Wildfires and their effects on potable water systems

Andrew J. Whelton, Ph.D. Civil, Environmental, and Ecological Engineering

awhelton@purdue.edu

EOCP September 2021

www.PlumbingSafety.org

Water Safety and Disasters

Infrastructure Construction and Repair Technologies

Waste Materials and Management Solutions

Our Focus

Corporation Stop

Water Main(metal or plastic)

Watermeter

WATER UTILITY

RESPONSIBILITY

Utility Service Line (metal or plastic)

Street

Fire Hydrant

[sometimes other water sources]

Property Service Line (metal or plastic)

Commercial

BUILDING

PLUMBING

PROPERTY OWNER RESPONSIBILITY

Backflow preventer (maybe)

EOCP September 2021

Natural disasters affect 1,000s of communities each year prompting microbial and chemical risks

WildfiresDroughts

FloodsTornadoesSnow & Ice

Tropical StormsSevere Storms

Hurricanes

EnvironmentAmerica.org

4EOCP September 2021

Sediment and Scales

Piping and Tubing Types, and Coatings Plastics can Uptake Organic ChemicalsBiofilms

Julien et al. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1177

Residential Systems

Service line (single vs. shared)POE/POU devices

Central vs. on-demand water heaters

Recirculation loopsIrrigation

Mixing valvesFixture types and internalsFaucet gaskets and aerators

2015 Study: Flushing as a plumbing decontamination approach for chemical contamination

https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EW00118H

Decontaminating chemically

contaminated residential

premise plumbing systems by

flushingDownload FREE here:

Minimal data available on flushing protocol design and effectiveness.

Plumbing design, operational conditions, contaminants present and their

properties, as well as building inhabitant safety have not been fully considered in

flushing protocol design.

EOCP September 2021

When you look back at U.S. incidents, flushing guidance for single family homes varied

drastically, would likely not work, nor was it followed up with confirmatory sampling

Surfactant-Plastic Interactions are Not Trivial

Huang et al. 2017. The interaction of surfactants with plastic and copper plumbing

materials during decontamination. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.067

Casteloes et al. 2016. Crude oil contamination of plastic and copper

drinking water pipes. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.06.015

EPDM Gaskets

Surfactant Liquids

Alconox (●)

MAG (*)

Dawn (▲)

Tap (■)

PVC Pipes

PE Pipes

Not Considered: VOCs Diffuse In and Out of Plastic Plumbing Slowly

4 out of the 5 largest wildfires in California on record occurred in 2020

But, the deadliest, most destructive wildfires did not occur in 2020

1. October 2017 Tubbs Fire Sonoma and Napa Counties 22 fatalities

2. November 2018 Camp Fire Butte County 85 fatalities

In California alone, 2.7+ million people live in very high fire hazard severity zones. WUI – Wildland Urban Interface

Water Heater

U.S. wildfires burned 10 million+ acres (40,406 km2) in 2020

U.S. fire season hoped to end 3 months from now

Communities destroyed and in the news (globally)

• Greenville, CA

• Canyondam, CA

• Lytton, BC CAN

• Outside Athens, GRC

• Inside TUR

Many communities not mentioned in the news

In 2021, U.S. wildfires burned 5.5 million+ acres thus far

https://www.nifc.gov/fire-information/statistics

Wildfires have profound impacts on health, safety, and economic prosperity

Hazardous waste levels of benzene in drinking water. More VOCs, SVOCs above safe limits.

Sources: Smoke and plastics thermal degradation

Some plumbing plastics uptake chemicals and leach them back out making clean water unsafe

EOCP September 2021

Our March 2020 Study: Lessons Learned from the 2017 Tubbs Fire and 2018 Camp Fire

https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1183

Wildfire caused widespread

drinking water distribution

network contamination

Download FREE here:

VOCs and SVOCs present, levels can exceed

hazardous waste limits (40,000 ppb benzene, etc.)

Do Not Use water order should be issued

Protect homeowners and their plumbing

EOCP September 2021

Public Water Systems (% Homes Gone) Population Source Water

Paradise Irrigation District (PID) (-96%) 26,032 Surface

Del Oro Water Company (DOWC) – Paradise Pines (-38%) 11,324 Surface

DOWC – Lime Saddle (-50%) 1,106 Surface

DOWC – Magalia (-89%) 924 Ground

DOWC – Stirling Bluffs (0%) 548 Surface

DOWC – Buzztail (-34%) 106 Ground

Foothill Solar Community 180 Ground

Forest Ranch Mobile Home Park 25 Ground

Forest Ranch Mutual Water Company 92 Ground

Gran Mutual Water Company 202 Ground

Humboldt Woodlands Mutual Water Company 75 Ground

Meadowbrook Oaks Mobile Home Park 50 Ground

Mountain Village Homeowners Association 40 Ground

Boil water advisories were issued to 40,000 people

Private wells13,227 exist in Butte County

2,438 wells in Camp Fire area

November 8, 2018 Camp Fire

CalOES, SWRCB, BCHD, FEMA, PID, DOWC, Town, CalFire did not understand how to proceed

< 50 samples had been collected by PID & DOWC

Benzene testing only; State assumed benzene was the only chemical present

Our onsite recommendations:

• Find out what’s in the water (not just benzene)

• Reevaluate water use restrictions

• Isolate Test (72hr) Decon/replace

• Population in homes needs help, they were left to fend for themselves

February 2019:3 day visit and briefing, called us 3 months post-fire

Damage

Standing homes were scattered throughout

the contaminated water systems: PID Example

PID Pressure Zones vs. Standing Structures

2 sources

1 treatment plant

7 pressure zones

172 miles of buried pipe

PVC (35%)

Steel (33%)

CML (19%)

AC (10%)

Irons (6%)

1,400 fire hydrants

10,600 service lines and

meters

Cu, Brass, GIP,

GSP, HDPE, PB

11,000+ homes

Chemical that

Exceeded a

Drinking Water

Limit

2018 Camp Fire (8 months after the fire) 2017 Tubbs Fire (11 months after the fire)

PID DOWC Exceedance Santa Rosa

Max,

ppb

Max,

ppb

Exceeded

Long-Term

Limit?

Exceeded

Short-Term

Limit?

Max,

ppb

Exceeded Long-

Term Limit?

Exceeded

Short-Term

Limit?

Benzene >2,217 530 Yes Yes 40,000 Yes Yes

Methylene chloride 45 NA Yes No 41 Yes No

Naphthalene 693 NA Yes Yes 6,800 Yes Yes

Styrene 378 NA Yes No 460 Yes No

Tert-butyl alcohol 13 NA Yes - 29 Yes -

Toluene 676 NA Yes No 1,130 Yes No

Vinyl chloride 1 NA Yes No 16 Yes NoLong-term limit for an adult for 70 yearsShort-term (1 day) limit for a 1 year old child

Drinking Water Distribution System Impacts500 ppb benzene – U.S. Federal RCRA hazardous waste limit

AWWA Water Science, Proctor et al. 2020https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1183

Possible Primary Sources

1. In-situ plastic thermal decomposition (PVC pipes, HDPE pipes, PB pipes, gaskets, meter components, etc.)

2. Contaminated air/materials drawn into depressurized system

3. Contaminated water from building plumbing drawn into compromised distribution system

Confirmed Secondary SourcesPartitioning/Adsorption/Absorption:

Water MaterialSee video at

www.PlumbingSafety.org

EOCP September 2021

December 2020 Study: Thermally damaged plastic pipes can be a source of water contamination

https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EW00836B

Drinking water contamination

from the thermal degradation of

plastics: implications for wildfire

and structure fire responseDownload FREE here:

Heating new HDPE, PEX, PVC, CPVC, and PP

pipes < Tdeg generated VOCs and SVOCs

Benzene was generated by all pipes except PP

Once plastic cooled, chemicals leached into water

EOCP September 2021

Science was applied to some water distribution

system testing and decontamination decisions,

but more work is needed

Numerical modeling:Greater than 286 days vs.

less than 64 days ofcontinuous water flushing

for 1-inch HDPE service line

Water Distribution SystemDecontamination

Collaboration between Us & USEPAHydraulics

Polymer ScienceEnvironmental Engineering

(Haupert et al. 2019)

https://engineering.purdue.edu/PlumbingSafety/opinions/Final-HDPE-Service-Line-Decontamination-2019-03-18.pdf

Chemicals can sorb into and leach from water system materials including plumbing components

For water samples, Stagnation Time is

needed

Before you collect a water sample you

must allow the chemicals to leach

out into water.

Watch the video at https://youtu.be/ythX2fP3-S4How chemicals contaminate plastic pipes and drinking water

In-home testing was conducted 11 months

after the fire

125 homes: PID (101), Del Oro (24)First draw, kitchen sink cold water only,

12+ hr stagnation.Looked for more than benzene

2 homes: benzene found, and less than 1 ppb CA MCL (11 months later)

4 homes: methylene chloride exceeded USEPA 5 ppb MCL (max. 9.2 ppb)

THF found above other state limits (no CA or federal limit)

Unclear home location or plumbing system type (plastic vs. metal)

Not statistically representative, homeowner service lines not tested

Hot water systems are separate, where inhalation exposure occurs, but were not tested

Testing needs to occur as soon as possible. We recommended this 8 months earlier.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04714-9

Water safety attitudes, risk perception, experiences, and

education for households impacted by the 2018 Camp Fire

Critical Public Health Issues

1) Water use restrictions,

2) Plumbing sampling and

testing,

3) Plumbing decontamination

methods and validation,

4) Water tank selection and

maintenance,

5) In-home treatment device

selection and maintenance,

and

6) Plumbing design and

material selection for property

repairs and new construction.

Natural Hazards, Published May 2021

Q: Should in-home POU water filtration devices be used to treat wildfire contaminated drinking water? Water Collected

and Analyze

Preliminary Results, ppb

Benzene Toluene Ethyl Benzene Xylene

Entering the filter 713 911 87 212

Exiting the filter

1 L 20 15 3 4

1.5 L 33 30 5 9

2 L 47 46 6 11

3 L 64 75 10 21

3.5 L 62 75 10 20

4 L 24 22 4 5

4.5 L 87 98 11 21

5 L 37 37 5 8In 2019, CA OEHHA concluded that short-term 26 ppb benzene exposure would prompt an increased risk of blood effects in children such as a decrease in lymphocytes and white blood cells; Benzene has a 5 ppb Federal MCL, 1 ppb CA MCL

The devices are NOTdesigned for this.

The range of contamination must be known + testing.

EOCP September 2021

Camp Fire: ‘Standing Home’ Public Health IssuesCitizens must be warned and protected from contaminated water

• State officials told people to SMELL (not test) water to determine if its safe

• 2 systems contaminated --- no water restrictions (max. 530 ppb benzene)

• Some Paradise customers did not follow water use restrictions

• Home testing guidance by agencies defied hydraulics and chemistry

• Labs told people to flush taps for 10-15 min BEFORE taking water sample

Contaminated water entered home plumbing for 6+ months

• Benzene found in homes by residents, State said they had no knowledge (because they didn’t credibly sample)

• Utilities were still trying to identify their contaminated assets

• Checkerboard recovery: Loss of pressure (main break, leak) could move contaminated water into a standing home service line

Plumbing received 6+ months of contaminated waterCold and hot water systems became nonpotableTrunk-and-branch vs. homerun designsIn-home treatment devices (est. $7 million)Paying for water testing, results not representativeExternal water tank maintenance and microbiological growthSome have no economic capacity to purchase bottled water, devices

Insurance companies made decisions (not USEPA, State or health department) about in-home treatment

Recommended for private wells

Bacteria, heavy metals, PAHs, VOCs, SVOCs

72 hr stagnation on well

2020 CZU Lightning Complex FireSLVWD 42 ppb benzene + more (Yes bathe, no wait don’t bathe)BBWC 1.8 ppb benzene + more

2020 LNU Lightning Complex FireNapa 31 chems, other systems…

2020 Oregon FiresPhoenix, Talent, Gates, Detroit, ….

No SVOC testing Private well testing data not found

BWAs issued, then lifted, then tested, then found VOC contamination

Oregon’s 2020 policy for wildfire response was an upgrade from

2019 California’s policy

County health departments initially

did not mention VOCs and SVOCs… still

missed stagnation

EOCP September 2021

At least 7 PWSs contaminated in Oregon as of May 10, 2021 VOCs were the sole focus; EPA method 524.2 for VOCs was applied for all samples

No data was found for SVOC testing. It was likely never conducted.Vinyl chloride and MTBE exceeded federal MCLs in water samples when there was NO benzene.

Methylene chloride was not reported above the 5 ppb MCL

Oregon 2020 Fires - Regulated Contaminants

CA OEHHA concluded that 26 ppb benzene in drinking water would prompt an increased risk of blood effects in children such as a decrease in lymphocytes and white blood cells

EOCP September 2021

Oregon 2020 Fires: Non-Regulated Contaminants

Potential sources: Organic solvents and used in plastic manufactureMEK exceeded the US EPA 1-day health advisory level

(138,000 ppb found in the absence of benzene)No OR or CA advisory levels for these chemicals, but exceeded some for other states

All compounds found in samples with and without benzene

EOCP September 2021

Knowing What We Know….

How Should we Proceed with Well and Plumbing Inspection and Testing?

We compiled the best advice from the Oregon Health Agency, Santa Cruz Health Department, Butte County Health Department, and water testing evidence as of 2021

EOCP September 2021

We created 2 page inspection and water testing guidance for private wells and

building water systems

Access here [Click]

EOCP September 2021

Example single family home / trunk and branch design with a centralized water heater

Point-of-Entry

Basement

1st floor

2nd floor

Outdoorspigot

WaterTreatment

Device

WaterHeater

WashingMachine

Kitchensink

Barsink

Bathroomsink

Bathroom shower

Bathroomsink

Bathroom Showerhead, wand, tub spot

Laundrysink

Dishwasher

Refrigerator

Cold and hot water flow through separate pipes

Some locations are downstream from others,

but branch off into separate pipes

A whole house water treatment device may or

may not be present

EOCP September 2021

Bathroom Showerhead, wand, tub spot

Example single family home / PEX manifold plumbing design and centralized water heater

Basement

1st floor

2nd floor

Outdoorspigot

Water Treatment

Device

WaterHeater

WashingMachine

Kitchensink

Barsink

Bathroom shower

Bathroomsink

Laundrysink

Dishwasher

Refrigerator

Cold and hot water flow through separate pipesEach fixture has it’s own isolated pipeNo two pipes convey the same water

Co-located shutoff location for all each fixtureSmaller diameter pipes compared to T/B design

Bathroomsink

EOCP September 2021

Household emergency water sources

• Bottled water donated; purchased at stores (cost to household)

• Trucked in water and fill cans at centralized locations

• In-home water treatment (capital cost $3k to $12k)

No, unless you know the type and range of concentrations entering buildings

NSF International certified devices are NOT designed for chemical disasters

Monthly validation testing recommended (reoccurring costs)

• Water storage tank connects to plumbing (cost $4k to $5k)

Deliver periodically (1x/2 weeks?); cost $200 to $500 twice per month

Are water haulers delivering confirmed safe water?

Who’s monitoring water quality deterioration as water sits in tanks (sun)?

Don’t forget pets, plants, livestock, and landscaping demands.

EOCP September 2021

TOPICS1. Wildfire VOC

Contamination Sources2. Sampling and Analysis3. Addressing the VOC Issue4. Mutual Aid and Funding

for VOC Sampling, Analysis, and Remedies

5. References

Released September 2021

EOCP September 2021

Wildfire-Impacted Domestic Well Testing: Domestic Well Safety

EOCP September 2021

NEW: Building Water Essentials – Public Health10 Hour, Online Short-Course

If interested e-mail awhelton@purdue.edu

Info and registration: https://cutt.ly/Sg4RXJv

Input from practicing engineers, scientists, utilities and public health officials.

A training tool, an encyclopedia, and an

extensive FAQ, designed to be immediately

applicable in the field.

Modules do not have to be taken in sequence.

.

Online short-course Plumbing education videos Flushing plans Plumbing explainers List of projects Scientific opinions Resources presentations Scientific reports External plumbing docs YouTube Channel

Thank you.

Andrew Whelton, Ph.D. awhelton@purdue.edu @TheWheltonGroup

www.PlumbingSafety.org

10 hr, 1 CEU, Self-paced, Online

Building Water Essentials Short-Course:https://engineering.purdue.edu/online/certifications/b

uilding-water-essentials

EOCP September 2021