi cacy (b) projection

(c) self-fullling prophecy (d) halo effect

8. If a manager allows one characteristic of a person, say a pleasant personality, tobias performance ratings of that individual overall, the manager is falling prey to aperceptual distortion known as ____________.

(a) halo effect (b) stereotype

(c) selective perception (d) projection

9. Te underlying premise of reinforcement theory is that ____________.

(a) behavior is a function of environment

(b) motivation comes from positive expectancy

(c) higher-order needs stimulate hard work

(d) rewards considered unfair are de-motivators

10. Te law of ____________ states that behavior followed by a positive consequence islikely to be repeated, whereas behavior followed by an undesirable consequence isnot likely to be repeated.

(a) reinforcement (b) contingency (c) goal setting (d) effect

11. ____________ is a positive reinforcement strategy that rewards successive approx-imations to a desirable behavior.

(a) Extinction (b) Negative reinforcement

(c) Shaping (d) Merit pay

12. B. F. Skinner would argue that getting a paycheck on Friday reinforces a person forcoming to work on Friday but would not reinforce the person for doing an extra-ordinary job on uesday. Tis is because the Friday paycheck fails the law of____________ reinforcement.

(a) negative (b) continuous (c) immediate (d) intermittent

13. Te purpose of negative reinforcement as an operant conditioning technique is to____________.

(a) punish bad behavior

(b) discourage bad behavior

(c) encourage desirable behavior

(d) offset the effects of shaping


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Documents

Wiley Organizational Behavior - Chapter 3 - 13th Edition