Upload
lytuyen
View
217
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
A Message from the Director
July 1, 2003
Dear Educator,
Colorado is a unique and special place. With its vast prairies, high
mountains, deep canyons and numerous river headwaters, Colorado is
truly a crossroad of biodiversity that provides a rich environment for
abundant and diverse species of wildlife. Our rich wildlife heritage is
a source of pride for our citizens and can be an incredibly powerful
teaching tool in the classroom. To help teachers and students learn
about Colorado’s ecosystems and its wildlife, the Division of Wildlife
has prepared a set of ecosystem posters and this education guide.
Together they will provide an overview of the biodiversity of our state
as it applies to the eight major ecosystems of Colorado. This project
was funded in part by a Wildlife Conservation and Restoration
Program grant.
Sincerely,
Russell George, Director Colorado Division of Wildlife
For Wildlife –For People
1TA B L E O F CO N T E N T S
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Activity: Which Niche? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Grasslands Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Sage Shrublands Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Sagebrush Shrublands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Montane Shrublands Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Montane Shrublands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Piñon-Juniper Woodland Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Piñon-Juniper Woodland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Montane Forests Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Montane Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Subalpine Forests Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Subalpine Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Alpine Tundra Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Treeline and Alpine Tundra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Activity: The Edge of Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Riparian Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Aquatic Ecosystems, Riparian Areas, and Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Activity: Wetland Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References and Field Identification Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
This book was written by Wendy Hanophy and Harv Teitelbaum with illustrations by Marjorie Leggitt and paintings by Paul Gray. Book design and printing by the State of Colorado Integrated Document Factory.
Colorado Division of Wildlife, Education Section, 6060 Broadway, Denver, Colorado 80216
2 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Introduction
What is Biodiversity?Biodiversity is short for biological diversity. It
includes the variety of species, the variety of geneticdifferences within species, and the variety of ecosys-tems within a recognizable area. It is the richness oflife.
Colorado—Crossroads of BiodiversityColorado’s location and natural features make it
home for a wide variety of species. From the prairieat elevations below 4,000 feet to the alpine tundraabove 14,000 feet, a diversity of landscapes providesopportunities for a rich mixture of wildlife. From drysemi-desert shrublands to cool and moist riparianareas, from treeless canyonlands to expansivemontane forests, Colorado has an enormous diversityof habitats—the places where organisms live and getthe food, water, shelter and living space they need tosurvive.
The Continental Divide provides a naturalbarrier between species from the eastern and westernUnited States. Northern and southern species meetand mix among the sagebrush and piñon-juniper inthe lower portion of the state. Colorado also lieswithin the migratory routes of many North Americanbird species. Some of these birds make their home inthe state part of the year and others are just passingthrough. Colorado truly is a crossroads of biodiversity.
Habitats and EcosystemsAll of the species that live and interact in an area
form a community. Each species within that commu-nity has its own distinct habitat needs, which may be
found within one or more ecosystems. The wordecosystem is used to describe the sum of the interac-tions between a community of species and the non-living components of the environment, such astemperature, soils, water, and elevation. Together,the non-living, or abiotic factors, and living, or bioticfactors, in an ecosystem help determine whichspecies of plants and animals can thrive there.
Living things effect other living things, directlyor through habitat alteration. The influence of twospecies on each other over time helps shape theappearance and behavior of both species. This sharedshaping of adaptations is known as coevolution, andoften benefits both species. In each of Colorado’smajor ecosystems, we find examples of species thatinfluence, and have been influenced by, otherspecies over time. Some have even evolved todepend on each other for their very survival.
The great diversity of habitats and abiotic factorsin Colorado’s ecosystems create numerous opportuni-ties for species. These opportunities, the “jobs” orfunctions available to living things in an ecosystem,are known as niches. More niches in an ecosystem inturn provide more options and choices for a greatnumber and variety of species, and make theecosystem better able to adapt to change.
Biodiversity and EcosystemsMany ecologists determine the vitality of an
ecosystem by considering its current biodiversityalong with the ecosystem’s ability to maintain its bio-diversity in the future. Colorado’s major ecosystemshave evolved over thousands, even millions of years.These ecosystems are dynamic, and disturbances arenormal. Change is natural, and organisms haveevolved over time to cope with all sorts of upsetssuch as storms, fire, floods and other disturbances.
Small-scale disturbances can promote biodiver-sity by increasing the variety of habitat and niches.For example, a fallen tree can allow more sunlight toreach plants on the forest floor, or provide food andshelter for animals and microorganisms. If there isenough biodiversity, even large-scale natural disasterssuch as fires and floods can eventually lead toincreased biodiversity as new species rush in to fillempty niches.
Problems occur when there is not enough biodi-versity available in an ecosystem to survive changesin environmental conditions. When too much habitatand genetic diversity has been lost, and the complexinteractions that make ecosystem recovery possibleare severely disrupted, human intervention can
3IN T R O D U C T I O N
sometimes aid in restarting natural processes, andreclamation can make a landscape inhabitable for aminimal range of species. However, in areas thatcontain endemic species, those found nowhere elsein the world, natural or man-made disturbances canprecipitate the extinction of a species and the loss ofits function in an ecosystem, an irrevocable disaster.
Colorado is notable for the presence of a largenumber (93) of endemic species. In addition, some10 percent of the total number of plant and animalspecies found in Colorado are considered rare or atrisk of extinction—11.2 percent of vascular plants, 4.1percent of reptiles, and 18.8 percent of freshwaterfish. When people know the relative status of biodi-versity in their area, they are better able to makedecisions that may impact sensitive species.
Biodiversity: You Can’t Judge a Bookby its Cover
Sometimes appearances can be deceiving whenit comes to biodiversity. We tend to view green land-scapes as desirable, lush, and rich with life. WhileColorado’s native grasslands may seem brown andlifeless in comparison to our rich green lawn, theysupport a far greater diversity of life in the samesized space. That’s because our lawn contains just asingle species of grass; it is a monoculture landscapethat provides habitat for only a limited number ofspecies
Similarly, a healthy ponderosa pine forest maylook somewhat dry and sparse. Nonetheless, it con-tains a variety of individual trees of differing ages andsizes, along with changing patterns of shade, light,open spaces, moisture, and soil types, providingmany niches.
A Place in the Food WebEcologists often group species in an ecosystem
according to their role in the food chain, or theirtrophic (feeding) level. Producers produce theirown food and serve mostly as food for others.Consumers mostly eat or consume others, anddecomposers help break down, or decompose, all
the others. Plants are producers. Consumers includelarge animals like deer and mountain lions, or smallerspecies such as lizards and mice. Decomposers aremostly small microorganisms. It is important torealize that, while one species might be a consumersome of the time, it may itself be food at anothertime. The biggest predator may someday be food forthe smallest decomposer. The relationships are notsimple and direct, but form a web of relationships.
Decomposers are the most numerous organismsin an ecosystem, followed by producers, and thenconsumers. Since energy is partly used and dissipatedas it passes from one living thing to the next, this pro-portional relationship helps ensure that there is suffi-cient food for species in the different trophic levels to survive. We can visually represent this general relationship in the form of a pyramid like this:
An organism’s place in the food web is an essen-tial component of its niche, and each species occu-pies one or more of these trophic levels. Species atone level provide life energy (food) for the species inthe next level. If biodiversity is severely reduced andthere is not enough food available at one trophiclevel to support the next level, the pyramid can “col-lapse,” and the ecosystem cannot function.
Interestingly, while there exist more species ofmicroorganisms than plants, and more plants thananimals, we’ve actually identified more animals thanplants, and more plants than microorganisms! Apyramid of known species would be labeled like theone above, but would have the point facing down!Perhaps this is because we’re drawn to study thosespecies to which we feel closest, or those that appearto affect us directly. As we discover more about foodwebs and the interrelationships between species,however, we are paying more attention to all theliving organisms in an ecosystem.
Measuring BiodiversityDiversity of life is difficult to measure precisely.
However, some methods have been developed thatgive a good indication of species biodiversity. Thesemethods usually involve two steps. First, the number
SUN
Decomposers
Consumers(Omnivores)
Consumers(Carnivores)
Consumers(Herbivores)
Producers(Plants)
4 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
of species in the area being studied, or species rich-ness, is counted. Then the number of individuals ineach species, or species abundance, is counted.Considering these two counts together gives an indi-cation of biodiversity.
In general, areas that contain many differentspecies, with an appropriate number of individuals ineach species, are more biodiverse. Areas with few ofthe possible species, or with most individualsbelonging to only one or two of the many speciespresent, are less biodiverse. However, a high numberof species in an ecosystem does not necessarily meanthat the ecosystem is healthier or more importantthan another ecosystem with few species. InColorado, alpine tundra ecosystems cannot supportthe same numbers or variety of species as the state’sgrasslands or forests.
Measuring biodiversity can be very helpful inseeing differences and changes between areas, or inone area over time. Remember that living thingsinclude more than just big, familiar animals. Plantsand insects are as important to biodiversity as theanimals that depend on them, as are the microorgan-isms that make up the majority of life forms on earth.
Each species is itself an ecosystem containingadditional species. For example, just as differentkinds of birds make use of ponderosa trees, insectsand microorganisms find homes on and in the birds.Opportunities for birds create opportunities for otherlife forms. Diversity breeds diversity. A wide varietyof species finds homes in Colorado’s ecosystems.
Why is Biodiversity Important toWildlife?
Loss of biodiversity directly affects wildlife byreducing opportunities for food, shelter, nesting,cover, and other necessities. This affects species’ability to survive. A loss of biodiversity can make anecosystem less able to withstand stress and changeand may lead to poor quality habitats and decliningwildlife populations.
Biodiversity is Important to People Too!Biodiversity generates goods and services for
the most basic human needs such as food, shelter,medicine, and fresh air and water. In addition,humans have used a wide variety of plant and animalspecies to produce forms of transportation, musicalinstruments, tools, weapons, food holders and manyother products.
All the food we grow comes from plants andanimals that originated from varieties found innature. We often must return to nature to find wildspecies with different genetic traits to improvedomestic varieties of crops so that they can grow
faster, or are more resistant to disease or insectattacks.
Our homes, the furnishings inside them, andoften the fuel to heat them come from materials inour environment. The woods, oils, resins, waxes, andgums of many tree species provide us with manyoptions for building and heating. Likewise, ourclothing is often made from natural plant fibers (suchas cotton or linen) or from animals (wool, silk, skins).
About 80 percent of the world’s population stilluse plants as their primary source of medicine. Closeto 30 percent of all pharmaceuticals sold in Coloradowere developed from plants and animals.
In addition to providing products, diverse ecosys-tems provide us with life-sustaining services. We canthank a pollinator for every third bite of food wetake. Many plants grown in our state depend onbees, butterflies, moths, wasps, beetles, birds, andbats for pollination. Feed crops such as alfalfa andhay, and the wonderful peaches produced onColorado’s western slope, all depend on pollinators!
Diverse ecosystems sustain processes that purifyboth air and water. Through photosynthesis, treesand other plants regulate water vapor, release oxygen,and cycle nutrients. Vegetation plays a crucial role inmaintaining the planet’s water cycle. Not only doplants give off moisture through their leaves andprovide shade to slow evaporation, but they oftenfilter water before it reaches lakes and rivers, pro-viding clean water for all. Plants hold moisture in thesoil and help reduce the effects of drought. Plantcommunities also play an important role in floodcontrol, holding soil in place and preventing erosion.
5IN T R O D U C T I O N
In a state with abundant natural resources and avariety of landscapes like Colorado, biodiversity isalso good for the economy. Many people come to ourstate to visit its grasslands, mountains, and canyons,spending millions of dollars each year on activitiessuch as hunting, fishing, camping, skiing, hiking, andwildlife watching. A sustainable supply of naturalmaterials for business also depends on biodiversity.
There are benefits from species diversity that areless tangible, but nevertheless priceless. For many ofus, nature is vital to our emotional, psychological, andspiritual well being, providing a source of relaxation,
rejuvenation, beauty, and peace. In some cultures,certain species are integral to spiritual beliefs, tradi-tional rituals, and the people’s heritage. What’s more,
learning from examples in nature improves thequality of our lives. For example,
watching different birds and how theyuse their wings helped humans achieveflight and continues to help us improveairplane design.
While all of the benefits mentionedare incentive for all of us to protect and
preserve biodiversity, many people feelthat each species should be respected and
protected simply because it exists. We don’talways know how a species or an ecosystem can orwill benefit us. Perhaps we’re encouraged by the
beauty we see in diverse landscapes, or by how wefeel after we’ve been in a diverse landscape, to
treasure biodiversity for its own sake.
Biodiversity is Important to the Planet!In prairies, ponds, deserts or forests, important
processes and interactions are taking place. Predatorsare consuming prey, decomposers are breaking downdead plants and animals and returning nutrients tothe soil, and myriad other exchanges are taking place.Each of these processes and ecosystems are intri-cately linked, supporting each other. Loss of biodi-versity anywhere on the planet greatly impactshuman society as well as ecosystems and their valu-able services.
Definitions and Classification:Something to Think About
Colorado scientists, teachers and public offi-cials have in recent years increasingly acceptedthe use of the term “ecosystem” to describe majorareas of our state. But a different word could havebeen used. Landscape is a general term for anarea that shares enough features to set it apartfrom another area. A biome is a large geographicarea with uniform climatic conditions and distinctvegetation such as the North American desert,prairie, or coniferous forest. A life zone is a bandor belt of plant and animal life, usually on the sideof a hill or mountain, which changes with eleva-tion or latitude. A bioregion is an area whosephysical, ecological, or cultural characteristics setit apart from surrounding areas. The meaning ofwords changes and evolves over time and place.
Even you can have an effect on their meanings inthe future by how you understand and use thesewords today.
Some of you may wonder…why eightColorado ecosystems, and not more or fewer? It is true that different scientists have looked atColorado and seen different numbers of majorecosystems. Professional differences, as well asdifferences in outlook and standards have resultedin different numbers. In addition, where oneecosystem ends and another begins is not alwaysclear. Changes within and between these ecosys-tems can be gradual. Features of one can often be found in others. Even so, each of these eightmajor ecosystems generally has a particular set ofplants, animals and other characteristics. Dividingthe state into these eight has become widelyaccepted and has led to a greater appreciation ofour Colorado environment.
6 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Activity: Which Niche?
ObjectivesStudents will:
1.) define ecological niche; and
2.) give at least one example of an animal and itsecological niche.
MethodStudents compare ecological niches with careers
in their community.
MaterialsA guest speaker; chalkboard; reference materials.
BackgroundEach animal has a role in the ecosystem. This
role is called its ecological niche. The niche includessuch things as where and how it gathers food, its rolein the food chain, what it gives to and does for theecosystem, its habits,periods of activity and soforth. (Because a descrip-tion of the complete eco-logical niche wouldinclude an infinitenumber offactors, the
concept is most useful in terms of differences amongspecies. For instance, one could compare the nichesof four American warblers that all breed in the samehabitat, a spruce forest, but forage and nest in dif-ferent parts of the spruce tree.)
An animal’s niche can be described as what it doesfor a living. In a sense, this role can be compared towhat people do for a living—that is, what their jobs orprofessions are in the communities in which they live.
The major purpose of this activity is for studentsto understand the concept of ecological niche, simul-taneously learning more about potential careers intheir own community.
Procedure
1.) Explain to the students that in this activity theywill be comparing human professions to the rolesof animals in environments (animal professions).
2.) Select a few interesting jobs for discussion.Invite a doctor, dentist, social worker, truckdriver, cook, etc., to your class to talk about theirwork. Ask questions of the speaker. Work withthe students to develop the questions. Have thestudents take notes and record the answersduring or immediately after the presentation,asking additional questions for clarification asnecessary. Points to include:• what they do for the community (the service
provided);• how they provide the service;• what resources are used by them in providing
the service;• where they live and work;• the times during which they work;• what other professions they are dependent
upon for the functioning of their profession(janitor, delivery person, secretary, repairperson);
American Beaver
7AC T I V I T Y: WH I C H NI C H E?
• what special habits they exhibit;• what other professions they compete
with, if any; and• what other professions they cooperate
with, if any.Ask the students to produce a writtensummary of the information theyacquire concerning each of the jobsthey investigate.
3.) Have the students brainstorm avariety of animals living in a par-ticular ecosystem (forest, stream,desert, tundra). A photographcould serve as a stimulus. Listrepresentative members of thisecosystem on the blackboard.Make sure a variety of animals—including predator, prey, scav-engers, etc.—are included.
4.) Choose one of the animals listedand, as a group, begin discussing thesame questions for it asked of the visiting professional. In this way thestudents can see how the profession conceptapplies as a metaphor. Identify the animal’s pro-fession as its ecological niche.
OPTIONAL: As individual projects or in teams,students should select one animal, research theniche it fills and answer the same questions usedfor human jobs. As a culmination, each team canmake a visual and/or verbal presentation aboutits animal and its niche.
ExtensionHave the students identify niches that are over-
lapping and that compete or cooperate for resources.Connections may also be made between niches toillustrate interdependency webs in the ecosystem.
Evaluation
1.) Define ecological niche.
2.) Select any animal and describe its ecologicalniche. Include: what it does for the ecosystem,how it provides this service, the resources it uses,where it lives, when it does its work, what otherorganisms depend upon it, what other organismsit is dependent upon, what special adaptations it
uses or needs, what special habits it exhibits,what other organisms it competes with for thesame niche, and anything else you think is espe-cially interesting about this niche and how it isfilled.
3.) Create a poster that shows all the facets of ananimal’s niche.
Duration: one to four 45-minute sessionsGroup Size: anySetting: indoorsVocabulary: ecological niche, career, community
This activity was adapted with permission from, “Project WILD K-12 Curriculum and Activity Guide.”
“Which Niche?” is an example of the manyProject WILD educational activities that can beused in both classroom and non-formal settings to teach concepts found in WILD Colorado:Crossroads of Biodiversity.” For more informationabout Project WILD activities and workshops,please see the inside back cover of this book.
8 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
4
3
5
6
7
14
11
13
1512
8
10
16
2
1
9
17
18
6
9GR A S S L A N D S
Bir
ds
1.
Bu
rrow
ing
Ow
l(A
then
e cu
nicu
lari
a)—
a lo
ng-l
egge
d, g
roun
d-dw
ellin
g ow
l usu
ally
foun
d ne
ar p
rair
ie d
og t
owns
. The
y ar
e ab
le t
o im
itat
e th
e so
und
of a
rat
tles
nake
whe
n th
reat
ened
.
2.
Sca
led
Qu
ail(
Cal
lipep
la s
quam
ata)
—co
mm
on in
sou
thea
ster
n C
olor
ado
gras
s-la
nds,
but
als
o fo
und
in s
hrub
land
s an
d pi
ñon-
juni
per
woo
dlan
ds. T
hey
are
easi
ly id
enti
fied
by
thei
r pr
onou
nced
whi
te-t
ippe
d cr
ests
.
3.
Wes
tern
Mea
dow
lark
(Stu
rnel
la n
egle
cta)
—fo
und
at a
ll bu
t th
e hi
ghes
t el
eva-
tion
s of
Col
orad
o in
sum
mer
, and
in e
aste
rn a
nd w
este
rn lo
wla
nds
year
rou
nd.
The
mea
dow
lark
sin
gs a
mel
odic
, flu
te-l
ike
song
.
4.
Sw
ain
son
’s H
awk
(But
eo s
wai
nson
i)—
foun
d th
roug
hout
the
eas
tern
pra
irie
spri
ng t
o fa
ll, le
ss c
omm
on in
wes
tern
Col
orad
o. I
n ad
diti
on t
o hu
ntin
g fo
rro
dent
s, r
epti
les
and
othe
r bi
rds
from
the
air,
Sw
ains
on’s
haw
ks a
lso
hop
arou
ndth
e gr
ound
in s
earc
h of
inse
cts.
5.
Gold
en E
agle
(Aqu
ila c
hrys
aeto
s)—
a so
mew
hat
com
mon
res
iden
t of
all
but
the
high
er C
olor
ado
elev
atio
ns in
win
ter,
less
com
mon
at
othe
r ti
mes
. Whi
te p
atch
esun
der
the
win
gs a
nd o
n th
e ta
il ar
e in
dica
tive
of
an im
mat
ure
Gol
den.
6.
Lar
k B
un
tin
g(C
alam
ospi
za m
elan
ocor
ys)—
hist
oric
ally
abu
ndan
t in
sho
rt-g
rass
prai
rie,
als
o fo
und
in t
he s
hrub
land
s of
nor
thw
este
rn C
olor
ado.
The
mal
e of
our
stat
e bi
rd is
eas
ily id
enti
fied
in s
umm
er b
y it
s bl
ack
body
and
whi
te w
ing
patc
hes.
Ma
mm
als
7
. P
ron
ghorn
(Ant
iloca
pra
amer
ican
a)—
ofte
n m
ista
kenl
y ca
lled
an a
ntel
ope,
nam
edfo
r th
e sh
ort
pron
gs t
hat
exte
nd f
orw
ard
from
nea
r th
e m
idpo
int
of t
he h
orns
.A
mon
g th
e fa
stes
t an
imal
s on
Ear
th, p
rong
horn
can
sus
tain
spe
eds
of 3
0 m
phan
d ha
ve b
een
tim
ed a
chie
ving
70
mph
.
8.
Am
eric
an B
adge
r(T
axid
ea ta
xus)
—ra
nges
thr
ough
out
Col
orad
o, w
here
ver
prai
rie
dogs
, gop
hers
, gro
und
squi
rrel
s an
d ot
her
rode
nts
can
be h
unte
d. T
heba
dger
can
be
iden
tifi
ed b
y a
whi
te s
trip
e ru
nnin
g up
fro
m t
he n
ose
to t
he b
ack
of t
he h
ead.
9.
Bla
ck-t
aile
d P
rair
ie D
og
(Cyn
omys
ludo
vici
anus
)—na
med
for
the
bla
ck h
airs
at
the
tip
of t
he t
ail,
a cr
ucia
l spe
cies
of
east
ern
Col
orad
o gr
assl
ands
who
senu
mbe
rs a
nd e
nvir
onm
enta
l eff
ects
infl
uenc
e th
e nu
mbe
rs a
nd h
abit
at o
ppor
tu-
niti
es o
f m
any
othe
r sp
ecie
s. P
rair
ie d
ogs
form
col
onie
s, c
alle
d to
wns
, and
enga
ge in
com
plex
soc
ial i
nter
acti
ons.
Rep
tile
s10
. W
este
rn R
attl
esn
ake
(Cro
talu
s vi
ridi
s)—
foun
d th
roug
hout
muc
h of
Col
orad
ofr
om g
rass
land
to
mon
tane
for
est,
an im
port
ant
pred
ator
of
smal
ler
mam
mal
s.
The
se s
nake
s hi
bern
ate
in r
oden
t bu
rrow
s or
roc
k cr
evic
es, e
mer
ging
usu
ally
mid
-Apr
il to
mid
-May
.
11.
Orn
ate
Box
Turt
le(T
erra
pene
orn
ata)
—id
enti
fied
by
stre
aks
or d
ots
of y
ello
w o
nan
oth
erw
ise
dark
she
ll. T
hese
tur
tles
can
oft
en b
e fo
und
on r
oads
aft
er h
eavy
rain
s, r
esul
ting
in la
rge
num
bers
bei
ng k
illed
by
auto
mob
iles.
Sp
ider
12
.Ta
ran
tula
(Aph
onop
elm
a he
ntzi
)—so
met
imes
cal
led
the
Tex
as B
row
n, o
ne o
fth
ree
tara
ntul
a sp
ecie
s fo
und
in C
olor
ado.
Aft
er a
bout
ten
yea
rs o
f liv
ing
apar
tfr
om f
emal
es, t
he m
ales
mig
rate
, usu
ally
in S
epte
mbe
r or
Oct
ober
, in
sear
ch o
fm
ates
.
Inse
ct13
.P
ain
ted
Gra
ssh
op
per
(Dac
tylo
tum
bic
olor
)—br
ight
ly c
olor
ed w
ith
patt
erns
of
red-
oran
ge, b
lue-
blac
k, y
ello
w a
nd w
hite
, fou
nd in
dry
gra
ssla
nds
and
foot
hills
.T
hey
show
a d
ieta
ry p
refe
renc
e fo
r gr
asse
s, e
spec
ially
alf
alfa
.
Pla
nts
14.
Yu
cca
(Yuc
ca g
lauc
a)—
pref
ers
dry
slop
es a
nd h
illsi
des.
The
pod
-lik
e fr
uit
of t
heyu
cca
grow
s al
ong
a ta
ll st
alk,
whi
le t
he le
aves
, lon
g, t
hin
and
shar
p, r
adia
te f
rom
the
base
.
15.
Com
mon
Su
nfl
ow
er(H
elia
nthu
s an
nuus
)—a
com
mon
pla
nt w
ith
brig
ht y
ello
wpe
tals
sur
roun
ding
a m
aroo
n-co
lore
d ce
nter
on
a st
alk
that
can
gro
w 1
0 fe
et h
igh
or m
ore.
Bes
ides
the
bri
ght
colo
r of
its
peta
ls, t
he s
unfl
ower
was
so-
nam
edbe
caus
e th
e he
ads
follo
w t
he s
un f
rom
daw
n to
dus
k.
16.
Pri
ckly
-pea
r(O
punt
ia p
olya
cant
ha)—
cact
us c
hara
cter
ized
by
flat
, gre
en, o
val-
shap
ed p
ads
wit
h sp
ikes
arr
ange
d in
reg
ular
ly s
pace
d bu
ndle
s. T
he f
low
ers
that
appe
ar in
late
spr
ing
are
yello
w o
r re
ddis
h in
col
or a
nd u
p to
3 in
ches
acr
oss.
17.
Ch
oll
a(C
ylin
drop
untia
imbr
icat
a)—
som
etim
es c
alle
d th
e tr
ee c
holla
or
cand
e-la
bra
chol
la, a
leaf
less
bus
h or
sm
all t
ree
wit
h jo
inte
d br
anch
es o
ccur
ring
inC
olor
ado
prim
arily
in t
he s
outh
east
. In
late
spr
ing
and
earl
y su
mm
er, t
he c
holla
can
be c
over
ed w
ith
man
y re
ddis
h or
lave
nder
-col
ored
flo
wer
s.
Tre
e18
.O
nes
eed
Ju
nip
er(S
abin
a m
onos
perm
a)—
mor
e ty
pica
lly a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith
piño
n-ju
nipe
r w
oodl
ands
, but
fou
nd in
hig
her
gras
slan
ds a
nd t
rans
itio
nal z
ones
. Con
esof
any
one
tre
e ar
e of
onl
y on
e se
x, w
ith
the
fem
ale
cone
s la
rger
and
ber
ry-l
ike.
Set
tin
g—P
icket
Wir
e C
an
yon
lan
ds
nea
r L
a J
un
ta
10 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Grasslands
Near the town of Briggsdale in northeasternColorado, between Fort Collins and Sterling, is thePawnee National Grassland, one of the lastremaining native grasslands in our state. It is part ofa larger grassland ecosystem that covers most of theeastern third of the state. Grasslands like thePawnee, containing historical mixes of native grasses,are now rare in Colorado because of changes in landuse, fire cycles, and grazing patterns. Highaltitude grasslands, found in a few areassuch as South Park, support their own mixof animal and plant life.
Sod-forming grasses such as buffalo grass andour state grass, blue grama, provide the foundationfor grassland ecosystems. Deep vertical roots, alongwith a widespread network of fine lateral roots justbelow the surface help these grasses quickly absorbscarce rainwater. They reproduce by sending out
shoots and runners above andbelow the ground. The result
is a turf-like mat of vegeta-tion ideal for grazing.
Wildlife You Might Discover in the Grasslands
Look closely and you may spot the distinctiveblack and white markings of our state bird, the larkbunting. You may hear the beautiful song of themeadowlark. Since there are few trees in thisecosystem, birds have adapted by building their nestson the ground, and calling their songs from the grassor in flight.
You may see and hear prairie dogs, and the col-lection of dirt mounds that make up their colonies or“towns.” In the distance you may see a herd of ourstate’s fastest mammal, the pronghorn, often referredto as an antelope. Above you might be lucky enoughto spot a red-tailed hawk or golden eagle on thelookout for small mammals, reptiles, and other birdsto eat. But there’s also much activity in the grassbeneath your feet. Here you may find a crab spider,named for its crab-like appearance when holding upits two front legs, hunting for a meal. Unlike manyspiders found in forested ecosystems, the crab spiderdoes not build a web to catch its prey, relying insteadon its eyes to detect the slightest movements in thegrass.
What Shaped the Grasslands?Geography and climate helped shape the grass-
land ecosystem. About 65 million years ago, theRocky Mountains began reforming. Even as theywere building up, wind and water were working to
Blue Grama
Lark Bunting
11GR A S S L A N D S
wear them down by carrying away rocks, dirt andsediment to the east. Over many centuries thiseroded material became the soil that supports theplant and animal life of Colorado’s grasslands.
Colorado’s eastern climate is too dry to supporttrees, and the soil is not moist enough to support thetall grasses of the Midwest prairies to the east ofColorado. Our short-grass prairie lies in the “rainshadow” of the Rocky Mountains. Just as the suncasts a shadow when blocked by the mountains, themountains block much of the moisture until cloudsand storms can regroup about 200 miles to the east.As moisture in the atmosphere is forced upwards bythe Rockies, rain and snow fall over the mountainsand foothills, leaving little for the grasslands untilnear the Kansas border. Mostly, Colorado’s grasslandsget moisture from intermittent streams, and fromoccasional summer storms.
Colorado’s eastern grasslands are cold in thewinter and hot in the summer. It is often windy. Inthe winter, these winds can lead to blizzard condi-tions, blowing the snow into high drifts. In thesummer the winds dry the grasses, providing amplefuel for natural fires.
Historically, fire was a regular occurrence beforepeople settled the grasslands. Fire renewed andrestored the grassland. Many grassland species arenot only adapted to fire, but have evolved ways tobenefit from it. Most of the grass’s biomass (its livingmaterial) is underground. When fires swept the grass-lands during the dry season, the native grasses weredormant. Though they appeared brown and lifelesson the surface, their deep roots were alive andescaped permanent damage from the fires. Many
non-native grasses and other plants that could takeover the native grasses’ territory were not adapted tofire. They were pushed back by fire, allowing nativegrasses to thrive. Fire also helped clean out deadplant material while adding nutrients to the soil. Fire suppression efforts since the early 1900’s havechanged the makeup of many grassland communities,and it is now recognized that using controlled fires as a management tool can improve the quality ofgrasslands.
A Closer Look at One GrasslandSpecies
American bison, often called buffalo, benefitedfrom fire. They preferred to graze on the fresh nativegrasses in newly burned areas and, by doing so, initi-ated the return of other grass species. Moving fromone grazing location to another, bison thinned andopened the ground cover, allowing moisture and lightto penetrate. The nitrogen from bison urine acted asa fertilizer, encouraging plant growth. Their hooveshelped break up the hard crust on the grassland soil.The hair on their foreheads and front legs picked upseeds as they fed. The seeds were then carried torecently burned areas that lacked mature seed-pro-ducing grasses, helping revegetate the region. Bisondroppings (scat) also contain a large variety of seeds.
Other animals, such as kangaroo rats, foundabundant food by following the bison along theirmigratory wanderings. The bison’s feeding and tram-pling actions exposed the insects and seeds thatmade up the rat’s diet. Bison scat, known unceremo-niously as buffalo chips, was itself food, shelter, andnursery for a variety of invertebrate life. Some flyinginsects stuck close to herds, awaiting the appearanceof fresh dung, while others traced the scent from theground. The tumblebug beetle shaped a bit of dunginto a ball, deposited its egg into this protective envi-ronment, then rolled the ball back to its nest. Sincebison were grazers, meaning that they primarily eatgrass, they did not compete with pronghorn which, as browsers, fed on a variety of plant materials.
While, overall, bison grazing clipped the heightof grasses and contributed to the vitality of the grass-land, localized affects varied greatly. Areas favored bythe bison might have been grazed down to stubble,while other areas were left virtually untouched.Buffalo wallows, rounded depressions that resultfrom bison rolling on their backs to clean themselvesand relieve itching, remain as bare dirt a hundredyears after their creation. The range of bison grazingbehavior resulted in a greater diversity of habitatsavailable to many plains’ species. For example, the
Prairie Dogs
12 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
mountain plover depends on a sufficient supply ofopen and bare areas to successfully hunt for insectsand to more easily spot predators. On the other hand,land predators, such as coyote and fox, benefit fromthe increased cover provided by ungrazed grasses.
Until slain to near extinction, bison wanderedthe plains in great numbers. Bison still exist on pre-serves in Colorado but, since they are no longerfound in the wild, are called an extirpated species.With the absence of bison from this ecosystem, therehave been attempts to replicate some of the ecologi-cally important effects of bison on the grasslands.Ranchers, who need to ensure sustainable pas-turage for their cattle, seek to mimic the migratorygrazing patterns of bison by utilizing rotationalgrazing techniques. Pasture condition is carefullymonitored and cattle are moved from one site toanother so that plant root sufficiency is maintained.
However, it’s important to avoid a singleapproach to grassland management, which, if applieduniversally throughout the grassland ecosystem,might favor some species at the expense of others.Large expanses of ungrazed grasses can allow popula-tions of pest species such as grasshoppers to increaseto destructive levels, while vast areas of barrenground lead to erosion. Planners, farmers and conser-vation biologists now recognize that a diversity ofgrass height and cover is desirable because it
increases biodiversity. Withproper rangeland manage-ment, grazers such as cattlecan replace many of theecosystem functions of thebison, providing both clearedlandscapes for species suchas the mountain plovers, andsufficient grazing andbrowsing opportunities forother species. Enhanced bio-diversity tends to neithermaximize nor minimize pop-ulations, but rather optimizespopulation balance.
Crossroads ofBiodiversity—Colorado’sGrasslands
The outermost ranges ofthe thirteen-lined ground
squirrel and the white-tailedjackrabbit overlap in the short-grass
prairie of eastern Colorado. Primarily a species ofthe upper mid-western U.S., the thirteen-linedground squirrel is near the western end of its range inColorado, while the white-tailed jackrabbit is at thesouthern end of its range.
Both animals eat grasses and other vegetation.The ground squirrel will also eat insects and other
Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel
American Bison
13GR A S S L A N D S
small animals. Both the ground squirrel andjackrabbit are themselves food for coyotes, foxes,hawks and eagles.
Although they have similar dietsand require similar homes on therange, they occupy different nichesand don’t usually compete witheach other. That’s because, whilethe white-tailed jackrabbit is noc-turnal (most active at night), the thir-teen-lined ground squirrel is diurnal(most active in the daytime). Theground squirrel lives in shallow burrowsand hibernates in winter, while thejackrabbit does not hibernate, oftenburrowing out hiding places in thesnow.
Were they ever to meet, however, and chal-lenge one another to a race, it would be nocontest. Cruising along at a leisurely eight milesper hour, the thirteen-lined ground squirrel is nomatch for the white-tailed jackrabbit, which hasbeen clocked at speeds of 45 miles per hour!
A Grassland by any Other Name…Other names for grassland ecosystems include
prairie, plain, steppe, pampa, savannah, and veld. Thesenames describe grasslands that may differ in mois-ture, elevation and vegetation from those foundin Colorado. Some describe grasslands found onlyin particular regions of the world.
White-tailedJackrabbit
14 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
1
2
3
4
5
6
78
11
9
10
1213
14
18
17
16
15
15SA G E B R U S H SH R U B L A N D S
Bir
ds
1.
Sag
e G
rou
se(C
entr
ocer
cus
urop
hasi
anus
)—fo
und
in s
age
shru
blan
d ha
bita
ts in
nort
hwes
tern
Col
orad
o an
d th
e G
unni
son
Riv
er b
asin
. As
part
of
the
mat
ing
ritu
al, m
ales
infl
ate
air
sacs
on
thei
r ch
ests
, fan
the
ir s
harp
-poi
nted
tai
ls, a
nden
gage
in c
ompl
ex s
trut
s, s
teps
and
oth
er m
ovem
ents
.
2.
Horn
ed L
ark
(Ere
mop
hila
alp
estr
is)—
nam
ed f
or t
heir
bla
ck, “
horn
ed”
feat
hers
,m
ore
pron
ounc
ed o
n th
e m
ale;
pre
fers
ope
n, lo
w-v
eget
atio
n ha
bita
ts. A
eria
lco
urts
hip
disp
lays
by
the
mal
e be
gin
wit
h a
stee
p as
cent
, wit
h ci
rclin
g an
dsi
ngin
g at
the
hig
h po
int,
follo
wed
by
a st
eep
dive
.
3.
Mou
nta
in B
lueb
ird
(Sia
lia c
urru
coid
es)—
brill
iant
ly s
ky b
lue-
colo
red,
fou
nd p
ri-
mar
ily in
cen
tral
and
wes
tern
Col
orad
o. T
hese
blu
ebir
ds a
re s
econ
dary
cav
ity-
nest
ers,
oft
en u
sing
old
woo
dpec
ker
hole
s an
d cl
iff s
wal
low
nes
ts, i
n ad
diti
on t
obu
ildin
gs a
nd n
esti
ng b
oxes
.
4.
Gold
en E
agle
(Aqu
ila c
hrys
aeto
s)—
the
gold
en c
olor
is m
ost
noti
ceab
le o
n th
ecr
own
and
nape
of
adul
ts. I
n ad
diti
on t
o ra
bbit
s an
d sq
uirr
els,
roa
d-ki
ll de
er h
elp
sust
ain
thes
e ea
gles
thr
ough
the
win
ter.
5.
Wes
tern
Scr
ub
Jay
(Aph
eloc
oma
calif
orni
ca)—
inha
bits
ope
n sh
rubl
ands
and
woo
dlan
ds b
etw
een
5,00
0–7,
000
feet
. The
se s
ky b
lue-
colo
red
jays
are
usu
ally
foun
d in
pai
rs o
ccup
ying
fix
ed t
erri
tori
es.
Ma
mm
als
6.
Am
eric
an B
adge
r(T
axid
ea ta
xus)
—ra
nges
thr
ough
out
Col
orad
o, w
here
ver
prai
rie
dogs
, gop
hers
, gro
und
squi
rrel
s an
d ot
her
rode
nts
can
be h
unte
d. T
heba
dger
can
be
iden
tifi
ed b
y a
whi
te s
trip
e ru
nnin
g up
fro
m t
he n
ose
to t
he b
ack
of t
he h
ead.
7.
Bla
ck-t
aile
d J
ackra
bb
it(L
epus
cal
iforn
icus
)—so
-nam
ed f
or t
he b
lack
str
ipe
that
exte
nds
from
the
tai
l to
the
rum
p; a
lso
nick
nam
ed “
jack
ass
rabb
it”
for
its
huge
ears
. Fee
ding
mos
tly
on g
rass
es, s
hrub
s an
d fo
rbs,
the
y ar
e th
emse
lves
a p
rim
ary
food
for
coy
otes
and
gol
den
eagl
es.
8.
Mu
le D
eer
(Odo
coile
us h
emio
nus)
—in
habi
t al
l of
Col
orad
o’s
ecos
yste
ms
from
gras
slan
ds t
o tu
ndra
. Nam
ed f
or t
he la
rge
ears
, the
se d
eer
have
whi
te t
ails
tipp
ed w
ith
blac
k an
d sc
ent
glan
ds a
bove
the
bac
k ho
oves
.
9.
Am
eric
an E
lk/W
apit
i(C
ervu
s el
aphu
s)—
com
mon
thr
ough
out
cent
ral a
ndw
este
rn C
olor
ado
abov
e 5,
000
feet
. In
spri
ng, m
igra
ting
elk
fol
low
the
mel
ting
snow
pac
k to
hig
her
elev
atio
ns; i
n w
inte
r, sn
ow d
epth
tri
gger
s do
wnw
ard
mig
ra-
tion
.
10.
Coyo
te(C
anis
latr
ans)
—co
mm
on in
all
Col
orad
o ha
bita
ts a
t al
l ele
vati
ons,
gen
er-
ally
iden
tifi
ed b
y a
long
poi
nted
muz
zle,
poi
nted
ear
s, a
nd a
bus
hy t
ail h
eld
dow
nwar
d, e
ven
whe
n ru
nnin
g. T
he c
oyot
e’s
scie
ntif
ic n
ame
mea
ns “
bark
ing
dog”
whi
le it
s co
mm
on n
ame
com
es f
rom
the
Azt
ec N
ahua
tl w
ord
“coy
otl”
,m
eani
ng “
sing
ing
dog”
.
11.
Des
ert
Cott
on
tail
(Syl
vila
gus
audu
boni
i)—
pale
gra
y-br
own
wit
h ru
st-c
olor
edpa
tche
s on
the
thr
oat
and
ches
t. T
his
cott
onta
il re
quir
es a
n ad
equa
te d
ensi
ty o
fsh
rubs
and
sm
all t
rees
as
cove
r fr
om p
reda
tors
.
12.
Pro
ngh
orn
(Ant
iloca
pra
amer
ican
a)—
ofte
n m
ista
kenl
y ca
lled
an a
ntel
ope,
nam
edfo
r th
e sh
ort
pron
gs t
hat
exte
nd f
orw
ard
from
nea
r th
e m
idpo
int
of t
he h
orns
.A
mon
g th
e fa
stes
t an
imal
s on
Ear
th, p
rong
horn
can
sus
tain
spe
eds
of 3
0 m
phov
er lo
ng d
ista
nces
and
hav
e be
en t
imed
ach
ievi
ng 7
0 m
ph.
13.
Wh
ite-
tailed
Pra
irie
Dog
(Cyn
omys
leuc
urus
)—di
stin
guis
hed
from
the
bla
ck-
taile
d pr
airi
e do
g of
eas
tern
gra
ssla
nds,
and
the
Gun
niso
n’s
prai
rie
dog
of s
outh
cent
ral a
nd s
outh
wes
tern
Col
orad
o, b
y a
whi
te o
r w
hiti
sh t
ip o
n th
e ta
il an
d da
rkfa
cial
mar
king
s. W
hile
bla
ck-t
aile
d pr
airi
e do
gs c
an u
nder
go a
slo
wed
met
abo-
lism
cal
led
torp
or d
urin
g ex
trem
e co
ld a
nd s
now
stor
ms,
whi
te-t
aile
ds h
iber
nate
for
thre
e to
six
mon
ths.
Pla
nts
14.
Pai
ntb
rush
(Cas
tille
ja s
pp.)—
seve
ral s
peci
es, c
omm
only
cal
led
Indi
an p
aint
-br
ush,
oft
en f
ound
in c
onju
ncti
on w
ith
sage
brus
h. R
epre
sent
ativ
e is
des
ert
pain
tbru
sh(C
. chr
omos
a), w
hose
col
orfu
l tw
o-to
ne f
low
ers
are
pale
in t
he m
iddl
ean
d re
ddis
h-or
ange
at
the
edge
s.
15.
Rab
bit
bru
sh(C
hrys
otha
mnu
s sp
p.)—
seve
ral s
peci
es f
ound
in s
age
shru
blan
dsan
d pi
ñon-
juni
per
woo
dlan
ds, a
fav
ored
foo
d of
jack
rabb
its.
Nat
ive
Am
eric
ans
used
the
gol
den
yello
w f
low
ers
to m
ake
dyes
.
16.
Sag
ebru
sh(S
erip
hidi
um s
pp.)—
thre
e co
mm
on s
peci
es f
ound
in C
olor
ado’
s sa
gesh
rubl
and
habi
tats
. Big
sag
ebru
sh(S
. tri
dent
atum
), th
e ta
llest
, is
foun
d at
low
erel
evat
ions
in d
eepe
r so
ils, b
lack
sag
ebru
sh(S
. nov
um),
dens
e an
d da
rk in
app
ear-
ance
, at
mid
dle
elev
atio
ns, a
nd m
ount
ain
sage
brus
h(S
. vas
eyan
um)
at t
he h
ighe
rlim
its
of t
his
ecos
yste
m.
Tre
es1
7.
Uta
h J
un
iper
(Sab
ina
utah
ensi
s)—
pred
omin
ant
juni
per
of t
he lo
wer
-ele
vati
ons
ofw
este
rn C
olor
ado.
Unl
ike
Col
orad
o’s
othe
r ju
nipe
r tr
ees,
the
Uta
h Ju
nipe
rus
ually
has
bot
h m
ale
flow
ers
and
fem
ale
berr
ies
on t
he s
ame
tree
.
18
. P
iñon
Pin
e(P
inus
edu
lis)—
defi
ning
tre
e of
the
piñ
on-j
unip
er w
oodl
and,
con
esco
ntai
n la
rge
pine
nut
s w
hich
are
eat
en b
y a
vari
ety
of a
nim
als,
incl
udin
ghu
man
s. I
n ad
diti
on t
o fo
od, t
his
tree
pro
vide
d N
ativ
e A
mer
ican
s an
d se
ttle
rsw
ith
fire
woo
d an
d bu
ildin
g m
ater
ial n
eede
d fo
r fu
rnit
ure,
she
lter
, and
hou
seho
ldit
ems.
Set
tin
g—M
oose
hea
d M
oun
tain
, n
orth
of
Ra
nge
ly
16 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Sagebrush Shrublands
About 27 miles southwest of Craig in north-western Colorado, nestled between the YampaRiver and Highway 13, lie the rolling sagebrush-covered ridges of the Axial Basin. The Axial Basinand much of the Yampa River region comprise anecosystem defined by dry, shrub-covered soils andfew trees - the sagebrush shrublands of Colorado.
Sagebrush shrublands are prevalent in centraland western Colorado, on the Colorado Plateau, andin the Gunnison River and Colorado River basins.Examples of this ecosystem can also be seen inMiddle and North Park, and in the San Luis Valleybetween Villa Grove and Saguache.
High and DryThe sagebrush shrubland ecosystem is some-
times referred to as Colorado’s cool, high desert.Occurring above grassland at approximately 5,000 to10,000 feet, sagebrush shrublands usually receive lessthan ten inches of precipitation annually, makingthem the driest of all Colorado’s major ecosystems.Most precipitation falls as winter snow, and the smallamount of summer rain that does fall evaporatesquickly. Temperatures are very high in the summerand sub-zero in the winter. The soils are poor, eithervery alkaline or very acidic, and drain waterrapidly.
Trees, with more demanding waterrequirements, are not suited for thisecosystem. Woody vegetation islargely in the form of shrubs andbrush, which can handle the widetemperature swings, alkaline soils,and the lack of moisture. Somecommon species include sagebrush,yellow-flowered rabbitbrush, ante-lope brush or bitterbrush, greasewood,shadscale, and four-winged saltbush.
Several beautiful flowers grow wellin the dry soils of sagebrush country.Scarlet or skyrocket gilia, with itstrumpet shaped scarlet flowers, is abiennial that adapts to the dry conditionsby spreading its growth over two years.During the first summer, the plantdevelops its rosette of leaves, then addsa flower stalk the following growingseason. Sulfur flower, another common plant,is also known as the umbrella plant because itssmall yellow flowers develop at the end of leaf-less stalks in a circular, spoke-like pattern.
Indian paintbrush, whose red-orange flowers brightenthe landscape, is a partial parasite. It survives byextending its roots into the roots of other plants and
drawing off moisture and nutrition.
Sagebrush, Designed for theWest
Sagebrush, with its silvery gray-greenleaves, dominates this ecosystem. The
most pervasive plant in westernColorado, sagebrush is not related to
the culinary species, but is a memberof the sunflower family. Still, thethree-lobed leaves emit a distinct
sage-like odor when crushed or damp-ened by rain. Several species of sagebrush
have adapted to the harsh conditions andpoor soils found in this region, including
big sagebrush, black sagebrush, andmountain sagebrush. Big sagebrush isthe most common. Standing two to
nearly ten feet tall, this shrub looks a bitlike a small, twisted tree with dark,
shredded bark. Tailor made for survival in a
windy, arid environment, allspecies of sagebrush have unique
root systems, with widespread,shallow roots that quickly trap rain-
water from a brief storm, and longer rootsthat search deeper down for water. Sagebrush
Indian Paintbrush
Sagebrush
17SA G E B R U S H SH R U B L A N D S
retains water because its narrow leaves expose only aminimum evaporating surface to the sun. The fine,silky hairs that cover the leaves counter the dryingforce of the wind. As sagebrush leaves drop anddecay, they emit a toxic compound in the soil thatacts as a herbicide, preventing other vegetationfrom taking root, thereby reducing competitionfor water and soil nutrients.
Wildlife You Might Discover in theSagebrush Shrublands
For a seemingly harsh climate, sagebrushshrublands support a surprising variety of wildlife.The sagebrush provides shade, shelter, nest sites,and dens for a variety of small animals. Collaredlizards, side-blotched lizards, sagebrush lizards,western rattlesnakes and bullsnakes are some of thereptiles associated with sagebrush. On summerevenings, the California myotis, a small, pale-coloredbat, leaves its roost in the sagebrush to feed on flies,moths, and spiders. Mexican woodrats, deer mice,and sagebrush voles also forage at night. So doesOrd’s kangaroo rat, a small rat with a long tail thathops around on its two hind legs. Black-tailedjackrabbits are more active during the daylight hours,browsing on flowering plants and shrubs. Ferruginousand red-tailed hawks feed on white-tailed andGunnison prairie dogs and other rodents. Other pred-ators such as owls, coyotes, and gray fox activelyroam the sagebrush for prey. Large mammals such asmule deer, elk and pronghorn supplementtheir diet with a wide variety of plantsin this region.
Many bird species areclosely associated withsagebrush habitat.Among theseare the sage
grouse, sagesparrow and
sagethrasher.Male sagesparrowshave the
unique behavior of walking in line, side byside, to mark the shared boundary of theirterritories.
Other common birds are the scrub jay and thehorned lark, named for the small black tufts offeathers on the back of its head. The male hornedlark courts the female with impressive aerial displays,soaring high, then circling and diving.
A Closer Look at One Species:Gunnison Sage Grouse
In 1977, Dr. Clait Braun, formerly with theColorado Division of Wildlife, noticed that sagegrouse wings collected in the Gunnison Basin ofsouthwestern Colorado were smaller than sage grousewings collected in northern Colorado. He also notedthat these grouse were one-third smaller than thenorthern sage grouse, and the males had more dis-tinct, whiter tail feathers and more elaborate filo-
plume feathers on their necks. For over twodecades, Dr. Braun and other researchers, mostnotably Dr. Jessica Young of Western StateCollege, studied the morphological (physicalform and structure), behavioral, and genetic dif-
ferences between Colorado’s sage grouse andmade an exciting discovery. The sage grouse from
southwestern Colorado was a distinct species! Thiswas the first time in decades that a new species ofbird was described in the continental United States.
Unlike new species discoveries in remote partsof the globe, the Gunnison sage grouse, named forthe area of Colorado where it is found, has been inplain view all along. Traditionally hunted as a gamebird, viewed by bird-watchers, and heard at sunriseevery spring as part of one of the avian world’s oddestcourtship rituals, the Gunnison sage grouse had longbeen assumed to be the same species as the relatednorthern sage grouse. What was the conclusive evi-dence that the Gunnison sage grouse was not just asubspecies, but a species in its own right?
Taxonomists (scientists who classify organisms)acknowledge that the process of deciding when anorganism constitutes a separate species can some-
Collared Lizard
Ord’s Kangaroo Rat
18 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
times be a judgment call. In the past, physically dis-tinct but closely related animals have either been“lumped” into one species, with each form classifiedas a subspecies, or “split” into two species. But thescientists that have reviewed this case agree this birdis clearly a different species. The Gunnison sagegrouse does not interbreed with the northern sagegrouse; the two are strikingly different in both appear-ance and behavior; and detailed studies of the twogroups’ DNA showed that they were far too distantlyrelated to be considered the same species.
All species of male sage grouse are equippedwith air sacs on their breasts, which they use toattract females each spring. Males position them-selves in the center of their strutting grounds, calledleks, and commence with their mating rituals. Themating call that male sage grouse make with their airsacs is audible a mile or more away, and has been
compared to the sound of bubbles, or gulps, under-water. The superiority (as determined by othergrouse) of the male’s call and the vigor and quality ofthe rapid head shaking, strutting dance that accompa-nies it, determine its position in the lek. Dominantmales occupy the center of the lek and win theopportunity to breed with the majority of females.
When Dr. Young listened to and analyzed hun-dreds of tapes of northern sage grouse as part of abiology project, she noticed different vocal patternson tapes of sage grouse from the Gunnison Basin.While northern sage grouse consistently pop their airsacs twice in each of the many brief strut displaysthey perform, the Gunnison birds pop their air sacsnine times, and the sounds they produced arenotably deeper. She went to the leks to study theentire mating ritual. Male sage grouse in both theGunnison and northern areas had a highly elaboratestrut display that began with males taking a fewsteps, then raising their wings, brushing them twiceagainst the stiff feathers of the pouch to makeswishing noises to accompany the mating calls. Shenoted that sage grouse in Gunnison had fewer dis-plays per minute and would also throw their filo-plumes over their head and wag their tail at the endof their display.
Dr. Young’s research on the behavioral differ-ences of the sage grouse, along with Dr. Braun’s doc-umentation of morphological differences, led to
analysis of the birds’ genetics in 1999. The DNAstudies, by Dr. Tom Quinn and Dr. Sara Oyler-
McCance of Denver University, provideddefinitive evidence that the two groups were
separate species.
Crossroads of Biodiversity—Sagebrush Shrublands
The kit fox is one of manymammal species found in Colorado thatoriginated in the semi-arid highlands ofthe Chihuahua region of northernMexico. The sagebrush shrublands ofwestern Colorado represent the north-
eastern limit of its range. This small fox,weighing only three to six pounds, com-
petes for prey with larger predators andtwo other species of fox, the red fox andthe gray fox. The kit fox is classified as
state endangered, which means it is injeopardy of becoming extinct in Colorado.
Kit fox closely resemble a species found onthe eastern plains of Colorado, the swift fox, butthey do not interbreed and have distinctly dif-ferent habitat requirements. Kit fox have long,
Gunnison Sage Grouse
19SA G E B R U S H SH R U B L A N D S
black-tipped, bushy tails and yellowish to gray, griz-zled coats. Researchers have only found 47 kit foxesin Colorado, in one small area near Delta, andbelieve their statewide population is less than 100.Once classified as a furbearer (animal with mar-ketable fur) that could be legally harvested, the kitfox has been protected in Colorado since 1994.
Kit fox prey mainly on cottontail rabbits, jackrab-bits, and kangaroo rats, but will also eat birds, rep-tiles, and insects. They spend most of the day intheir dens, and move from one den to the other while
pursuing prey at night.Kit fox must avoid theirmain predator, thecoyote, as they hunt.Other causes of kit foxmortality are habitat
loss and road kill.
In contrast to the kit fox, the red fox has thewidest distribution of any carnivore in NorthAmerica. This fox has three color phases—red, cross,and silver—and is found in every ecosystem inColorado. Its ears are pointed and erect, and its feet,nose and backs of the ears are typically black. All redfox, no matter the color phase, have a white tip ontheir tail. In general, red foxes are opportunistic andwill eat whatever is available, but are particularlyadept at taking ground-nesting birds and their eggs.
Gray foxes are found along the foothills and insoutheastern Colorado, as well as in the sagebrushshrublands. They are shorter and stockier than thered fox, with relatively short ears and muzzle. Theirbodies are grizzled gray on the top with whitishbellies. The ears, neck, and legs are reddish buff.Like the kit fox, they prefer rabbits as prey, but ingeneral are more omnivorous, including berries, nuts,and insects in their diet. While little is really knownabout the impacts of kit fox and gray fox populations
on each other, similar habitat preferencessuggest that the species may limit one
another’s distribution.
Kit Fox
20 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
1
2
3
45
67
8
11
9
10
12
13
14
16
15
18
17
21MO N TA N E SH R U B L A N D S
Bir
ds
1.
Gre
at B
lue
Her
on(A
rdea
her
odia
s)—
adul
ts id
entif
ied
by s
ize
and
dist
inct
ive
shap
ein
the
air a
nd in
wat
er, h
ave
blac
k st
reak
ove
r the
eye
and
, in
bree
ding
adu
lts,
head
, nec
k, a
nd b
ack
plum
es. T
he la
rges
t her
on in
the
U.S
., an
d th
e m
ost w
ide-
spre
ad, t
his
four
-foo
t tal
l bird
can
oft
en b
e se
en w
adin
g or
slo
wly
wal
king
thro
ugh
shal
low
wat
er in
sea
rch
of fo
od.
2.
Bla
ck-b
illed
Mag
pie
(Pica
pica
)—id
entif
ied
by it
s bl
ack
and
whi
te c
olor
ing
and
long
tail,
pre
fers
ligh
tly tr
eed,
coo
l, dr
y ha
bita
ts. T
he m
agpi
e is
the
ultim
ate
gene
r-al
ist,
with
a d
iet t
hat i
nclu
des
frui
t, be
rrie
s, s
eeds
, ins
ects
, wor
ms,
gar
bage
, car
rion,
bird
s’ e
ggs
and
hatc
hlin
gs.
3.
Gre
en-w
inge
d T
eal(
Anas
crec
ca)—
smal
l duc
k pr
efer
ring
wet
land
s an
d rip
aria
nha
bita
ts a
long
the
Fro
nt R
ange
and
hig
her m
ount
ain
park
s. F
lock
s of
thes
e iri
des-
cent
-gre
en-w
inge
d bi
rds
can
ofte
n be
see
n in
low
, see
min
gly
erra
tic fl
ight
, tw
istin
gan
d tu
rnin
g as
a s
ingl
e un
it.
4.
Can
ada
Goo
se(B
rant
a ca
nade
nsis)
—id
entif
ied
by a
whi
te c
hins
trap
on
an o
ther
-w
ise
blac
k he
ad a
nd n
eck.
Thi
s on
ce u
ncom
mon
spe
cies
is n
ow n
umer
ous
in m
any
of th
e st
ate’
s rip
aria
n ar
eas
and
valle
ys, e
spec
ially
alo
ng th
e no
rthe
rn F
ront
Ran
ge.
5.
Com
mon
Rav
en(C
orvu
s cor
ax)—
sim
ilar i
n ap
pear
ance
to th
e A
mer
ican
Cro
w(C
. bra
chyr
hync
hos)
, but
is la
rger
and
has
a m
ore
mas
sive
bill
. Rav
ens
enga
ge in
ela
b-or
ate
aeria
l cou
rtsh
ip d
ispl
ays.
6.
Gre
at H
orned
Ow
l(B
ubo
virg
inia
nus)
—di
stin
guis
hed
by it
s la
rge
ear t
ufts
and
foun
d at
all
but t
he h
ighe
st e
leva
tions
, has
the
wid
est d
istr
ibut
ion
of a
ny N
orth
Am
eric
an o
wl.
The
dis
tinct
ive
hoot
ing
calls
of t
his
noct
urna
l ow
l are
hea
rdth
roug
hout
the
year
, esp
ecia
lly in
late
win
ter w
hen
they
beg
in to
nes
t.
7.
Ste
ller’
s Ja
y(C
yano
citta
stell
eri)—
iden
tifie
d by
its
prom
inen
t hea
d cr
est a
nd d
eep
blue
win
gs a
nd ta
il. T
his
jay
is o
ppor
tuni
stic
whe
n se
arch
ing
for f
ood,
oft
en ta
king
adva
ntag
e of
ung
uard
ed o
ffer
ings
at c
ampg
roun
ds a
nd p
icni
c ar
eas.
8.
Wild
Turk
ey(M
eleag
ris g
allo
pavo
)—of
the
two
Col
orad
o su
bspe
cies
, the
nat
ive
Mer
riam
’s tu
rkey
is fo
und
in th
e lo
wer
mon
tane
. Soc
iabl
e bi
rds
ofte
n se
en in
larg
eflo
cks,
the
fam
iliar
fann
ing
of th
e ta
il is
a c
ourt
ship
dis
play
don
e by
the
mal
e w
hile
stru
ttin
g an
d “g
obbl
ing”
.
Ma
mm
als
9.
Col
orad
o C
hip
munk
(Tam
ias q
uadr
ivitt
atus
)—co
mm
on c
hipm
unk
of s
outh
ern
Col
orad
o up
to 1
0,50
0 fe
et a
nd th
e F
ront
Ran
ge b
elow
7,0
00 fe
et. T
his
chip
mun
kfe
eds
on s
eeds
, ber
ries,
and
flow
ers
of a
wid
e va
riety
of p
lant
s, o
ften
asc
endi
ng to
the
tops
of t
rees
in s
earc
h of
food
.
10.
Red
Fox
(Vul
pes v
ulpe
s)—
the
mos
t wid
espr
ead
carn
ivor
e in
the
wor
ld, i
n C
olor
ado
may
rang
e in
col
or fr
om re
d to
bla
ck, b
ut a
lway
s w
ith a
whi
te-t
ippe
d ta
il. T
his
fox’
she
arin
g is
sen
sitiv
e to
low
-fre
quen
cy s
ound
s, e
nabl
ing
it to
hea
r the
und
ergr
ound
activ
ities
of i
ts b
urro
win
g pr
ey.
11.
Aber
t’s S
quir
rel(
Sciu
rus a
bert
i)—cl
osel
y as
soci
ated
with
pon
dero
sa p
ine
fore
sts
ofso
uthe
rn C
olor
ado
and
the
Fro
nt R
ange
whe
re th
ey a
re ty
pica
lly d
ark
gray
or
blac
k; id
entif
ied
by c
onsp
icuo
us ta
ssel
s, o
r tuf
ts o
f hai
r, on
the
ears
. The
se s
quir-
rels
bui
ld th
eir n
ests
in fa
vorit
e po
nder
osas
and
util
ize
the
inne
r bar
k, s
eeds
, tw
igs,
buds
and
con
es o
f the
tree
s as
thei
r prin
cipa
l foo
d so
urce
s.
12.
Mule
Dee
r(O
doco
ileus
hem
ionu
s)—
inha
bit a
ll of
Col
orad
o’s
ecos
yste
ms
from
gra
ss-
land
s to
tund
ra. N
amed
for t
he la
rge
ears
, the
se d
eer h
ave
whi
te ta
ils ti
pped
with
blac
k an
d sc
ent g
land
s ab
ove
the
back
hoo
ves.
13.
Mou
nta
in L
ion
(Feli
s con
colo
r)—
feed
s pr
inci
pally
on
deer
, but
als
o el
k an
d sm
alle
rga
me
over
a h
ome
rang
e of
up
to 5
00 s
quar
e m
iles.
The
se li
ons
are
dist
ribut
edfr
om C
anad
a to
Arg
entin
a, a
nd in
Col
orad
o ar
e fo
und
prim
arily
in fo
othi
lls,
cany
ons,
shr
ubla
nds,
and
piñ
on-ju
nipe
r woo
dlan
ds.
Rep
tile
14.
Bullsn
ake/
Gop
her
Snak
e(P
ituop
his c
aten
ifer)
—a
cruc
ial p
reda
tor o
f rod
ents
,fo
und
thro
ugho
ut C
olor
ado
in a
lmos
t all
habi
tats
bel
ow 8
,000
feet
. Whi
le th
ena
me
“gop
her”
sna
ke re
flect
s its
exc
elle
nt b
urro
win
g ab
ility
in s
earc
h of
gop
hers
and
othe
r sm
all m
amm
als,
it is
als
o ad
ept a
t clim
bing
tree
s in
sea
rch
of b
irds
and
bird
egg
s.
Sh
rub
15.
Mou
nta
in M
ahog
any
(Cer
coca
rpus
mon
tanu
s)—
wid
espr
ead,
tall
shru
b, w
hose
see
dsha
ve th
e ab
ility
to b
ore
them
selv
es in
to th
e gr
ound
. Nat
ive
Am
eric
ans
used
mou
n-ta
in m
ahog
any
to m
ake
arro
w s
haft
s, d
yes,
and
a m
edic
inal
laxa
tive.
Tre
es16
. P
onder
osa
Pin
e(P
inus
pon
dero
sa)—
the
defin
ing
tree
of t
he lo
wer
mon
tane
, esp
e-ci
ally
the
east
ern
foot
hills
. Thi
s pi
ne h
as th
e lo
nges
t nee
dles
of a
ny C
olor
ado
coni
fer a
nd p
refe
rs s
outh
-fac
ing
slop
es a
nd w
arm
uns
hade
d so
il fo
r re-
grow
th.
17.
Roc
ky M
ounta
in J
unip
er(S
abin
a sc
opul
orum
)—ab
unda
nt a
t hig
her,
cool
er, w
ette
rel
evat
ions
in C
olor
ado.
Som
etim
es c
alle
d re
d ce
dar f
or th
e re
ddis
h-br
own
colo
r of
its b
ark,
this
juni
per p
rodu
ces
smal
l blu
ish
berr
ies
that
are
a fa
vorit
e fo
od o
f roc
ksq
uirr
els,
Col
orad
o ch
ipm
unks
, and
oth
er m
onta
ne re
side
nts.
18.
Gam
bel
Oak
(Que
rcus
gam
belii
)—al
so c
alle
d Sc
rub
Oak
. In
addi
tion
to b
lack
bea
r,el
k an
d de
er, b
irds
such
as
blac
k-ca
pped
chi
ckad
ees,
spo
tted
tow
hees
, and
scr
ubja
ys fi
nd fo
od in
the
oak’
s fo
liage
and
aco
rns,
or i
n th
e in
sect
s th
at a
re a
ttra
cted
toth
e oa
k.
Set
tin
g—B
etw
een
Rox
boro
ugh
Sta
te P
ark
an
d D
eer
Cre
ek C
an
yon
O
pen
Spa
ce,
wes
t of
Lit
tlet
on
22 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Montane Shrublands
Southwest of Denver and northwest of CastleRock, is Roxborough State Park, an excellentexample of the montane shrubland ecosystem.
Roxborough State Park is representative of thenarrow band of montane shrubland found on theeastern slope of the Rocky Mountains.Larger expanses of montane shrublandare found at similar elevations, from5,500 to 10,000 feet, on the westernslope. Montane shrublands representa transitional zone between grasslandsand montane forest.
A Veritable Smorgasbord ofNuts, Berries and Browse
Usually found on dry, rocky foothill sites,montane shrublands have a mix of vegetation, fromgrasses to scattered piñon or ponderosa pine trees.These areas get about the same yearly precipitationas the grasslands, but their coarse soils do not retainthe water for long. Typically, the plants that do bestin this ecosystem are shrubs that hold onto moistureduring long dry spells.
Mountain mahogany, a shrub that grows up toeight feet tall, is the dominant plant on the east slopefoothills. Mountain mahogany is highly tolerant ofheat and drought. It is very long-lived, averaging 85years, with some as old as 1,350 years! A raggedlooking plant with greenish-gray leaves covered withsoft fuzzy hairs on top and bottom to prevent waterloss, mountain mahogany has self-planting seeds.
Each seed is equipped with along, curved, hairy “tail” that
allows the sharp pointed seed tip to float to theground first. As the humidity changes, the “tail” curlsand uncurls, driving the seed into the ground like adrill. Mountain mahogany is one of the few browsespecies that meets or exceeds protein requirementsfor wintering deer and elk.
Gambel oak is another important plant in themontane shrubland. It is scattered among mountainmahogany on the southern Front Range foothills, butis dominant and widespread on western slope shrub-lands. Along with sumac and serviceberry, otherdeciduous shrubs whose leaves turn red and orangebefore being dropped, it adds to Colorado’s beautifulfall color display. Sometimes called scrub oak,Gambel oak is able to survive in this dry, rocky envi-ronment because many of these tall tree-like shrubssprout from a common root system. This extendedhorizontal root system efficiently captures the limitedrainfall of the lower mountainsides. Gambel oakacorns are rich in nutrients and soft enough to beeaten by almost any animal.
In addition to nutritious mountain mahogany andGambel oak, a variety of plants in this ecosystemproduce a bountiful supply of berries and fruits.Kinnikinnik, a low plant with dark green leaves, pro-duces bright red berries that are an important wildlifefood. Skunkbush, or three-leaved sumac, producestart orange and red berries that were once used tomake a lemon-tasting drink. The fruits, or rose hips,of the wild or Wood’s rose are an important wintercrop for many animals. Wild gooseberries, raspber-ries, currants, and other fruit-bearing shrubs add tothis ecosystem’s reputation as a cornucopia forwildlife.
Self-plantingseeds
Mountain Mahogany
GambelOak
23MO N TA N E SH R U B L A N D S
Wildlife You Might Discover in theMontane Shrublands
In an ecosystem filled with seeds, acorns, andberries, its not surprising that mice, chipmunks,ground squirrels, and other rodents are abundant—onthe ground, in trees, and among rocks. Cottontailrabbits, which find shelter and cover from predatorsunderneath the shrubs, feed on green leafy vegeta-tion when it is available, and browse on buds, twigs,and bark in the wintertime. Deer, elk, raccoons, andblack bear spend a lot of time foraging in this region.
Eastern fence lizards and northern side-blotchedlizards might sun themselves on rocks or search forinsects under shrubs. An unusual lizard, the plateaustriped whiptail, can be found in the montane shrub-lands in western Colorado. This species is uni-sexual—all are egg-laying females!
An abundance of prey species attracts an abun-dance of predators. Golden eagles, and Swainson’s,red-tailed and sharp-shinned hawks cruise on ther-mals common along the foothills looking for theirnext meal. Western rattlesnakes and bullsnakesinvade rodent burrows and eat their fill. Gray and redfox, bobcats, skunks, weasels, and coyotes huntrodents and reptiles, while mountain lion pursuetheir preferred diet of deer.
The wealth of seeds, insects, and nest sitesattracts many birds to this ecosystem. Scrub jays, distinguished from other jays by their lack of acrest, their blue collar and the brownish patchon their back, are common in montane shrub-lands. One of the survival adaptations of thisspecies is cooperative breeding, in whichthe previous years’ offspring help theparents raise the new brood. These“helpers” assist in essential activitiessuch as defending the nesting site,repelling predators, and feeding the
young. Indigo and lazuli buntings, western tanagers,black-headed grosbeaks, spotted towhees, dusky fly-catchers and Virginia’s warblers are also common inthe montane shrublands.
A Closer Look at One Species—Merriam’s Turkey
The belt of shrubs and oak below the ponderosapines provides both food and cover for Merriam’sturkey, one of five subspecies of North Americanwild turkey. Merriam’s turkey is a Colorado native,and is distinguished from an introduced subspecies,the Rio Grande turkey, by both its habitat preferenceand by the nearly white feathers on the lower backand tail feather margins. Merriam’s turkeys forage inthe montane shrubland for leaves, seeds, nuts, andlots of insects. Wild turkeys are wary birds, with keeneyesight and hearing, and they move toward cover atthe slightest indication of danger. They rarely strayfar from the ponderosa pines that provide safety frompredators and nighttime roost sites.
Merriam’s turkeys stand about 37 to 46 inches inheight, with males larger than females. Males aremore colorful, with iridescent feathers, glittering invarying colors of red, green, copper, bronze and gold.Females’ feathers are a more drab brown, to blend inwith the surroundings. Both sexes have naked heads,but the males (toms) have deep blue and red coloredskin with loose red throat skin known as “wattles.”
Two other major characteristics that distinguishthe sexes are spurs and beards. When both male andfemale wild turkeys hatch, they have a small buttonspur on the back of their legs.The males’ spurs begin to grow and curve,
Cottontail Rabbit
Merriam’s Turkey
24 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
often reaching a length of two inches, while thefemales’ spurs seldom develop. Males also havebeards—tufts of modified feathers—that grow outfrom their chests. These beards average about nineinches in length, but can grow much longer. A smallpercentage of females (hens) also develop beards.
During the winter, turkeys flock together inmixed-sex groups. Sometime between February andApril, as the breeding season approaches, the flocksbreak up into smaller all-male or all-female groups.Later, the male flocks disperse, and males begin togobble and strut to attract hens. Hens respond with ayelping call. Males may breed with many females.Females are solely responsible for raising the young.Hens lay nine to twelve eggs in a shallow scrape andfrequently dump eggs in each other’s nests. Femalesincubate the eggs for about four weeks. Precocialyoung hatch with fully formed feathers, eyes open,and the ability to move about. They leave the nestwithin a day of hatching to feed, but roost close tothe hen for the first few days.
Merriam’s turkey is the state’s largest gamebird, a wildlife species that can be huntedaccording to legal seasons and limits. Currentpopulations of these birds exceed historic levels,but that was not always the case. During the1800’s, both in Colorado andnationwide, commercialslaughter for meat andfeathers, habitat destruc-tion, and disease decimatedwild turkey populations. Inthe 1920’s, only 250–500Merriam’s turkeys remained inthe state, and fewer than 30,000wild turkeys remained in the entirecountry. Public concern for the turkey,along with remarkable commitmentfrom the nation’s hunters, wildlifeagencies and wildlife conservationorganizations, brought this grand birdback from the brink of extinction.
The most important event in thisrecovery effort was the 1937 passage of theFederal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act. Alsoknown as the Pittman-Robertson Act, this leg-islation placed an excise tax on firearms,ammunition, and other hunting equipment.Lobbied for and supported by sportsmen, thistax has raised billions of dollars for wildliferestoration. With extensive transplant efforts, habitatimprovement projects, and protection through gamelaws, Colorado’s wild turkey population has grown toan estimated 20,000 to 24,000 birds.
Crossroads of Biodiversity—MontaneShrublands
The montane shrublands are a mid-elevationmelting pot where many species mingle. Three ofColorado’s four antlered mammals, elk, mule deer,and white-tailed deer,can commonly beseen here. Thedescriptions thatfollow can help aviewer identifyeach of the threeantlered speciesthat frequent this ecosystem.
In these species, the males have antlersthat they shed annually in late winter. Theantlers are bone and are re-grown each year,nourished by a blood-engorged, finelyhaired skin called velvet. When the antlers
are fully developed and hardened, the velvetis shed or scraped off. For deer, elk, and moose,
antlers reflect the social position of males in the pop-ulation and are important for
courtship displays. Antlers,more often than not,provide a deterrent frommale to male combat formating privileges.
Mule deer are foundstatewide in all ecosys-tems, but especiallyfavor shrublands,montane forests, andpiñon-juniper wood-lands in the winter.Named for their large
ears that seem constantly in motion, mule deer areprimarily browsers. Mule deer have a white tail thatis tipped in black. They run with a stiff-legged gait,with back legs, then front legs moving together. Thebucks’ (male deer) antlers branch equally, forking
American Elk
Mule Deer
25MO N TA N E SH R U B L A N D S
into two tines, four tines, or more. Young males haveeither single spikes or a single fork near the tip of theantlers.
White-tailed deer historically have occupiedriparian lands, woods, and farmlands of the easternU.S. where they can get the highly nutritious foodsthat they prefer. With agricultural development onColorado’s eastern plains, white-tailed deer haveexpanded their range, and now can be found utilizingboth the montane shrublands and riparianareas all along the front range and inselect areas west of theContinental Divide. The white-tailed deer has a brown tail,edged with white, but com-pletely white on the underside.When alarmed, this deer raises,or “flags,” its tail to communi-cate danger to other deer. Like muledeer, white-tailed deer also snort andstamp their hooves to convey danger.These deer are graceful runners and strongswimmers, and can go across large bodies ofwater. Male white-tailed antlers haveseveral tines that come up from the mainshaft.
Often seen in herds on the montaneshrublands in winter, elk are much largerthan deer. They generally have a pale tan or brownbody color, with a darker mane of longer hairs on theneck and a paler yellowish tan rump patch. Thebulls (male elk) have large antlers, with a main beamextending backward over the neck and shoulders.Several tines or points arise from the main beam.
Living With Wildlife in Colorado’sFoothills
For people as well as wildlife, montane shrub-lands are a desirable place to live. Often, peoplemove to the foothills to experience a closer connec-tion to the wild places and wildlife found there. Ascommunities along the foothills grow, habitat ischanged and some wildlife is displaced. Some speciescontinue to live in open space areas, parks, riverbottoms, and undeveloped parcels of land. Othersadapt to urban living. As humans and wildlife adjustto the changes, their relationship is fraught with bothpromise and pitfalls. Finches and buntings at the birdfeeder are a delightful sight—bears at the samefeeder are not. By and large, people and wildlife cancoexist, if people are alert to the needs and habits oftheir wild neighbors.
For many species, particularly large grazers andbrowsers such as deer and elk, subdivisions and roadsmay block traditional migration routes between
summer and winter range. The number of placeswhere deer and elk can move from mountains to low-lands has been squeezed, like going through afunnel. Deer-crossing signs mark many of theseareas, and it is essential that drivers slow down andproceed cautiously, especially at night.
It is also common for deer and elk to browsegardens, trees and shrubs. Not only is
this costly and annoying, but deerand elk attract predators, such as
mountain lions and coyotes, whoalso eat pets and domestic
livestock. Property ownerscan plant species that aredistasteful to deer, usecommercial repellents anduse fencing to avoid theseproblems.
Pets can be exception-ally challenging for wildlife.Dogs, when left to roam,
may form packs and harass or killwildlife. A pack of dogs—well fed or
not—often kill or mutilate deer and domesticlivestock. Dogs and cats left unattended—even in a
fenced yard—serve as potential food for coyotes andmountain lions. Cats commonly prey on small,ground-dwelling wildlife and birds. They can beespecially damaging during the spring bird-nestingseason. It is vital that individuals are responsible petowners, obey leash laws, and keep dogs and catsunder control.
Litter and trash are also problematic. Litter caninjure or kill wildlife, particularly birds. Careless han-dling of trash and pet food can attract bears, raccoons,squirrels, skunks and other species that most peoplewould prefer to keep at a distance! Pet food shouldbe stored inside. Unless bear-proof trash cans areused, trash should not be put outside until rightbefore pick up.
Finally, people must respect the wildness ofwildlife. Many dangerous and potentially harmfulencounters occur because people fail to leave wildanimals alone. Wildlife should not be harassed, cap-tured, domesticated, or—in most cases—fed.Intentional or inadvertent feeding is a cause of anumber of wildlife problems. Wildlife habituated tofeeding may injure someone in their eagerness to getfood. Animals congregating unnaturally to feed maypass diseases to one another. People should notapproach sick, injured or even young animals thatappear to be abandoned. Such cases should bereported to the Colorado Division of Wildlife.
Acting responsibly, people can enjoy the wildlifethey see in the montane shrublands!
White-tailedDeer
26 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
119
10
12
1314
16
15
18
17
27PI Ñ O N-JU N I P E R WO O D L A N D
Bir
ds
1.
Red
-tai
led
Haw
k(B
uteo
jam
aice
nsis
)—m
ost
wid
espr
ead
haw
k in
Col
orad
o, e
spe-
cial
ly n
umer
ous
in p
iñon
-jun
iper
woo
dlan
ds a
nd w
inte
r gr
assl
ands
, but
occ
urri
ngye
ar-r
ound
fro
m g
rass
land
to
tund
ra. I
n ad
diti
on t
o ro
dent
s su
ch a
s pr
airi
e do
gs,
thes
e ha
wks
pre
y up
on r
epti
les
and
rabb
its.
2.
Wes
tern
Scr
ub
Jay
(Aph
eloc
oma
calif
orni
ca)—
inha
bits
ope
n sh
rubl
ands
and
woo
dlan
ds b
etw
een
5,00
0–7,
000
feet
. The
se s
ky b
lue-
colo
red
jays
are
usu
ally
foun
d in
pai
rs o
ccup
ying
fix
ed t
erri
tori
es.
3.
Nort
her
n P
igm
y-O
wl(
Gla
ucid
ium
gno
ma)
—an
agg
ress
ive
diur
nal h
unte
r, no
isie
rin
flig
ht t
han
mos
t no
ctur
nal o
wls
, pre
ys o
n ro
dent
s an
d bi
rds,
som
e la
rger
tha
nit
self
. On
the
back
of
the
head
, thi
s ow
l dis
play
s tw
o da
rk e
ye-l
ike
patc
hes
rim
med
in w
hite
.
4.
Com
mon
Rav
en(C
orvu
s co
rax)
—di
stin
guis
hed
from
the
all-
blac
k A
mer
ican
Cro
w(C
. bra
chyr
hync
hos)
by
its
larg
er s
ize
and
mor
e m
assi
ve b
ill. M
ale
rave
nsen
gage
in e
labo
rate
aer
onau
tica
l cou
rtsh
ip d
ispl
ays.
5.
Gre
at H
orn
ed O
wl(
Bub
o vi
rgin
ianu
s)—
dist
ingu
ishe
d by
its
larg
e ea
r tu
fts
and
foun
d at
all
but
the
high
est
elev
atio
ns, h
as t
he w
ides
t di
stri
buti
on o
f an
y N
orth
Am
eric
an o
wl.
The
dis
tinc
tive
hoo
ting
cal
ls o
f th
is n
octu
rnal
ow
l are
hea
rdth
roug
hout
the
yea
r, es
peci
ally
in la
te w
inte
r w
hen
they
beg
in t
o ne
st.
6.
Jun
iper
Tit
mou
se(B
aeol
ophu
s ri
dgew
ayi)
—fo
rmer
ly k
now
n as
the
pla
in t
it-
mou
se, g
rayi
sh b
ird
wit
h a
smal
l hea
d cr
est.
As
part
of
the
cour
tshi
p ri
tual
, mal
esof
fer
food
to
fem
ales
who
in t
urn
vibr
ate
thei
r w
ings
and
pro
duce
hig
h-pi
tche
dvo
caliz
atio
ns in
acc
epta
nce.
Ma
mm
als
7.
Mou
nta
in L
ion
(Fel
is c
onco
lor)
—fe
eds
prin
cipa
lly o
n de
er, b
ut a
lso
elk
and
smal
ler
gam
e ov
er a
hom
e ra
nge
of u
p to
500
squ
are
mile
s. T
hese
lion
s ar
e di
s-tr
ibut
ed f
rom
Can
ada
to A
rgen
tina
, and
in C
olor
ado
are
foun
d pr
imar
ily in
foot
hills
, can
yons
, shr
ubla
nds,
and
piñ
on-j
unip
er w
oodl
ands
.
8.
Gra
y F
ox
(Uro
cyon
cin
ereo
arge
nteu
s)—
iden
tifi
ed b
y a
blac
k “m
ane”
run
ning
alon
g it
s ta
il, e
ndin
g in
a b
lack
tip
. Om
nivo
rous
and
pri
mar
ily n
octu
rnal
, thi
s fo
xis
als
o an
exc
elle
nt t
ree
clim
ber.
9.
Rin
gtai
l(B
assa
risc
us a
stut
us)—
a no
ctur
nal m
embe
r of
the
rac
coon
fam
ily w
ith
abo
dy li
ke a
cat
, a f
ace
like
a fo
x, a
nd a
long
tai
l wit
h bl
ack
circ
les.
Rin
gtai
ls a
reex
celle
nt m
ouse
rs, a
nd w
ere
kept
by
earl
y se
ttle
rs f
or t
hat
very
pur
pose
, hen
ceth
eir
nick
nam
e, “
min
er’s
cat.”
10.
Mex
ican
Wood
rat
(Neo
tom
a m
exic
ana)
—ha
s a
noti
ceab
ly b
i-co
lore
d ta
il, d
ark
onto
p an
d lig
ht b
elow
, and
fee
ds la
rgel
y on
piñ
on n
uts
and
juni
per
berr
ies
in t
his
ecos
yste
m. I
n ad
diti
on t
o us
ing
vege
tati
on in
con
stru
ctin
g th
e ne
st, t
his
woo
drat
adds
deb
ris
such
as
bone
s an
d fe
athe
rs.
11.
Des
ert
Cott
on
tail
(Syl
vila
gus
audu
boni
i)—
pale
gra
y-br
own
wit
h ru
st-c
olor
edpa
tche
s on
the
thr
oat
and
ches
t. C
apab
le o
f lig
ht c
limbi
ng a
nd s
wim
min
g, t
his
cott
onta
il re
quir
es a
n ad
equa
te d
ensi
ty o
f sh
rubs
and
sm
all t
rees
as
cove
r fr
ompr
edat
ors.
12.
Mu
le D
eer
(Odo
coile
us h
emio
nus)
—in
habi
t al
l of
Col
orad
o’s
ecos
yste
ms
from
gras
slan
ds t
o tu
ndra
. Nam
ed f
or t
he la
rge
ears
, the
se d
eer
have
whi
te t
ails
tipp
ed w
ith
blac
k an
d sc
ent
glan
ds a
bove
the
bac
k ho
oves
.
Rep
tile
s13
. C
ollar
ed L
izar
d(C
rota
phyt
us c
olla
ris)
—ca
n be
iden
tifi
ed b
y a
yello
wis
h he
adan
d bl
ack
band
s ar
ound
the
nec
k. T
o es
cape
dan
ger,
the
colla
red
lizar
d ha
s th
ein
tere
stin
g ha
bit
of g
etti
ng u
p on
its
hind
legs
and
run
ning
aw
ay.
14.
Str
iped
Wh
ipsn
ake
(Mas
ticop
his
taen
iatu
s)—
iden
tifi
ed b
y a
whi
tish
str
ipe
runn
ing
alon
g ea
ch s
ide.
Fou
nd o
nly
in t
he w
este
rn C
olor
ado,
thi
s sn
ake
is a
spee
dy p
reda
tor
that
pre
ys u
pon
othe
r sn
akes
incl
udin
g sm
alle
r w
hips
nake
s, in
addi
tion
to
inse
cts,
liza
rds,
and
rod
ents
.
Pla
nts
15.
Morm
on
Tea
(Eph
edra
vir
idis
)—id
enti
fied
by
gree
nish
, lea
fles
s, jo
inte
d st
ems,
foun
d in
roc
ky a
reas
and
can
yons
. Als
o kn
own
as C
owbo
y T
ea, t
his
plan
t w
asus
ed b
y N
ativ
e A
mer
ican
s an
d se
ttle
rs t
o m
ake
a pa
lata
ble
drin
k.
16.
Yu
cca
(Yuc
ca g
lauc
a)—
pref
ers
dry
slop
es a
nd h
illsi
des.
The
pod
-lik
e fr
uit
of t
heyu
cca
grow
s al
ong
a ta
ll st
alk,
whi
le t
he le
aves
, lon
g, t
hin
and
shar
p, r
adia
te f
rom
the
base
.
Tre
es17
. P
iñon
Pin
e(P
inus
edu
lis)—
defi
ning
tre
e of
the
piñ
on-j
unip
er w
oodl
and,
con
esco
ntai
n la
rge
pine
nut
s w
hich
are
eat
en b
y a
vari
ety
of a
nim
als,
incl
udin
ghu
man
s. I
n ad
diti
on t
o fo
od, t
his
tree
pro
vide
d N
ativ
e A
mer
ican
s an
d se
ttle
rsw
ith
fire
woo
d an
d bu
ildin
g m
ater
ial n
eede
d fo
r fu
rnit
ure,
she
lter
, and
hou
seho
ldit
ems.
18
. U
tah
Ju
nip
er(S
abin
a ut
ahen
sis)
—di
stin
guis
hed
from
the
One
-see
d ju
nipe
r(S
. mon
ospe
rma)
of
sout
h ce
ntra
l Col
orad
o by
hav
ing
drie
r an
d gr
itti
erbe
rrie
s/co
nes
and
by h
avin
g a
less
tap
ered
, mor
e ir
regu
lar
crow
n. U
nlik
eO
nese
ed ju
nipe
r, w
hose
indi
vidu
als
are
of e
ithe
r se
x, t
he U
tah
Juni
per
usua
llyha
s bo
th m
ale
flow
ers
and
fem
ale
berr
ies
on t
he s
ame
tree
.
Set
tin
g—N
ear
Mes
a V
erde
Na
tion
al
Pa
rk,
nea
r M
an
cos
28 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Piñon-Juniper Woodland
The Colorado National Monument is locatedwest of Grand Junction and south of Fruita. Thisscenic viewing area, overlooking the Grand Valley, isan excellent example of a piñon-juniper woodlandecosystem.
Piñon-juniper woodlands lie in the transitionzone between grasslands or shrublands and lowermontane forest, at elevations from 5,000–7,000 feet.They are primarily found in the western part of ourstate, and in central Colorado south of ColoradoSprings. Another piñon-juniper woodland is found inthe “Four Corners” area, where the borders ofUtah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico cometogether. Interestingly, there is one isolatedstand of piñon-juniper woodland in OwlCanyon, north of Fort Collins, over 100 milesfrom any other stands! This may be a relictstand from an earlier climate condition—no oneknows for sure.
The Pygmy ForestPiñon-juniper woodlands receive approximately
10–20 inches of precipitation each year. The watersinks quickly down through the gravelly soils, dis-couraging the growth of grasses, and favoring thedeeper roots of trees. The result is a landscape ofshort, evenly spaced trees separated by open areasrelatively free of vegetation; a landscape sometimesreferred to as the pygmy forest.
This ecosystem flaunts a variety of small treesincluding Gambel (scrub) oak, Douglas fir and moun-tain mahogany, but the predominant trees are thepiñon pine and either the Utah or one-seedjuniper. Piñon pine and juniper requireless water for survival than any
other Colorado trees. Piñon is more cold tolerant, andprevails at the higher, wetter elevations. The moredrought-tolerant juniper is favored at lower, drier sites.
The piñon pine has short one to two-inch-longneedles grouped in bundles of two (and rarely three),with small two-inch cones bearing large, edible seeds.While piñons can reach heights of fifty feet, periodic
droughts usually limit the trees’ growthto heights of thirty feet or less, giving them theirstunted, gnarly look.
The Utah juniper occurs in western slope piñon-juniper woodlands, while the one-seed prevails in thewoodlands of south central Colorado. Juniper leaveson both varieties appear as tiny, overlapping scalesalong the branches, giving the tree a unique and easilyidentifiable appearance. The bluish-gray or purplishberries are actually modified cones in which a fewfleshy scales enclose a seed. Foliage color and berriesdistinguish the two. The berries of the yellow-greenUtah juniper are dryer than the juicier berries of thegray-green one-seed. Utah junipers usually have bothmale and female cones, while one-seed juniper treesare single gender, with the females possessing thelarger, berry-like cones.
While groundcover between trees inthe piñon-juniper woodland issparse, there are smatteringsof grasses, shrubs andflowering plants. Mutedgreen grasses suchas blue grama,Junegrass andIndian ricegrassare interspersedwith succulentprickly-pear
Piñon Pine
Utah or One-seedJuniper
Prickly-pear Cacti
29PI Ñ O N-JU N I P E R WO O D L A N D
cacti and bright yellow sunflowers. Raggedy shrubssuch as the cliff rose, apache plume, and antelopebrush or bitterbrush, provide browse for game animalsthat visit the woodlands.
Wildlife You MightDiscover in thePiñon-JuniperWoodland
If you visit the piñon-juniper woodland, you maysee large numbers of blue-colored birds pecking atpinecones to get at the nuts.These are piñon jays, a year-round resident. In the fall,jays carry away pine nuts,which are actually piñonseeds, and stockpile them for winterfood. Some of the uneaten seeds eventu-ally grow into new trees. In this way, piñonjays assist in the reproduction of more piñontrees, which will again provide food for jays.
Elsewhere in the trees you can often spot thenests of bushtits. These small, gray birds make useof spiders’ silk to attach their nests to branches.There may also be ground-nesting birds such as thecanyon towhee and the lark sparrow, identified by its
red-browncheek patch,striped crown andsingular breast spot.You may be fortunateenough to witness the courtingdisplay of the male lark sparrow ashe circles and struts around thefemale. Overhead you may see
red-tailed hawks, golden eagles,American kestrels, and prairie falcons
on the lookout for rodents such as the ever-presentPiñon mouse and the bushy-tailed woodrat. Thewoodrat’s nickname of “packrat” is well deserved. Ifyou leave items lying around your campsite, thewoodrat may make off with them.
The climate of the piñon-juniper is still warmenough for reptiles. Two lizards you might spot are
the side-blotched lizard and the collared lizard.The collared lizard is longer and bulkier
than the side-blotched, and can be iden-tified by a yellowish head and the
black bands on the back of theneck. To escape danger, the
collared lizard has theinteresting habit of
getting up on itshind legs andrunning,giving theappearance of
a miniature, carnivorousdinosaur.
If you are in the piñon-juniperwoodland at night, you may see an
animal with a body like a cat, a facelike a fox, and a long tail with black
circles—a ringtail. This nocturnal member of theraccoon family walks on its toes, and dens in hollowtree stumps, logs, and rock crevices. Ringtails areexcellent mousers, and were kept by early settlers forthat very purpose; hence their nickname, “miner’scat.”
Large mammals found in the piñon-juniperwoodlands include pronghorn, mule deer, elk, moun-tain lion and black bear.
Piñon Nuts—The Heart of the EcosystemPiñon in Spanish means “nut” or “nut
tree.” Many of the species in thisecosystem depend on these nuts for sur-vival. The nuts provide an ample foodsupply for birds and rodents, which in turnbecome prey for other species. The highcalorie nuts are also a critical fall food for
black bears, and the presence of a goodcrop helps bears gain the necessary
weight they need to survive the winterand successfully reproduce.
The piñon pine nut was an importantresource for the people who settled here.
Native Americans and early European settlersdepended on the sweet, highly nutritious nuts forfood. The tree also provided firewood and buildingmaterial needed for furniture, shelter and householditems. Piñon pitch was used as glue and for water-proofing various domestic items, as well as for
PiñonJay
Ringtail
30 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
dressing wounds. Today, piñon pine nuts are still ahighly coveted food item and are even harvestedcommercially for sale in grocery and specialty shops.
A Closer Look at One Species: Four-Corners Hantavirus
In 1993, a severe illness appeared in a cluster ofpeople in the region where Colorado, New Mexico,Arizona and Utah meet. Studies revealed that thesepeople had been exposed to deer mouse droppingsand that their symptoms weresimilar to those caused by agroup of microorganismsknown collec-tively ashantaviruses,which arecarried by rodentsin other parts of theworld. The virus thoughtresponsible for the 1993illness was subsequently giventhe name Four-Corners han-tavirus, and the sometimes-fatalillness was called hantaviruspulmonary syndrome. Sincethen, other cases of hantaviruspulmonary syndrome haveappeared not only in the Four-Corners area, but as far away as Canada.
Genetic studies suggest that hantaviruses andtheir rodent hosts have an ancient, co-evolutionaryrelationship, and that Four-Corners hantavirus didnot emerge from a sudden evolutionary mutation.Why, then, did hantavirus pulmonary syndromeseemingly appear out of nowhere?
Scientists noted that during the period1992–1993, the weather was unusually warm and wet,with an earlier spring thaw, resulting in an abundanceof the vegetation that makes up the bulk of the deermouse’s diet. The result was a tenfold jump in thedeer mouse population. The increased populations ofboth mice and humans in this area, along with themouse’s attraction for human dwellings, broughtmore deer mice and their droppings into close prox-imity to people.
While research continues, scientists have sug-gested that the recent occurrences and spread of thisillness may coincide with changing climate and popu-lation patterns. Some are using El Niño cycles, whichoften bring warmer and wetter weather to the area, topredict possible outbreaks of hantavirus pulmonarysyndrome. The complex relationship betweenweather, microorganisms and their hosts, and humanwellness illustrate the intricate dynamics of biodiver-sity.
Crossroads of Biodiversity—Piñon-Juniper Woodlands
Skunks may not be the most popular of animals.They have perhaps the most widely known anddespised defense system of any mammal, and even apicture of the foul smelling scent-spraying omnivorecan trigger a powerful reaction in some people. Thenoxious vapor often causes nausea and burns theeyes and nasal cavities of the unfortunate target.Skunks are also known to be among the most preva-
lent carriers of rabies, another put-off to poten-tial fans. Still, skunks are highly
adaptable and resourceful. Besideseating a vast assortment of insects,
small mammals, fish and reptiles,they also consume fruits, nuts,
and berries. All of these foodsare abundant in the piñon-juniper woodlands, as are theold burrows abandoned by
other mammals thatskunks use to den.
Consequently,three of NorthAmerica’sskunk speciesreside in thisecosystem.
All threespecies exhibit
some variation of thebold black and white
markings that serve as a warning to potential preda-tors. The most common of the three is the stripedskunk. It has black fur with a white stripe that beginsas a triangular shape on the top of its head, forks intotwo wide stripes that travel down the sides of theback, and usually merges again near the base of thetail. Another white stripe runs from the base of thesnout between the eyes and ends on the forehead.Because the striped skunk is found throughout thecontinental U.S., in nearly every habitat and eleva-tion, this is the pattern that first comes to mind whenthe word “skunk” is mentioned.
The western spotted skunk prefers the middleelevations where piñon-juniper woodlands exist. Asits name implies, the western spotted skunk is foundin the western and southwestern U.S., withColorado’s eastern foothills marking the eastern edgeof its range. It is less common and much smaller thanthe striped skunk. Its pelt has many broken blackand white stripes of equal width on its upper backthat begin between the ears or just behind them. Alarge white patch covers more than half the areabetween the western spotted skunk’s eyes. Its tail iswhite on the underside for nearly half its length withan exclusively white tip.
DeerMouse
31PI Ñ O N-JU N I P E R WO O D L A N D
Colorado representsthe extreme northern range of the common hog-nosed skunk, which is not really common inColorado. This is a rather large skunk with a single,broad white stripe from the top of its head to thebase of its long, bushy tail. Its tail is white all over
except for a few scattered black hairs beneath. Itdoes not have a white stripe on its head, but doeshave a distinguished long, flexible snout.
All skunks utilize delayed implantation, inwhich the attachment of the fertilized egg to theuterine wall is delayed as a survival strategy for leantimes. If food resources are insufficient to raise afamily, the female skunk aborts before investingmuch energy in reproduction. Littleis known about hog-nosedskunk reproduction, but theother two species havebeen studied exten-sively. Striped skunksand western spottedskunks breed at
different times ofthe year and delay implanta-
tion for different lengths of time. Thismay be one way that the two species avoid competi-
tion at a critical time and ensure that each can suc-cessfully reproduce. This type of survival strategy,where species restrict their activities to a specifictime period or part of the environment, is called spe-cialization or niche differentiation.
Here’s how it works: male skunks use theirpungent defense odor to communicate with theopposite sex during mating season and to mark theirterritories. It might be troublesome to have two dif-ferent species spraying at the same time. So, stripedskunks breed in the spring, but implantation of theeggs is delayed about 19 days, with new littersarriving usually in late May or early June. Thewestern spotted skunks mate in early fall, but delayimplantation for nearly six months, giving birtharound the same time as the striped skunk, whenfood is plentiful for the young.
Striped Skunk
Hog-nosedSkunk
Spotted Skunk
32 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
1
112
3
4
5
6
7
9
8
10
12
1713
14
15
16
18
33MO N TA N E FO R E S T S
Bir
ds
1.
Sp
ott
ed T
ow
hee
(Pip
ilo m
acul
atus
)—fo
rmer
ly c
alle
d th
e ru
fous
-sid
ed t
owhe
e,re
cogn
ized
by
a da
rk h
ead,
bro
wni
sh s
ides
, and
spo
tted
win
gs. I
n ad
diti
on t
oea
ting
inse
cts,
spi
ders
and
liza
rds,
thi
s to
whe
e ra
kes
up v
eget
able
mat
ter
byho
ppin
g ba
ckw
ards
on
the
grou
nd.
2.
Rock
Wre
n(S
alpi
ncte
s ob
sole
tus)
—fa
vors
roc
ky o
r br
oken
ter
rain
fro
m g
rass
land
to t
undr
a. T
he r
ock
wre
n pa
ves
its
nest
ent
ranc
e w
ith
pebb
les
and
rock
pie
ces,
addi
ng m
ore
mat
eria
l if
the
nest
is r
euse
d in
sub
sequ
ent
year
s.
3.
Dar
k-e
yed
Ju
nco
(Jun
co h
yem
alis
)—gr
ay-h
eade
d bi
rd f
ound
in t
he m
onta
nefo
rest
. Flo
cks
of t
hese
gro
und-
nest
ing
bird
s te
nd t
o re
turn
to
the
sam
e ar
ea e
ach
year
.
4.
Pra
irie
Fal
con
(Fal
co m
exic
anus
)—id
enti
fied
by
dark
win
g lin
ing
seen
fro
mbe
low
, and
thi
n, d
ark
chee
k ba
rs. T
agge
d C
anad
a ha
tchl
ings
hav
e be
en f
ound
inC
olor
ado
in w
inte
r.
5.
Bla
ck-b
ille
d M
agp
ie(P
ica
pica
)—ea
sily
iden
tifi
ed b
y it
s bl
ack
and
whi
te c
ol-
orin
g an
d lo
ng t
ail,
pref
ers
light
ly t
reed
hab
itat
s. T
he m
agpi
e is
the
ult
imat
ege
nera
list,
wit
h a
diet
tha
t in
clud
es f
ruit
, ber
ries
, see
ds, i
nsec
ts, w
orm
s, g
arba
ge,
carr
ion,
bir
ds’ e
ggs
and
hatc
hlin
gs.
6.
Wh
ite-
bre
aste
d N
uth
atch
(Sitt
a ca
rolin
ensi
s)—
com
mon
in C
olor
ado’
s po
nder
osa
fore
sts,
iden
tifi
ed b
y w
hite
und
ersi
de t
inge
d w
ith
redd
ish
brow
n an
d da
rk b
and
alon
g th
e cr
own
of t
he h
ead.
Thi
s nu
that
ch is
kno
wn
for
cach
ing
food
in t
ree
bark
and
for
pro
ceed
ing
head
firs
t do
wn
tree
s w
hile
hun
ting
for
inse
cts.
7.
Ste
ller
’s J
ay(C
yano
citta
ste
lleri
)—di
stin
guis
hed
by it
s pr
omin
ent
head
cre
st a
ndde
ep b
lue
win
gs a
nd t
ail.
Thi
s ja
y is
opp
ortu
nist
ic w
hen
sear
chin
g fo
r fo
od,
ofte
n ta
king
adv
anta
ge o
f un
guar
ded
offe
ring
s at
cam
pgro
unds
and
pic
nic
area
s.
Ma
mm
als
8
. A
mer
ican
Mar
ten
(Mar
tes
amer
ican
a)—
ofte
n ca
lled
the
pine
mar
ten,
an
exce
l-le
nt c
limbe
r w
ith
sem
i-re
trac
tile
cla
ws
and
the
abili
ty t
o ro
tate
the
bac
k le
gs f
ora
bett
er g
rip
duri
ng d
esce
nt. T
his
wea
sel-
like
carn
ivor
e pr
eys
prim
arily
on
vole
s,m
ice,
and
sm
all s
quir
rels
.
9.
Bla
ck B
ear
(Urs
us a
mer
ican
us)—
can
rang
e in
col
or f
rom
ligh
t br
own,
eve
n bl
ond,
to b
lack
. Bla
ck b
ears
are
om
nivo
res,
who
se d
iet
of g
rass
es, f
orbs
, ber
ries
, fru
its,
acor
ns, i
nsec
ts, m
amm
als,
and
car
rion
var
ies
wit
h th
e se
ason
s.
10.
Mu
le D
eer
(Odo
coile
us h
emio
nus)
—in
habi
t al
l of
Col
orad
o’s
ecos
yste
ms
from
gras
slan
ds t
o tu
ndra
. Nam
ed f
or t
he la
rge
ears
, the
se d
eer
have
whi
te t
ails
tipp
ed w
ith
blac
k an
d sc
ent
glan
ds a
bove
the
bac
k ho
oves
.
11.
Com
mon
Porc
up
ine
(Ere
thiz
on d
orsa
tum
)—kn
own
for
quill
s on
the
tai
l and
low
er b
ack
that
are
thr
ust,
not
thro
wn,
into
an
adve
rsar
y. L
ike
the
skun
k, w
hen
thre
aten
ed t
he p
orcu
pine
may
eng
age
in d
ispl
ays
such
as
toot
h ch
atte
ring
,w
avin
g th
e ta
il w
ith
quill
s er
ect,
and
even
on
occa
sion
issu
ing
a st
rong
sce
nt.
12.
Mex
ican
Wood
rat
(Neo
tom
a m
exic
ana)
—ha
s a
noti
ceab
ly b
i-co
lore
d ta
il, d
ark
onto
p an
d lig
ht b
elow
, and
fee
ds la
rgel
y on
pin
e co
nes,
aco
rns,
and
juni
per
berr
ies
in t
his
ecos
yste
m. I
n ad
diti
on t
o us
ing
vege
tati
on in
con
stru
ctin
g th
e ne
st, t
his
woo
drat
add
s de
bris
suc
h as
bon
es a
nd f
eath
ers.
13.
Big
horn
Sh
eep
(Ovi
s ca
nade
nsis
)—C
olor
ado’
s st
ate
anim
al, u
sed
on t
he lo
go o
fth
e C
olor
ado
Div
isio
n of
Wild
life.
The
she
ep’s
horn
s, m
assi
ve a
nd c
urle
d on
the
mal
e, s
hort
er o
n th
e fe
mal
e, h
ave
grow
th r
ings
tha
t ca
n be
use
d to
est
imat
e ag
e.
Rep
tile
s14
. M
ilk S
nak
e(L
ampr
opel
tis tr
iang
ulum
)—ba
nded
in r
ed o
r or
ange
, whi
te a
ndbl
ack,
occ
urs
from
Col
orad
o’s
gras
slan
ds t
o lo
wer
mon
tane
for
ests
. Thi
s co
n-st
rict
or w
as s
o-na
med
bec
ause
it w
as o
nce
thou
ght
to b
e ab
le t
o m
ilk c
ows.
15.
Sag
ebru
sh L
izar
d(S
celo
poru
s gr
acio
sus)
—a
com
mon
spe
cies
in w
este
rnC
olor
ado,
iden
tifi
ed b
y tw
o lig
ht-c
olor
ed s
trip
es r
unni
ng d
own
eith
er s
ide
of t
heba
ck. M
ales
eng
age
in t
erri
tori
al h
ead-
bobb
ing
disp
lays
.
Pla
nts
16.
Pri
ckly
-pea
r(O
punt
ia p
olya
cant
ha)—
cact
us c
hara
cter
ized
by
flat
, gre
en, o
val-
shap
ed p
ads
wit
h sp
ikes
arr
ange
d in
reg
ular
ly s
pace
d bu
ndle
s. T
he f
low
ers
that
appe
ar in
late
spr
ing
are
yello
w o
r re
ddis
h in
col
or a
nd u
p to
thr
ee in
ches
acr
oss.
17.
Sku
nkb
rush
(Rhu
s tr
iloba
ta)—
foun
d al
ong
rock
y sl
opes
of
the
mon
tane
shr
ub-
land
s. T
his
plan
t is
kno
wn
by a
var
iety
of
com
mon
nam
es, i
nclu
ding
lem
onad
e-bu
sh, t
hree
-lea
f su
mac
, and
pol
ecat
bus
h.
Tre
e18
. P
on
der
osa
Pin
e(P
inus
pon
dero
sa)—
the
defi
ning
tre
e of
the
low
er m
onta
ne,
espe
cial
ly t
he e
aste
rn f
ooth
ills.
Thi
s pi
ne h
as t
he lo
nges
t ne
edle
s of
any
Col
orad
o co
nife
r an
d pr
efer
s so
uth-
faci
ng s
lope
s an
d w
arm
uns
hade
d so
il fo
r re
-gr
owth
.
Set
tin
g—A
bove
th
e B
ig T
hom
pso
n R
iver
, ea
st o
f E
stes
Pa
rk
34 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Montane Forests
Golden Gate Canyon State Park, easilyaccessible from Highway 93 between Goldenand Boulder, is an excellent example of themontane forest ecosystem.
The word “montane” means mountain.Montane forests are found on the slopes of theRocky Mountains at elevations between 5,500 and9,000 feet. Some popular sites include the BlackForest, east of Interstate 25 between Denver andColorado Springs, the forests at the very north-western corner of our state, and a forested area south-west of Grand Junction.
Not surprisingly, the major feature you’ll see inthe montane forest is trees! Ponderosa pines domi-nate south-facing slopes, while Douglas firs are morecommon on moister north-facing slopes and on thewestern slope of the Rockies. At lower montaneforest elevations, Rocky Mountain juniper may beinterspersed with ponderosa pine. At higher eleva-tions, lodgepole pine and spruce become morecommon. Other trees and shrubs in the montaneforest include aspen, kinnikinnik, and mountainmahogany.
Ponderosa pines have very long, thin needlesthat tend to grow in bundles of two or three towardthe ends of their branches. Douglas fir needles grow singly along the branches, are shorter than the ponderosa’s, and are flat. An easy way to rememberthe shape of the Douglas fir’s needles is to think,“flat fir.”
The Ponderosa Forest—A LandscapeForged by Wind and Fire
Warm, downslope winds blow across theContinental Divide from the west and descendthrough the foothills montane forests at speeds some-times approaching 100 miles per hour. These“Chinook” winds can warm local temperatures asmuch as 60 or 70 degrees Fahrenheit within an hour.Colorado’s ponderosa pines evolved with thesewinds, and have adapted to benefit from them. Whilestrong winds can break off branches and even blowdown stiffer species of trees, the flexible uppertrunks of the ponderosa sway back and forth in thewind. These trees have also developed an extensivelateral root structure that firmly anchors them in theground. Rarely will a healthy ponderosa blow downin normal wind conditions.
Unlike deciduous trees such as maple andaspen, which shed their leaves every autumn and go
through winter with bare branches, conif-erous trees like the ponderosa pine
keep green needles throughout theyear. Like the leaves of deciduous
trees, though, needles on ponderosado turn brown and fall
off. They don’t falloff, however, untilnew green needleshave already grown.As ponderosabranches grow longerevery year, newneedles appear alongthe new growth.Further back on thebranch, the oldestneedles turn brownand are shed in highwinds.
Ponderosa Pine
DouglasFir
35MO N TA N E FO R E S T S
Ponderosa pines have evolved to take advantageof the periodic fires that were a regular feature of themontane forest prior to modern human settlement.Ponderosa do not grow well in the shade, preferringdirect sunlight and warmer soils. Ponderosa in densestands do not receive the nutrients, light, or waterneeded for vigorous growth. Periodically, lightning-caused fires would clear out forest brush and litter, aswell as smaller ponderosa and other species of trees.The thicker bark of the larger ponderosa withstoodthe effects of low and moderate intensity fires andthe surviving trees thrived in the fire-opened areas.Due to our recent history of fire suppression, theforests of the lower montane have accumulated highdensities of small and medium diameter ponderosa,along with shade-tolerantspecies that have taken advan-tage of the ponderosa canopy.As a result of this accumulatedfuel, most recent wildfires havebeen of sufficient intensity tokill even the largest ponderosa,significantly altering the land-scape and threatening peopleand property. Elected officials,resource managers, and ecologistsare currently considering the bestmethods to tackle the issues of forestmanagement.
Wildlife You Might Discover inthe Montane Forest
The montane forest is the ecosystemwe often associate with some of our state’smost recognizable big mammals. Muledeer, named for their large ears, arecommon, as are elk. In late summer or early fall,you might hear the high-pitched “bugling” of a bullelk as he proclaims his presence to females and com-peting males. Raccoon, porcupine, deer mice, redfox, black bear and coyote also make their home inthe montane forest.
Bird species abound. Looking up in the sky, youmay see turkey vultures soaring in lazy circles,searching for food by smell as well as sight. Below,ground-dwelling birds such as dark-eyed juncos, graywith a bit of rust color on their backs, might bespotted searching for food or protecting their nests.Closer to eye level, you might glimpse the silentflight of a great horned owl as it glides below the treebranches. Black-chinned hummingbirds and moun-tain chickadees are frequent visitors to area birdfeeders.
The wolf spider is common in the montaneforest, and, like a wolf, hunts for food rather thanwaiting for some unsuspecting victim to fall into its
web. Female wolf spiders spin large whitish egg sacsat the end of their bodies and carry the eggs aroundwith them until they hatch. Hatchlings then climb ontheir mother’s back and ride around until they canfend for themselves.
The Montane Forest through theSeasons
Colorado’s seasons are on full display in themontane forest. The spectacular fall color ofchanging aspen leaves is just one golden example.
Look out over the forest on a breezy, sunny dayright after a snowfall. One after another, great clouds
of snow can be seen falling fromswaying branches. A snowfallprovides a good opportunity todiscover how the montaneforest helps maintain the
water cycle. Immediatelyafter a snowfall, branches
are covered in white. Butthe snow and moisturedon’t remain there. Someof the moisture returns
to the
atmosphere directly as water vapor, in a processcalled sublimation. Some is taken into the branchesand used by the trees. But, especially if the days fol-lowing a snowfall are sunny, warmer, and breezy,much of the snow in the lower montane falls to theground, where it is shaded and much of its moistureallowed to return to the soil. This soil moisture helpsirrigate the forest vegetation and recharge groundwater sources. Some of the snowmelt runs off intocreeks and rivers, helping sustain Colorado’s surfacewaters.
In late spring and summer, visitors to themontane landscape are treated to an abundance ofglorious wildflowers. You may spot the blue andwhite colors of our state flower, the Coloradocolumbine, in moist low-lying areas. On open slopes
American Elk
36 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
and meadows, tall, red orange-colored tips signal aclump of Indian paintbrush. The purple colors ofpenstemons and lupines contrast with the yellows ofthe many asters that grow from foothills to subalpineelevations.
A Closer Look at One Montane ForestSpecies
The Abert’s squirrel is associated almost solelywith the montane forest ecosystem. In Colorado, thissquirrel has a gray or black coat, bushy tail, and longtasseled ears. They make their home among the pon-derosa, often singling out an individual tree. Theyappear to use taste to select trees with the mostnutritional value.
Abert’s squirrels rely on the ponderosa pine forfood, nesting, and cover. They build their nests highup in the ponderosa, and eat the cones, buds, andinner bark of the tree. Although they can consume asizeable portion of the entire cone crop in an area,they do help to distribute ponderosa seeds. Abert’ssquirrels have also been known to eat mistletoe, a
small parasitic plant that can debilitate ponderosaby attaching to the branches and depriving the
tree of necessary nutrients. During the mating season of
February and March, you canoften spot several male
squirrels scampering
over theground andfallen logs,chasing after onefemale. Young areusually born in mid-spring and are on theirown by early summer.
Crossroads of Biodiversity—Colorado’sMontane Forests
All of Colorado’s eighteen known bat species areinsectivores that consume enormous quantities of
harmful forest and agricultural pests. A single batoften consumes half its own weight in flying insectsevery night! Over and above their contributions topest control, bats are a boon to science and medicine.Their longevity, disease resistance, ease in ability tobecome torpid (lower their metabolic rate), andsonar capabilities make bats useful in scientificresearch. Bats have been used in studies rangingfrom the effects of smoking and alcohol consump-tion, blood cell mechanics, tissue regeneration, aging,contraception, low-temperature surgical techniques,to speech pathology and vaccine development.Montane forests are home to several species of theseimportant animals. Among the bats that share thisecosystem are the little brown bat, long-leggedmyotis, and the silver-haired bat.
One of the most common species of bat found inthe United States, the little brown bat is quite small,measuring only a few inches in length and weighingperhaps no more than half an ounce! The long-legged myotis (“myotis” identifies the “mouse-eared” bats) is considerably larger and found only inthe western half of the United States, with Coloradoat the eastern end of its range. The silver-haired bat,named for the frosted back hairs on its otherwiseblack body, is near the southern end of its range inColorado.
These montane bat species prefer differentsites in the forest. Little brown bats favormoist woodlands near streams and ponds fortheir habitat, while long-leggeds and silver-
haireds choose drier forests. Long-legged batsroost in caves. Mining has actually increased
habitat for this and other cave-dwelling species,since Colorado lacks a sufficient amount ofnatural caves. The silver-haired is one of thefew bats that prefer to roost in trees ratherthan caves. Little brown bats are not too
picky about where they roost, and have beennoted roosting in tree hollows, underneath tree bark,in or under buildings, bridges or rocks, and in caves.
Bat numbers nationwide have been severelyreduced, due to a variety of factors such as deliberatekilling, vandalism of hibernacula (places where batshibernate), disturbance by cave explorers duringhibernation, habitat loss, and agricultural pesticides.As their value to ecosystems and to humans becomesbetter understood, concerted steps are being taken toconserve bat populations and their habitats. Effortsare being made to enhance remaining habitat andprotect usable human-made environments. Minesand natural caves are being closed with entrancegrates that allow access for bats while discouraginghuman intrusion and disturbance.
In other areas, residents are being urged to putup bat boxes to increase roosting opportunities. Thedesign and placement of bat boxes has changed as
Abert’s Squirrel
37MO N TA N E FO R E S T S
we have learned more about bats. Theold, square, modified bird boxeshammered to a tree have been dis-carded as ineffective. Newer batboxes are tall, wide and only a fewinches deep. They have baffled
sections inside, are open at thebottom, and provide a groovedwood or mesh-covered landingarea. Bat box exteriors arecolored matched to the localclimate (black for coolest to
light brown for hottest),positioned to receive
a substantialamount of direct
sunlight, andplaced highup on polesor on
buildings. A great resource for bat information is BatConservation International.
Bats: Myth and RealityNot so long ago, bats were seen only as some-
thing to be feared and eliminated. Being nocturnalpredators, they were associated with darkness. Theywere thought to drink human blood, because onespecies does feed on blood from mammals. Therewas also the justified fear that bats spread rabies, ascan many other mammals. (As with all animals, indi-viduals found lying on the ground or acting strangelyshould not be handled.) Among the myths about batsis that they are blind and can get caught up inpeople’s hair. In reality, bats have good eyesight andare only attracted to the bugs that are attracted topeople. Fortunately, the negative myths about thesewondrous creatures are being dispelled as theirspecial qualities and beneficial behaviors are morefully appreciated.
Cultural diversityCultural diversity describes the richness of
knowledge, beliefs, and traditions within our ownspecies. Cultures use and value natural resourcesin a variety of ways. The Cheyenne who fre-quented the foothills and mountain parks ofColorado prior to Euro-American settlement madegood use of many plants and flowers. They usedcurly dock, a rust-colored spiral-flowered plant, asa dye and to treat internal hemorrhaging andexternal wounds. Green gentian, also known asthe monument plant or “deers ears,” was used totreat diarrhea. The tansy yarrow was taken as acough and cold remedy. Richardson’s geraniumwas a good treatment for nosebleed.
In addition to using plants for medic-inal purposes, the Cheyenne obtainedfood from such plants as wild strawberry,gooseberry currant, wild onion, prickly-pear cactus, wild licorice, choke cherry,raspberry, and Indian turnip (scurf pea). Allthese plants are still to be found in the montaneforest ecosystem, connecting us with history, andreminding us of our interconnectedness withnature and other cultures. Don’t go out and starteating these or any other plants. Many had to be spe-cially prepared before they could be used safely.
Some human activities that were once consid-ered harmless or even valuable for an appreciationof nature are now the subject of much debate.Collecting samples of small animals or shed
snakeskin and antlers can further wildlife educa-tion and perhaps inspire students to pursuecareers in environmental fields. On the otherhand, animals, plants, and organic material areimportant components of an ecosystem. In recentyears, large numbers of visitors to montanemeadows have been observed completelydenuding an area of its wildflowers. This can beharmful because sufficient populations of plantsare necessary to ensure their future viability. Thecomplex and important debate over the practice ofcollecting continues.
38 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
1
11
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
8
10 12
17
13
1415
16
1819
20
2122
39SU B A L P I N E FO R E S T S
Bir
ds
1.
Am
eric
an D
ipper
(Cin
clus m
exica
nus)
—re
late
d to
the
robi
n; fo
und
whe
reve
r fas
t-m
ovin
gst
ream
s ar
e pr
esen
t. In
ord
er to
div
e, s
wim
, and
wad
e un
derw
ater
in p
ursu
it of
aqu
atic
inse
cts,
the
dipp
er is
abl
e to
wat
erpr
oof i
ts d
ense
plu
mag
e an
d se
al it
s no
stril
s.
2.
Wes
tern
Tan
ager
(Pir
anga
ludo
vicia
na)—
sum
mer
resi
dent
of C
olor
ado’
s op
en c
onife
r for
ests
.W
hile
thei
r bre
edin
g ra
nge
exte
nds
from
Tex
as to
Ala
ska,
thes
e ta
nage
rs w
inte
r in
Mex
ico,
Cos
ta R
ica,
and
alo
ng th
e so
uthe
rn C
alifo
rnia
coa
st.
3.
San
dhill
Cra
ne
(Gru
s can
aden
sis)—
cour
ts in
Mar
ch in
the
San
Lui
s Va
lley
befo
re m
igra
ting
tono
rthw
este
rn C
olor
ado
and
poin
ts b
eyon
d. T
his
tall
gray
bird
, mar
ked
with
a d
ark
red
patc
hon
the
fore
head
, has
ben
efite
d fr
om in
crea
sed
prot
ectio
n of
the
beav
er, w
hose
dam
s m
ake
exce
llent
site
s fo
r cra
ne n
ests
.
4.
Cla
rke’
s N
utc
rack
er(N
ucifr
aga
colu
mbi
ana)
—re
side
nt o
f con
ifero
us fo
rest
s, id
entif
ied
byw
hite
pat
ches
alo
ng th
e in
ner t
raili
ng e
dges
of t
he w
ings
and
out
er e
dges
of t
he ta
il. T
hese
bird
s co
llect
and
cac
he th
ousa
nds
of p
ine
nuts
eac
h ye
ar, c
rack
ing
them
ope
n w
ith th
eir b
ills
or b
y w
edgi
ng th
em in
to ro
ck c
revi
ces.
5.
Blu
e G
rouse
(Den
drag
apus
obs
curu
s)—
reve
rse
mig
rate
s fr
om lo
wer
to h
ighe
r ele
vatio
ns in
win
ter t
o fe
ed o
n co
nife
r nee
dles
and
bud
s, s
pend
ing
the
wor
st w
eath
er u
p in
spr
uce
and
firtr
ees.
Mal
es, i
dent
ified
by
yello
w-o
rang
e ey
e co
mbs
, inf
late
redd
ish
neck
air
sacs
to c
ourt
fem
ales
and
to a
mpl
ify th
eir m
atin
g “h
oots
”.
6.
Gre
en-w
inge
d T
eal(
Anas
crec
ca)—
smal
l duc
k pr
efer
ring
wet
land
s an
d rip
aria
n ha
bita
ts a
long
the
Fro
nt R
ange
and
hig
her m
ount
ain
park
s. F
lock
s of
thes
e iri
desc
ent-
gree
n-w
inge
d bi
rds
can
ofte
n be
see
n in
low
, see
min
gly
erra
tic fl
ight
, tw
istin
g an
d tu
rnin
g as
a s
ingl
e un
it.
7.
Bro
ad-t
aile
d H
um
min
gbir
d(S
elasp
horu
s pla
tyce
rcus
)—m
ost n
umer
ous
in m
onta
ne s
hrub
land
san
d fo
rest
s, b
ut fo
und
up to
tim
berli
ne. F
emal
es, w
ith g
reen
ish
back
s bu
t lac
king
the
mal
es’
dark
red
or b
lack
ish
thro
at p
atch
, rai
se th
e yo
ung
alon
e, re
mai
ning
in th
e co
lder
val
leys
whi
lem
ales
roos
t at w
arm
er e
leva
tions
.
Ma
mm
als
8.
Yello
w-b
ellie
d M
arm
ot(M
arm
ota
flavi
vent
ris)
—us
ually
bro
wn
in c
olor
with
yel
low
ish
unde
r-si
des
and
whi
te fa
cial
and
nec
k m
arki
ngs.
The
se m
arm
ots
ofte
n cr
awl o
n th
eir b
ellie
s w
hen
mak
ing
thei
r way
thro
ugh
dens
e ve
geta
tion,
leav
ing
a di
stin
ctiv
e pa
th in
thei
r wak
e.
9.
Am
eric
an E
lk/W
apit
i(Ce
rvus
elap
hus)
—co
mm
on a
bove
5,0
00 fe
et. I
n sp
ring
mig
ratin
g el
kfo
llow
the
mel
ting
snow
pac
k to
hig
her e
leva
tions
; in
win
ter,
snow
dep
th tr
igge
rs d
ownw
ard
mig
ratio
n.
10.
Big
hor
n S
hee
p(O
vis c
anad
ensis
)—C
olor
ado’
s st
ate
anim
al, u
sed
on th
e lo
go o
f the
Col
orad
oD
ivis
ion
of W
ildlif
e. T
he s
heep
’s ho
rns,
mas
sive
and
cur
led
on th
e m
ale,
sho
rter
on
the
fem
ale,
hav
e gr
owth
ring
s th
at c
an b
e us
ed to
est
imat
e ag
e.
11.
Lea
st C
hip
munk
(Tam
ias m
inim
us)—
leas
t in
size
, but
gre
ates
t in
rang
e of
any
Col
orad
o ch
ip-
mun
k, fo
und
from
sag
e sh
rubl
ands
to a
lpin
e tu
ndra
. Thi
s ch
ipm
unk,
dis
tingu
ishe
d fr
omot
hers
by
its s
mal
l siz
e an
d da
rt-li
ke m
ovem
ents
, hib
erna
tes
over
the
win
ter,
but w
akes
per
i-od
ical
ly to
feed
on
stor
ed fo
od.
12.
Moo
se(A
lces a
lces)
—la
rges
t of t
he d
eer f
amily
, int
rodu
ced
into
Col
orad
o by
the
DO
W in
1978
, fav
ors
the
suba
lpin
e fo
rest
. Ide
ntifi
ed b
y its
larg
e si
ze, m
assi
ve m
uzzl
e, a
nd h
angi
ngde
wla
p, th
e m
oose
’s an
tlers
spr
ead
out a
nd b
ack
from
the
head
like
ope
ned
palm
s w
ithex
tend
ed ti
nes
or p
oint
s.
13.
Bla
ck B
ear
(Urs
us a
mer
icanu
s)—
can
rang
e in
col
or fr
om li
ght b
row
n, e
ven
blon
d, to
bla
ck.
Bla
ck b
ears
are
om
nivo
res,
who
se d
iet o
f gra
sses
, for
bs, b
errie
s, fr
uits
, aco
rns,
inse
cts,
mam
mal
s, a
nd c
arrio
n va
ries
with
the
seas
ons.
14.
Gol
den
-man
tled
Gro
und S
quir
rel(
Sper
mop
hilu
s lat
eral
is)—
nam
ed fo
r the
cop
per-
colo
red
head
and
sho
ulde
rs, w
ith tw
o w
hite
str
ipes
bor
dere
d by
bla
ck ru
nnin
g do
wn
the
back
. Thi
sgr
ound
squ
irrel
, fou
nd in
the
wes
tern
two-
third
s of
Col
orad
o, h
iber
nate
s fo
r abo
ut fi
ve to
seve
n m
onth
s, w
akin
g pe
riodi
cally
.
Am
ph
ibia
n a
nd
Rep
tile
15.
Tige
r Sal
aman
der
(Am
bysto
ma
tigri
num
)—fo
und
thro
ugho
ut C
olor
ado
whe
re a
quat
ic b
reed
ing
area
s ar
e ac
cess
ible
. Col
orat
ion,
influ
ence
d by
the
envi
ronm
ent,
can
rang
e fr
om li
ght b
ars
ona
dark
bac
kgro
und
to d
ark
spot
s on
a li
ght b
ackg
roun
d.
16.
Wes
tern
Ter
rest
rial
Gar
ter
Snak
e(T
ham
noph
is ele
gans
)—id
entif
ied
by li
ght-
colo
red
strip
eson
the
side
s an
d on
e do
wn
the
cent
er o
f the
bac
k. F
ound
in o
r nea
r aqu
atic
are
as th
roug
hout
all o
f Col
orad
o ex
cept
the
nort
heas
t gra
ssla
nds,
this
sna
ke fe
eds
on a
var
iety
of i
nver
tebr
ates
and
vert
ebra
tes
incl
udin
g fr
ogs,
toad
s, li
zard
s an
d sm
all b
irds.
Fis
h17
. C
utt
hro
at T
rout
(Onc
orhy
nchu
s cla
rki)—
nam
ed fo
r the
blo
od-r
ed m
arki
ngs
runn
ing
dow
n th
eja
w a
nd u
nder
the
thro
at, h
isto
rical
ly ra
nged
from
Mon
tana
to N
ew M
exic
o. R
educ
ed to
abou
t 5%
if it
s hi
stor
ic ra
nge,
the
gree
nbac
k cu
tthr
oat t
rout
(O. c
. sto
mia
s), C
olor
ado’
s st
ate
fish,
is c
urre
ntly
bei
ng re
stor
ed to
man
y hi
gher
-ele
vatio
n st
ream
s an
d la
kes
thro
ugh
a co
oper
-at
ive
effo
rt o
f pub
lic a
nd p
rivat
e ag
enci
es.
Pla
nts
18.
Col
um
bin
e(A
quile
gia
coer
ulea
)—ea
sily
iden
tifia
ble
flow
er w
ith la
rge,
blu
e se
pals
and
whi
tepe
tals
. Col
orad
o’s
stat
e flo
wer
can
be
foun
d fr
om fo
othi
lls to
alp
ine.
19.
Pai
ntb
rush
(Cas
tillej
a rh
exifo
lia)—
com
mon
ly k
now
n as
the
suba
lpin
e pa
intb
rush
or r
osy
pain
tbru
sh fo
r its
rose
-col
ored
flow
ers.
Clu
ster
s of
thes
e ta
ll pl
ants
can
oft
en b
e fo
und
inop
en m
eado
ws
of th
e su
balp
ine
fore
st.
20.
Sca
rlet
Gili
a(I
pom
opsis
agg
rega
ta)—
also
kno
wn
as th
e sk
yroc
ket o
r fai
ry tr
umpe
t for
its
trum
pet-
shap
ed re
d flo
wer
s, b
ienn
ial f
ound
in o
pen
woo
ds a
nd fi
elds
. Poi
sono
us to
hum
ans,
and
polli
nate
d in
Col
orad
o by
hum
min
gbird
s an
d bu
mbl
ebee
s, s
ome
popu
latio
ns o
f thi
s gi
liaha
ve d
evel
oped
the
abili
ty to
cha
nge
colo
rs to
att
ract
suc
cess
ive
spec
ies
of p
ollin
ator
s.
Tre
es21
. Q
uak
ing
Asp
en(P
opul
us tr
emul
oide
s)—
nam
ed fo
r the
trem
blin
g of
the
leav
es in
the
win
d,th
e m
ost w
idel
y di
strib
uted
tree
in N
orth
Am
eric
a. I
n th
e su
balp
ine
aspe
n in
habi
t sou
th-
faci
ng, s
helte
red
slop
es, b
ut th
roug
hout
thei
r ran
ge th
ey a
lso
colo
nize
dis
turb
ed s
ites
such
as
burn
and
ava
lanc
he a
reas
, sen
ding
out
spr
outs
, or s
ucke
rs, f
rom
an
exte
nsiv
e un
derg
roun
dro
ot s
yste
m.
22.
Enge
lman
n S
pru
ce(P
icea
enge
lman
nii)—
pred
omin
ant t
ree
of th
e su
balp
ine
fore
st, c
apab
le o
fhe
ight
s of
100
feet
. Eng
elm
ann
spru
ce n
eedl
es a
re s
hort
, thi
ck, c
urve
d, a
nd s
harp
-poi
nted
.
Set
tin
g—D
all
as
Div
ide,
sou
th o
f T
ellu
ride
Subalpine Forests
Between Walden and Fort Collins, along StateHighway 14, is a high-altitude forest that has beenofficially preserved for the people of Colorado. TheColorado State Forest State Park, ranging between8,500 to 12,500 feet, encompasses severalecosystems, from upper montane and high-ele-vation riparian to alpine tundra. But for most ofits elevation range, the Colorado State Forest isa landscape of subalpine fir and Engelmannspruce, the subalpine forest ecosystem.
Cold, Dark and DampSubalpine forests begin at about 9,000 feet and
spread upward to about 11,400 feet, where fierce, icywinds and shallow soils make tree survival impos-sible. These are the highest, snowiest, and windiestof Colorado’s forests. The average annual tempera-ture is barely above freezing, 36 degrees Fahrenheit,with a short growing season of less than two months.Most precipitation falls as heavy winter snow.Additional snow is blown down by high winds fromthe peaks, and trapped by the narrow, denselypacked trees. Shaded under the tree canopy, thesnow melts slowly, often lasting into summer.
The Climax Forest Engelmann spruce and sub-
alpine fir dominate the subalpineforest. Always found together,
Engelmann spruce and subalpine firare “late successional” trees.
Succession is the natural process by which distinctplant communities replace previous ones over time.
The climax community is the plant communityat the end point of the successional sequence and itmaintains itself if the environmental conditions staythe same. In the absence of some major change, theclimax forest of Engelmann spruce and subapline firwill continually regenerate as a dense, uniform green
blanket covering mostof Colorado’s higherslopes. If an aspengrove or stand of lodge-pole pines breaks theuniform pattern of green, this means there has beensome disturbance in the area. Fire, forest thinning,avalanche, and other events open the forest and allowsunlight to sprout “early successional” pioneerplants such as aspen, grasses, and wildflowers. Afterthe aspen and lodgepole have established a canopy,shade-loving spruce and fir re-emerge and eventuallycrowd them out.
The floor of the subalpine forest is littered withfallen trees in various stages of decay. The wintersnow lingers into the summer, shaded by the densecanopy. The flowering plants (forbs) found here arespecies that thrive in a rich, moist environment. Oneof these is the beautiful fairy slipper, an orchid thattakes its name from a hanging pink petal shaped likea ballet slipper. Another is Jacob’s Ladder, identifiedby the vertically ascending leaves on its feather-likestalk and aromatic, pale pink or bluish flowers. Thetiny woodnymph, whose fragrant, waxy white flowerdroops atop a four-inch stem, can also be found in theclimax forest.
In forest openings and disturbed areas, enoughsunlight penetrates to sustain a variety of plants thatare seen in many other ecosystems. One is our stateflower, the columbine. Some of the plants that growin these openings provide good forage for wildlife.Heartleaf arnica, with its showy, bright yellow flowersand heart-shaped leaves, and wild parsley are eatenin spring and early summer. The fruits of wild rose,golden currant and mountain blueberry are favoritesof birds, rodents, and black bears in the fall.
Square Sharp Spruce and Flat FriendlyFir
The Englemann spruce is a long-lived, slowgrowing evergreen. In the limited growing season athigh altitude, it takes hundreds of years for this tree
40 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
EngelmannSpruce
Subalpine Fir
41SU B A L P I N E FO R E S T S
to reach a mature height of more than one hundredfeet. The Englemann spruce has a rich, reddishbrown trunk and a ragged, narrow crown. Sprucecones hang down from the branches and are lightbrown with papery, toothed scales. Short, sharpspruce needles are square in cross-section and singlyjoined to the branch.
Subalpine firs are not as long-lived as spruce, butthey reproduce more readily. A mature fir hasgrooved, grayish-white bark and may reach a heightof 75 feet. The crowns of subalpine fir tend to bevery narrow and pointed, resembling church spires.Subalpine fir cones grow upright on the upperbranches. The needles of the subalpine fir are one totwo inches long, with whitish lines on both sides.They are flat and soft and grow individually from thebranch. When fir needles fall or are pulled off, theyleave a depressed round scar on the twig.
Wildlife You Might Discover in theSubalpine Forest
Subalpine forests are a tangle of robust trees, oldsnags and downed logs. This particular mix of habitatin these old forests provides food and shelter for awide variety of animals—animals with behavioral orphysical adaptations that shelter them from the coldand wind.
Except during the coldest months, a variety ofpuffy little birds nest, raise young, and roost in thesubalpine forest. The small roundish body type, sur-rounded by a fluff of dense feathers, insulates thebirds from the cold. Ruby-crowned kinglets, withwhite-ringed eyes, and their cousins the golden-crowned kinglets, glean insects from the bark andleaves and drink tree sap. Mountain chickadees and dark-eyed juncos, pine grosbeaks and Cassin’sfinches pry seeds from pine, fir and spruce cones.
Red-breasted nuthatches creep headfirst downtree trunks searching for insects. The omnivorousgray jay, or “Camp Robber,” snatches sandwiches andpeanuts from hikers and campers to supplement itsdiet of seeds and insects. A closely related species,Clark’s nutcracker, shares both the jay’s nicknameand its habits. Unlike the gray jay, Clark’s nutcrackerdoes not move to lower elevations during the coldwinter months. Instead, these birds gather seeds thatthey keep in a communal storage area to get themthrough the winter and feed their young in spring.This allows Clark’s nutcracker the opportunity to geta head start on the breeding season, a definite advan-tage over other competing species in the forest.
Insect infested snags are great habitat for cavitynesting and wood boring birds. Three-toed wood-peckers, and hairy and downy woodpeckers nest andfeed in the subalpine. The northern saw-whet owland the boreal owl also nest in tree cavities, as well asold woodpecker holes. They feed on mice, voles, andother small mammals found in the forest. Both ofthese tiny owls are strictly nocturnal and are rarelyseen.
Blue grouse, sometimes called “fool hens,” stayin the subalpine during the long winter, and roost inthe treetops. In summer, they head downhill formating rituals and breeding. This “reverse” migra-tion is not what makes blue grouse “foolish,” butrather their strategy of freezing and relying on pro-tective coloration, camouflage, to protect them fromdanger. The dusky blue coloration of the male andthe mottled brown feathers of the female help themblend with their surroundings, keeping most preda-tors from spotting them. However, these birds rarelymove even when it is apparent that the predator iscoming right at them. Rather than insuring survival,standing firm in the face of insurmountable oddsmakes the blue grouse a “sitting duck.”
Northern goshawks speed through the trees,feeding on other birds, snatching them in mid-air.Ravens are fairly common during the summermonths, feeding on nestlings and eggs, as well asrodents, seeds, and fruit.
Mule deer and elk feed in the meadows and usethe trees for cover during the spring, fall, andsummer months. Moose move along the streams,
Columbine
42 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
feasting on willows. Rodents—chipmunks, golden-mantled ground squirrels, mice, and especially thesouthern red-backed vole and the pine squirrels—feed on pine nuts and spruce seeds, and fresh succu-lent grasses.
A mammal closely associated with the subalpineforest is the snowshoe or “varying” hare. Both of itsnames stem from its ability to navigate and survive inthis forest in winter. In summer, the snowshoe harehas dark brown fur that conceals its presence as itnibbles on flowering plants and grasses. In thewinter, the fur changes to white, again blending withthe scenery as the hare feeds on bark, twigs, andbuds. The oversized hind feet also come in handyduring this season, keeping the snowshoe hare fromsinking into the snow and allowing it to move unen-cumbered.
Some of the predators in the subalpine forest arealso seasonal change artists. The ermine, or shorttailed weasel, also turns white in the winter, exceptfor the tip of the tail. The weasel can stalk preyunseen, then subdue the animal by wrapping its longbody around the victim, killing it with a well placedbite at the base of the skull.
Another member of the weasel family, theAmerican marten, or pine marten, is anotherimportant predator in the spruce-fir forest. Theyare as adept hunting in the trees as they are onthe ground. Pine martens are about five timeslarger than the ermine, but have the same long,flexible body design. Their preferred diet ispine squirrels, but they also eat nestingbirds, voles, and various other rodents.Feline predators such as mountain lion,bobcat, and lynx hunt here, althoughonly the lynx is suitably equippedto pursue prey on deep snow. Likethe snowshoe hare, its preferredfood, the lynx has very large feet,which allow it to move freely overthe snow.
A Closer Look at One Species—Moose Historically, Native Americans, trappers, miners,
and ranchers spotted the occasional moose that wan-dered into northern Colorado. Yet even thoughColorado had prime moose habitat, moose were notpresent in numbers sufficient to breed and repro-
duce. In 1978, the Colorado Division of Wildlifebegan a moose introduction program, using
private donations. Over several years,moose from Utah and Wyoming weretransplanted into suitable locations innorthern Colorado. They have thrivedin their new home, and today more
than 1,100 moose are in the state.The moose is the largest member of the
deer family. Bulls (male moose) can stand aformidable six feet tall at the shoulder and
weigh up to 1,200 pounds! Cows(females) are smaller, about 700 pounds.Moose produce the largest antlers
known—some sets in excess of six feet have beenrecorded! Shaped like the palm of the hand with out-stretched fingers, the size and pattern of the antlersreflect the social position and reproductive status ofthe male. The only time that antlers have anypurpose is during the annual rut, or mating season,that begins in late September. Antlers are used tointimidate a rival bull in order to gain mating rightsto a cow. Usually, the antler display of a prime bull isenough to frighten away a younger or weaker male.However, when males of equal status come together,there is often head-on fighting and antler wrestling.
Moose inhabit the subalpine forest edge andopenings in the forestadjacent to water.
Snowshoe Hare
AmericanMarten
43SU B A L P I N E FO R E S T S
Their preferred habitat is found in early successionalsubalpine forest areas that have been recentlyburned, logged, or manipulated by beavers. Typically,moose prefer a mixture of willow, spruce, fir, andaspen, that provides both food and shelter.
Moose are browsers. They mainly eat twigs andleaves of woody or brushy plants. In the summer,aquatic plants, willow, and grasses are their mainfoods. Unlike deer and elk that cannot tolerate deepsnow, the moose stays put during winter rather thanmoving to lower elevations. Moose are able to moveeasily in as much as five feet of snow and can scrapethrough it to get to forage. They survive the coldermonths eating willow and the lower branches ofother trees, sometimes creating a “browse line.”
Crossroads of Biodiversity—SubalpineForests
A diversity of habitats provides a diversity ofopportunities for wildlife. In the subalpine forest,some species profit from climax or “old-growth”stands, while others benefit from the early or inter-mediate successional stages of the forest. Forexample, snowshoe hares, a vital prey species in thisecosystem, needs a mix of low-growing broad-leafedshrubs for food and mature conifers for cover. Theyprefer patches of trees with plenty of edge.Woodpeckers and insect-eating birds like dead snagsand dying trees. The American marten, the greatarboreal hunter, also succeeds best in a climax forest.The moose prefers the succulent browse of theyoung forest. To maintain a diversity of wildlifespecies in the subalpine forest, it is essential tomanage for sufficient acreage of all habitat types atvarious stages of succession.
Moose
44 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
1
2
3
4
56
7
9
8
45TR E E L I N E A N D AL P I N E TU N D R A
Bir
ds
1.
Wh
ite-
tailed
Pta
rmig
an(L
agop
us le
ucur
us)—
year
-rou
nd t
undr
a re
side
nt, f
eeds
prim
arily
on
will
ows,
som
etim
es f
orag
ing
belo
w t
imbe
rlin
e in
win
ter.
Thi
spt
arm
igan
tur
ns f
rom
mot
tled
and
bar
red
brow
n an
d bl
ack
in s
umm
er t
o al
mos
tal
l whi
te in
win
ter.
2.
Red
-tai
led
Haw
k(B
uteo
jam
aice
nsis
)—m
ost
wid
espr
ead
haw
k in
Col
orad
o, e
spe-
cial
ly n
umer
ous
in p
iñon
-jun
iper
woo
dlan
ds a
nd w
inte
r gr
assl
ands
, but
occ
urri
ngye
ar-r
ound
fro
m g
rass
land
to
tund
ra. I
n ad
diti
on t
o ro
dent
s su
ch a
s pr
airi
e do
gs,
thes
e ha
wks
pre
y up
on r
epti
les
and
rabb
its.
Ma
mm
als
3.
Big
horn
Sh
eep
(Ovi
s ca
nade
nsis
)—C
olor
ado’
s st
ate
anim
al, u
sed
on t
he lo
go o
fth
e C
olor
ado
Div
isio
n of
Wild
life.
The
hor
ns, m
assi
ve a
nd c
urle
d on
the
mal
es,
shor
ter
on t
he f
emal
es, h
ave
grow
th r
ings
tha
t ca
n be
use
d to
est
imat
e ag
e.
4.
Am
eric
an E
lk/W
apit
i(C
ervu
s el
aphu
s)—
com
mon
thr
ough
out
cent
ral a
ndw
este
rn C
olor
ado
abov
e 5,
000
feet
. In
spri
ng, m
igra
ting
elk
fol
low
the
mel
ting
snow
pac
k to
hig
her
elev
atio
ns; i
n w
inte
r, sn
ow d
epth
tri
gger
s do
wnw
ard
mig
ra-
tion
.
5.
Am
eric
an P
ika
(Och
oton
a pr
ince
ps)—
som
etim
es c
alle
d a
cony
, roc
k ra
bbit
, or
whi
stlin
g ha
re f
or it
s m
any
voca
lizat
ions
, fou
nd in
sub
alpi
ne f
ores
ts a
nd t
undr
a.T
he p
ika
colle
cts,
dri
es, a
nd s
tore
s a
vari
ety
of v
eget
atio
n in
“ha
ypile
s” a
s a
food
rese
rve
for
the
win
ter.
Pla
nts
6.
Colu
mb
ine
(Aqu
ilegi
a co
erul
ea)—
easi
ly id
enti
fiab
le f
low
er w
ith
larg
e, b
lue
sepa
lsan
d w
hite
pet
als.
Col
orad
o’s
stat
e fl
ower
can
be
foun
d fr
om f
ooth
ills
to a
lpin
e.
7.
Alp
ine
Ave
ns
(Aco
mas
tylis
ros
sii)
—co
mm
on p
lant
fou
nd g
row
ing
in d
ense
mat
sin
dry
tun
dra
area
s. Y
ello
w in
sum
mer
, thi
s m
embe
r of
the
ros
e fa
mily
tur
nsde
ep r
ed in
the
fal
l.
Fu
ngi
8.
Lic
hen
s—re
pres
ente
d by
Ple
opsi
dium
flav
um (
yello
w),
Cal
opla
ca e
pith
allin
a (r
ed-
oran
ge),
and
Xan
thop
arm
elia
wyo
min
gica
(bl
ue-g
reen
). L
iche
ns a
re c
ompo
site
orga
nism
s, c
ompo
sed
prim
arily
of
fung
i in
part
ners
hip
wit
h ei
ther
or
both
alg
aean
d cy
anob
acte
ria.
Tre
e9
. E
nge
lman
n S
pru
ce(P
icea
eng
elm
anni
i)—
pred
omin
ant
tree
of
the
suba
lpin
efo
rest
, cap
able
of
heig
hts
of 1
00 f
eet,
but
usua
lly f
ound
stu
nted
at
tree
line.
Eng
elm
ann
spru
ce n
eedl
es a
re s
hort
, thi
ck, c
urve
d, a
nd s
harp
-poi
nted
.
Set
tin
g—R
ocky
Mou
nta
in N
ati
ona
l P
ark
46 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Treeline and AlpineTundra
Every summer, thousands of motorists travelfrom Twin Lakes to Aspen over IndependencePass. Many marvel at the beautiful vistas ofconifer forests, aspen groves, waterfalls andrushing waters encountered on the east andwest sides of the pass. But for those who stopat the summit parking lot near the headwatersof the Roaring Fork River, and stroll the pathsat an elevation of over 12,000 feet, a stark andbeautiful world awaits; the alpine tundraecosystem of Colorado.
The Upper Limit for TreesAt the upper reaches of the subalpine forest,
fierce winds, extreme temperatures, shallow rockysoils, lack of moisture, and a short growing seasonmake living conditions too severe for trees. Here,stunted versions of subalpine fir and Engelmannspruce, growing to only a fraction of their normalheight, start to grow together in dense clusters orislands, using each other for support and protectionfrom the wind. Those that grow above shrub heighttend to have branches and limbs only on the sidethat is sheltered from the wind, a phenomenonknown as “flagging.”
Other hardy conifers such as bristle-cone pine and limber pine stand
alone on exposed ridges
and peaks, their roots forced into narrow cracksbetween rocks. Limber pines, named for their flex-ible branches that bend in the high winds, havethick, stubby pine needles arranged in bunches offive that grow only at the end of the branches. Boththe needles and cones are tightly attached and holdfast as the extra long limber pine branches twist andtangle in the wind.
Contorted by wind and snow, bristlecone pinesare the oldest living trees in Colorado, with lifes-pans measured in thousands of years. Bristleconebranches are brush like and densely covered
with needles, and these trees are alternativelycalled “foxtail pines.” Bristlecone needles
are also arranged in fives, but are shortand marked with small resin spots.
Bristlecone pines hold their needles tentimes longer than any other pine, shedding
only every 25 to 30 years. The cones have sharp,bristly spikes at their edges—hence the name of
the tree.There are many terms for these twisted trees
that border the highest edge of the subalpine forest.Whether collectively called krummholz (German for“crooked wood”), elfin forests, banner trees, flagtrees, or wind-timber, this area is an ecotone, an edgebetween two distinct ecosystems. This specificecotone is known as treeline, or timberline.
Land Above the TreesJust beyond this ecotone of twisted, wind-
beaten, and ground-hugging trees is the alpinetundra. This mountaintop zone has climatic condi-tions similar to the Arctic tundra at far northern lati-tudes. In addition to the snow, the wind, and the
BristleconePine
Limber Pine
47TR E E L I N E A N D AL P I N E TU N D R A
briefsummer, thetopography itselfpresents challenges to plantgrowth. Since slopes are steep and soils are porous,moisture from melting snows or summer stormsquickly drains, leaving little water for plant growth.Rockslides and avalanches can destroy plants thathave been tenaciously surviving for decades. Plentyof snow falls on these peaks, but high winds drivethe snow from exposed areas down into forests belowor into protected depressions. In the exposed areas,the wind scrapes off new plant growth. Conversely,the snowdrifts are so high in other areas that theburied vegetation is not exposed to sunlight duringthe growing season. Everywhere, the air is thin andthe solar radiation is intense, and even plants in rela-tively sheltered nooks and crannies contend withdehydration.
In this harsh climate, few plants can go through acomplete life cycle of germination, growth, flowering,and seed production in one short growing season.Annual plants are a rarity. Most tundra plants areperennial, going through different stages of growthover many years, and may only put out one or twoleaves in a growing season. It may take a decade ormore for a plant to mature, and a plant only sixinches in diameter may be more than a hundredyears old!
Alpine tundra plants depend on an arsenalof special adaptations for their survival. Toavoid losing moisture, many alpine plantsemploy strategies similar to desert species.Some have leaves with a smooth, waxy finishthat resists evaporation. Others have woollyleaves, with dense fuzz that lessens thechilling and drying effect of the wind. Stillother alpine species have fleshy succulentleaves that store water.
Many plants have brilliantly coloredblossoms and dark green leaves. Not onlydo some of the deeper shades absorb moresunlight for warmth—some pigments actu-ally produce heat! Many alpine plantshave the distinctive red tinge of antho-cyanin pigments in their stems andleaves, and often in their blossoms. If
the plant’s sap is more acidic, theanthocyanin pigments in the
flower will appear red, ifmore alkaline, the
flowers will be blue.In either case, the
anthocyaninpigment will
convert anylight wavesinto heat towarm the
plant, a marked advantage on a cloudy, cold day. Cushion plants, such a moss campion, alpine
forget-me-nots, and alpine phlox have a rounded,low-growing form which allows wind to flow overthem. Their shape exposesthe maximum leaf surfacefor photosynthesis whileprotecting the plant fromthe elements. Thestubby branches catchand hold blown-in dirtalong with olddecaying leaves thatabsorb moisture.Cushion plants put mostof their energy into pro-ducing a large taproot thatanchors them to the slope andabsorbs water two feet or morebelow the surface. Above ground,plants may reach the diameter of apenny in five years and require abouttwenty-five years to reach seven inches. They maytake ten years to flower.
Flag Trees
Cushion Plant
48 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Mat plants such as dwarf clover and alpine sand-wort survive by spreading—they are able to root inany spot where a branch touches the ground. Theycling to the rocks by a tight network of small rootsthat catch water trickling by.
Many of the plant species found on the alpinetundra are circumpolar, occurring in the same habi-tats across the Northern Hemisphere, in both arcticand alpine tundra regions. These plants slowlymigrated into what is now Colorado during the lastIce Age. As the ice sheets retreated, some of theplants remained behind, but ascended the slopes ofthe mountains, where conditions are still comparableto those in the arctic.
Wildlife You Might Discover on theAlpine Tundra
The harsh conditions that make life difficult forplants on the tundra place limits on animals as well.Wildlife is more abundant during the warm summer
months, and most species leave to lower ele-vations or southern destinations in the
winter. Even in summer,there are fewer wildlifespecies in this ecosystem
than in others, and each has adapta-tions to contend with the intensewind and cold, the precarious terrain,
and the scarcity of food and water. Mosquitos, caddisflies,
beetles, grasshoppers, lady-bugs, and other insects are allpresent during the warmermonths, but in lesser
numbers than otherregions. Flies are by farthe most prevalent inver-tebrate on the alpinetundra and have an
important role as pollinators. They are able to with-stand lower temperatures than bees and have lowerenergy requirements. Arctic blue butterflies, namedfor the rich gray-blue wings of the males, and Mead’ssulfur butterflies, also assist in pollination as they sipon tundra flower nectar.
Birds are scarce. During the summer months,prairie falcons and red-tailed hawks hunt for smallrodents. White-crowned sparrows and horned larksare common and some may nest here. Just threespecies—ptarmigans, water pipits, and rosy finches—nest exclusively on the alpine tundra. Ptarmigans and
“Fourteeners”The centerpieces of the Colorado Rockies are
the 54 peaks over 14,000 feet, or “Fourteeners,”as they are affectionately known by climbers.According to the Colorado Fourteeners Initiative,a non-profit coalition with the mission of pro-tecting and preserving the natural integrity ofthese peaks and the quality of the recreationalopportunities they provide, Colorado’sFourteeners are now visited by over 300,000people each year—and visitor numbers continueto rise 10% each year. The lower alpine peakshave even more visitors. This increased recre-
ational use has had serious impacts on theseecosystems. Polluted waters, displaced wildlife,eroded soils, braided trails, and trampled vegeta-tion are some of the problems threatening thetundra. The slow growing alpine plants are veryvulnerable, and recovery from even small distur-bances such as trampling by hikers may takemany decades. Larger disturbances can disruptthe alpine ecosystem for hundreds of years. Whenvisiting these high peaks, it is important to stay ontrails, dispose of waste properly, respect wildlife,and not collect plants, rocks, or any animal or cul-tural artifacts.
Ptarmigan
pipits lay eggs in depressions on the open ground,while the finches build nests among the crags.The rosy finches and water pipits search the snow-fields for insects and seeds. When the weathergets colder in the fall, both species migrate towarmer climates.
Only the ptarmigan lives on the tundra yearround. This bird, the size of a small chicken,feeds on willow buds during winter. In anopen land with little cover, the ptarmiganprotects itself by turning from mottledbrown and black in summer to white in
winter and simply blendsin with the groundcover. Ptarmigan legsand feet are heavilyfeathered to preventheat loss and toprovide a
snowshoe like surface tocross the snow. Males and
females winter in separate flocks.Females huddle together in the snowy willow
thickets near treeline, while males remain at higherlocations.
Some burrowing mammals such asvoles, mice, northern pocket gophers, andweasels also stay on the tundra year round.Two distinctive alpine mammals are thepika and the marmot. Pikas are small membersof the rabbit family. Instead of sporting long earslike their relatives, they have small round ears thatare not as likely to freeze. Their other extremities arealso reduced in size to prevent heat loss. They havefur on the soles of their feet, for warmth and as atype of nonskid surface for running on the slickrocks. Pikas do not hibernate and are active all year.They collect and prepare stacks of “hay,” that theystore by their dens to make it through the winter.Like their rabbit relatives, pikas also re-ingest theirown fecal matter, which is high in protein contentand energy value. Pikas preserve body moistureby excreting dry, crystalline uric acid, leavingnoticeable white deposits on the rocks.
Yellow-belliedmarmots are comparatively
larger animals, related to wood-chucks. The marmot has light brownish to yel-lowish fur, usually with a whitish band around
the nose. When marmots are not in theirburrows or sunning on rocks, they oftencrawl on their bellies through dense vege-
tation, leaving a distinctive path intheir wake. Marmots eat them-
selves fat in summer andhibernate all winter.Curled up in a tight ballduring hibernation, themarmot’s temperature
and heartbeat lower consid-erably and energy from stored fat reserves sustains itslife functions.
Many hoofed mammals can be seen on thealpine tundra in summer, but they move to lower ele-
vations when snow covers theirforage. Mule deer and elk feed
in the alpine meadows.Bighorn sheep forage on the
steeper slopes. Both genders
Pika
Marmot
Bighorn Sheep
TR E E L I N E A N D AL P I N E TU N D R A 49
have true horns; they are not shed every yearlike the antlers on deer and elk. The majestic curlinghorns of the male are striking, and likely influencedthe selection of the bighorn sheep as Colorado’s stateanimal.
In some areas of the state, reintroduced moun-tain goats pick their way up the slope in search offresh grasses and wildflowers. Both sexes have awhite shaggy coat, beards, and short, smooth blackhorns that tilt backward. The male is larger.Mountain goats are among the most sure-footed of allanimals. Their hooves have concave rubbery padsthat spread to create a non-skid grip on rocks.
A Closer Look—LichensOn some alpine rocks and ridges, the only
growing things are crusts of bright-colored lichens.Lichens are pioneer species that are often first tocolonize habitats not yet suitable for other livingthings. Lichens require no soil, and have enormousresistance to cold and dryness. As lichens grow anddie on bare rock, they form small amounts of soil,which mosses, ferns, and flowering plants colonize.Many kinds of lichens can also fix nitrogen, anelement essential for plant growth. They are able toextract nitrogen from the atmosphere and store it insoil for use by other plants. Likewise, lichens act asdecomposers, breaking down wood and bones intomaterials needed by other species.
Lichen is not a single organism. It is a com-posite organism, composed of two or three speciesfunctioning as one. This type of living arrangement isknown as symbiosis (literally “living together”). Insymbiotic relationships, two organisms live closelyassociated for extended periods of time, with at least
one species benefiting. The otherspecies may either be benefited,harmed, or relatively unaffected bythe symbiotic relationship. Thesesubcategories of symbiosis areknown respectively as mutualism,
parasitism, andcommensalism
(literally “at tabletogether”). Lichens are examples of mutualism, amutually beneficial relationship.
Lichen, composed of green algae cells (and some-times cyanobacteria) surrounded by threadlike fungaltissues, is self-sufficient, requiring only minerals andwater absorbed from rocks and the atmosphere. Thealgae cells absorb water to photosynthesize food forboth algae and fungus. The fungi protect the algaeand/or cyanobacteria cells from dryness and cold.
Lichens have several adaptations to safeguardtheir stronghold in their rocky habitat. They are ableto manufacture over 500 biochemical compounds thatregulate light penetration, ward off predators, killharmful microbes, and deter competing plant species.
There are over 3,600 lichen species in NorthAmerica. Birds and mammals use many kinds oflichens for food and nesting material. Some lichenspecies benefit humans as well, providing dyes,antibiotics, and medicines. Most lichens areextremely vulnerable to air pollution and theirsudden disappearance can be an indicator ofchanging air quality.
Crossroads of Biodiversity—AlpineTundra
The Continental Divide, which runs through thealpine tundra, acts as an obstacle to east-west speciesmigration in Colorado. Few songbirds, reptiles,amphibians, or small mammals can surmount theharsh conditions and cross the divide. It seems thatonly the larger birds and mammals, which canquickly move across the tundra during fair weather,and small burrowing mammals break this naturalbarrier.
50 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Mountain Goats
51TR E E L I N E A N D AL P I N E TU N D R A
Some of the small burrowing species, especiallythe northern pocket gopher, have an enormousimpact on the plant diversity of the alpine tundra.Next to wind and snow cover, a gopher’s presence inalpine meadows is most influential in determiningthe plants that can survive. Although pocket gopherscan only disturb a small portion of the total tundraarea, a few acres at a time, they can change thosesmall spaces for decades.
You are more likely to see the piles of subsurfacesoil that the northern pocket gopher has excavated tothe surface than you are the gopher itself. In springand summer, the gophers feed on the roots of thecushion plants and weaken their fragile hold. Inwinter, pocket gophers dig through the protectiveblanket of snow. This allows them, along with miceand voles that use gopher tunnels, to feed throughoutthe cold season, eating above ground plant portions.Basically, they eat the vegetation away.
The followingsummer, meanderingpocket gopher ribbons
appear from beneath melting snowbanks, rangingfrom humps a few inches high to shallow depressionsmarking caved-in tunnels. Sometimes these ribbonsdissect the meadows and make them look a bit like amoth-eaten quilt. At other times, these patches havethe appearance of a cultivated garden. Seeds of tallplants with bright flowers, such as sky pilot, alpineavens, and bistort take root in these mounds of dirt.These plants have less defense from the high winds,and as they are clipped off by blowing rock and ice,most of the soil blows away as well. The meadow isfurther eroded when the gopher tunnels channelrunoff from melting snow. Usually, a pocket gopherwill re-work an area over and over, maintaining itsgopher garden for several years. At some point, thesoil from tundra meadow is gone and only bare rockremains. Since succession is such a slow process on
the tundra, recovery fromexposed rock to lichen
colony to cushion plantmeadow may take cen-
turies.
NorthernPocket Gopher
Ecotone
Ecotone
ForestHabitat
MarshlandHabitat
LakeHabitat
52 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Activity: The Edge of Home
ObjectivesStudents will: Identify the characteristics of ecotones, or transi-
tional zones, between two wildlife habitats.
MethodStudents explore the concept of ecotones by vis-
iting places where habitats overlap.
MaterialsPencils; paper; long rope or string for marking
intervals in one-foot segments; clipboards.
BackgroundEcology is the study of the interactions between
living things and their environments. Ecology comesfrom the Greek word oikos, which means home. Theword ecosystem refers to the system of interactionsbetween living and nonliving things.
An ecotone is a unique environment created bythe overlap of two or more surrounding habitats. Thearea of overlap between two ecosystems creates ahabitat edge where parts of each surrounding habitatare present. Those places where the edges of ecosys-tems come together and overlap are the places wherethe action occurs and change takes place. (SeeDiagram A.)
In local communities there are abundant edgesand overlaps of edges that may be accessible to thestudents. Playgrounds, school grounds, parking lots,stream banks, lake shores and marsh edges can befound within walking distance for many students.
In ecotones, overlapping ecosystems are morecomplex than any ecosystem by itself. For example,in an overlap of forest and marsh it is common to findforest plants growing within the marsh. Often thegrowth of the forest plants is stunted due to thewater in the marsh.
The overlapping ecosystems also offer a widerdiversity of wildlife because animals common to bothecosystems are brought together. Even though theymay not be seen, there is indirect evidence of theanimal populations—for example: footprints, drop-pings and feathers are all common.
Although ecotones play an important role in theoverall landscape, it is also important to keep theseareas from becoming too fragmented. This fragmen-tation can adversely affect wildlife that dependsentirely on one ecosystem. The concept of main-taining ecotones and all of their components in adynamic natural balance is defined as preserving thebiodiversity of that area. The absence of diversity inecotones is often a clue that problems may exist inthe ecosystems that overlap.
ProcedureBefore the Activity:Locate an outside study site for this activity.
Choose a place where plants are invading a parkinglot or playing field, or the edge of a forest where itmeets a meadow.
1.) On the chalkboard, draw two large overlappingcircles. Put a large number of small squares andtriangles in one circle. Avoid the area of overlap.In the second circle draw many tiny circles andstars. Again, avoid the overlap area. Ask the stu-dents to predict what kinds of things they wouldexpect to find in the overlapping circles. Drawcircles, squares, triangles and stars in the area ofoverlap. Ask the students where the greatestdiversity exists. Label the whole area of the
overlap the ecotone (this is the area ofgreatest diversity). Label the originaltwo circles as Ecosystem 1 and
Ecosystem 2. Ask the studentsto point out the edges of theoverlap. These are the places
DIAGRAM A
53AC T I V I T Y: TH E ED G E O F HO M E
where the two ecosystems come together andinteract. The process and results of this interac-tion are called the edge effect.
2.) Inform the students that they are going to inves-tigate a natural setting where there are habitatsthat overlap similar to the illustration. Ask themto take paper, pencils and clipboards on which torecord their observations.
3.) Take the students to the selected site. Ask themto work in teams of two or three to list the thingsfound on either side of the edge. Each teamshould examine two different ecosystems, notexamining the interactions and area where thetwo ecosystems meet and overlap. Have the stu-dents list the different species of plants andanimals they observe, and tally what they find.Include direct and indirect evidence of life. Askthem to discuss the similarities and differences,and to keep notes.
4.) Next, ask the students to carefully examine theedge. Determine how wide the ecotone or zoneof shared characteristics is. Point out that this is aminiature ecotone. The students might try toestimate the size of the ecotone as well as thediversity of species within the ecotone. Comparethe diversity of plants and animals found withinthe ecotone with the diversity of the plants andanimals found in the two separate ecosystemsthey originally examined.
NOTE: It may help the students organize more sys-tematic observations if they stretch a length of rope orstring from one ecosystem to another. Have the studentsmake and record observations every foot (or other unitof measure) along the line. It helps to mark the stringor rope at these intervals.
5.) After the trip, compare and interpret the stu-dents’ findings. Ask them for evidence theyfound to support the idea that populations ofplants and animals tend to be more diversewithin ecotones than in separate ecosystems.
OPTIONAL: Take the class to a site in the com-munity that has aquatic edges. Educators may beable to find a beach, highway edges, the edge oftown, a place where a stream enters or exits alake or others that might be available in the com-munity. Once there, ask the students to use thesame investigating techniques, working again inteams of two or three. They should identify atleast two ecosystems; list and describe the char-acteristic organisms in each; identify the ecotone;and list, observe and describe the organisms inthe ecotone.
Extensions
1.) Create an ecosystem map or model of your com-munity. Indicate the location of the principalecotones.
2.) Take a simple piece of paper and measure theedges. Cut the paper into four equal pieces—andmeasure the edges again. Repeat this twiceagain, measuring the edges each time. Supportthe idea that each new rectangle is a suitablehabitat for some aquatic organism and discusshow diversity is related to edges.
3.) Assess the overall health of any ecotones thatseem particularly important to the quality of lifefor aquatic species in your community. Whatcould be done to protect the area from beingdamaged, degraded or lost?
Evaluation
1.) Write a paragraph about the characteristics ofecotones. Write two additional paragraphs todescribe two ecosystems and an associatedecotone.
2.) Choose a species of wildlife and write a storyabout its life as it roams through several differentecosystems and ecotones. Explain how theanimal’s experiences are different at each of thevarious locations.
Duration: one or two 45-minute sessionsGroup Size: anySetting: outdoors and indoorsVocabulary: ecosystem, ecotone, edge effect
This activity was reprinted with permission from,“Project WILD Aquatic K-12 Curriculum and Activity Guide”
Ecotone
Ecosystem 1 Ecosystem 2
54 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
1
2
3
4
5
6
78
69
10
11
12
1314
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
55AQ U AT I C EC O S Y S T E M S, RI PA R I A N AR E A S, A N D WE T L A N D S
Bir
ds
1.
Com
mon
Yel
low
thro
at(G
eoth
lypi
s tri
chas
)—fa
vors
ripa
rian
habi
tats
, prim
arily
cat
tail
mar
shes
and
sw
amps
, bel
ow 8
,000
feet
. Kno
wn
as th
e “w
itche
ty”
bird
from
the
soun
dof
its
song
, the
yel
low
thro
at g
lean
s in
sect
s fr
om th
e gr
ound
or f
rom
low
shr
ubs.
2.
Gre
at H
orned
Ow
l(B
ubo
virg
inia
nus)
—di
stin
guis
hed
by it
s la
rge
ear t
ufts
and
foun
d at
all b
ut th
e hi
ghes
t ele
vatio
ns, h
as th
e w
ides
t dis
trib
utio
n of
any
Nor
th A
mer
ican
ow
l.T
he d
istin
ctiv
e ho
otin
g ca
lls o
f thi
s no
ctur
nal o
wl a
re h
eard
thro
ugho
ut th
e ye
ar, e
spe-
cial
ly in
late
win
ter w
hen
they
beg
in to
nes
t.
3.
Woo
d D
uck
(Aix
spon
sa)—
usua
lly fo
und
in lo
wer
-ele
vatio
n, w
oode
d rip
aria
n ar
eas,
and
iden
tifie
d by
a d
istin
ctiv
e he
ad c
rest
, lar
ger o
n th
e m
ale.
Fem
ales
cal
l a lo
ud “
oo-e
ek”
durin
g fli
ght.
4.
Kill
dee
r(C
hara
driu
s voc
iferu
s)—
nam
ed fo
r the
sou
nd o
f its
cal
l and
iden
tifie
d by
two
dark
nec
k rin
gs, w
ides
prea
d up
to a
bout
10,
000
feet
. Thi
s gr
ound
-nes
ting
plov
er h
as th
ein
tere
stin
g ha
bit o
f dra
ggin
g a
win
g al
ong
the
grou
nd a
s if
inju
red
to d
raw
pre
dato
rsaw
ay fr
om it
s ne
st.
5.
Yello
w W
arble
r(D
endr
oica
pete
chia
)—pr
efer
s co
tton
woo
d-w
illow
ripa
rian
habi
tats
up
toab
out 1
0,00
0 fe
et. M
ales
, ide
ntifi
ed b
y re
ddis
h st
reak
s on
thei
r yel
low
bre
asts
, arr
ive
inC
olor
ado
in M
ay a
nd in
crea
se th
eir s
ingi
ng u
pon
the
arriv
al o
f the
fem
ales
.
6.
Mal
lard
(Ana
s pla
tyrh
ynch
os)—
the
mal
e, o
r dra
ke, d
istin
guis
hed
by ir
ides
cent
gre
enhe
ad a
nd y
ello
w b
ill. P
erha
ps th
e m
ost n
umer
ous
and
wid
espr
ead
of a
ny w
ild d
uck,
only
the
fem
ale
of th
e sp
ecie
s “q
uack
s”.
7.
Nor
ther
n P
inta
il(A
nas a
cuta
)—du
ck n
amed
for i
ts lo
ng p
oint
ed ta
il. A
t birt
h, p
inta
ildu
cklin
gs a
re w
ell d
evel
oped
and
imm
edia
tely
wal
k to
wat
er, s
omet
imes
cov
erin
g di
s-ta
nces
up
to a
mile
on
thei
r firs
t day
of l
ife.
8.
Wild
Turk
ey(M
eleag
ris g
allo
pavo
)—in
trod
uced
Rio
Gra
nde
subs
peci
es fo
und
in ri
paria
nco
tton
woo
d ha
bita
ts. S
ocia
ble
bird
s of
ten
seen
in la
rge
flock
s, th
e fa
mili
ar fa
nnin
g of
the
tail
is a
cou
rtsh
ip d
ispl
ay d
one
by th
e m
ale
whi
le s
trut
ting
and
“gob
blin
g”.
9.
Shar
p-s
hin
ned
Haw
k(A
ccip
iter
stria
tus)
—fo
und
in ri
paria
n ar
eas
at a
ll el
evat
ions
. The
rela
tivel
y sh
ort w
ings
and
long
tails
that
typi
fy a
ccip
iters
like
thes
e “S
harp
ies”
are
usef
ul in
cat
chin
g sm
alle
r bird
s in
mid
-air.
10.
Can
ada
Goo
se(B
rant
a ca
nade
nsis)
—id
entif
ied
by a
whi
te c
hins
trap
on
an o
ther
wis
ebl
ack
head
and
nec
k. T
his
once
unc
omm
on s
peci
es is
now
num
erou
s in
man
y of
the
stat
e’s
ripar
ian
area
s an
d va
lleys
, esp
ecia
lly a
long
the
nort
hern
Fro
nt R
ange
.
11.
Bullo
ck’s
Ori
ole
(Icte
rus b
ullo
ckii)
—fo
rmer
ly th
e N
orth
ern
Orio
le, h
as b
lack
eye
-line
and
mar
king
s on
oth
erw
ise
oran
ge fa
ce c
ompa
red
to a
ll-bl
ack
hood
of t
he B
altim
ore
orio
le(I
. gal
bula
). G
reat
Pla
ins
sett
lers
pla
nted
dec
iduo
us tr
ees
like
cott
onw
oods
, pro
-vi
ding
a b
ridge
bet
wee
n th
e tw
o sp
ecie
s an
d al
low
ing
for i
nter
bree
ding
.
12.
Gre
at B
lue
Her
on(A
rdea
her
odia
s)—
adul
ts id
entif
ied
by b
lack
str
eak
over
the
eye
and,
in b
reed
ing
adul
ts, h
ead,
nec
k, a
nd b
ack
plum
es. T
he la
rges
t her
on in
the
U.S
., an
d th
em
ost w
ides
prea
d, th
is fo
ur-f
oot t
all b
ird c
an o
ften
be
seen
wad
ing
or s
low
ly w
alki
ngth
roug
h sh
allo
w w
ater
in s
earc
h of
food
.
Ma
mm
als
13.
Am
eric
an B
eave
r(C
asto
r ca
nade
nsis)
—la
rges
t rod
ent i
n N
orth
Am
eric
a, fo
und
inrip
aria
n ar
eas
from
gra
ssla
nd to
alp
ine
tund
ra. T
he b
eave
r’s e
yes,
ear
s, n
ose
and
mou
thca
n be
cov
ered
for s
wim
min
g, it
s hi
nd fe
et a
re w
ebbe
d, a
nd it
s pa
ddle
-like
tail
can
beus
ed a
s a
rudd
er, o
r a w
ater
-fla
ppin
g al
arm
cal
l.
14.
Com
mon
Musk
rat
(Ond
atra
zib
ethicu
s)—
smal
ler t
han
the
beav
er w
ith a
thin
ner,
side
-fla
tten
ed ta
il. M
ore
clos
ely
rela
ted
to v
oles
than
to tr
ue ra
ts, m
uskr
ats
can
stay
und
er-
wat
er fo
r per
iods
of f
iftee
n m
inut
es o
r mor
e, n
eedi
ng o
nly
seco
nds
abov
e w
ater
betw
een
subm
ersi
ons.
15.
Mule
Dee
r(O
doco
ileus
hem
ionu
s)—
inha
bit a
ll of
Col
orad
o’s
ecos
yste
ms
from
gra
ssla
nds
to tu
ndra
. Nam
ed fo
r the
larg
e ea
rs th
at c
an m
ove
inde
pend
ently
, the
se d
eer a
lso
have
scen
t gla
nds
abov
e th
e ba
ck h
oove
s.
16.
Red
Fox
(Vul
pes v
ulpe
s)—
the
mos
t wid
espr
ead
carn
ivor
e in
the
wor
ld, i
n C
olor
ado
may
rang
e in
col
or fr
om re
d to
bla
ck, b
ut a
lway
s w
ith a
whi
te-t
ippe
d ta
il. T
his
fox’
s he
arin
gis
sen
sitiv
e to
low
-fre
quen
cy s
ound
s, e
nabl
ing
it to
hea
r the
und
ergr
ound
act
iviti
es o
f its
burr
owin
g pr
ey.
17.
Rac
coon
(Pro
cyon
loto
r)—
iden
tifie
d by
a b
lack
mas
k an
d a
bush
y ta
il w
ith a
ltern
atin
gbl
ack
and
light
er-c
olor
ed ri
ngs.
The
se ri
ngta
il re
lativ
es a
re o
mni
voro
us a
nd p
rimar
ilyno
ctur
nal.
Rep
tile
an
d A
mp
hib
ian
s18
. Sm
ooth
Gre
en S
nak
e(L
ioch
loro
phis
vern
alis)
—gr
ass
gree
n w
ith w
hite
und
ersi
des,
foun
d in
mid
-ele
vatio
n rip
aria
n ar
eas
of C
olor
ado.
Act
ive
from
abo
ut M
ay to
Sep
tem
ber,
larg
e nu
mbe
rs o
f the
se s
ocia
ble
snak
es o
ften
hib
erna
te to
geth
er.
19.
Tige
r Sal
aman
der
(Am
bysto
ma
tigri
num
)—fo
und
thro
ugho
ut C
olor
ado
whe
re a
quat
icbr
eedi
ng a
reas
are
acc
essi
ble.
Col
orat
ion,
influ
ence
d by
the
envi
ronm
ent,
can
rang
efr
om li
ght b
ars
on a
dar
k ba
ckgr
ound
to d
ark
bars
or s
pots
on
a lig
ht b
ackg
roun
d.
20.
Wes
tern
Chor
us
Fro
g(P
seud
acri
s tri
seri
ata)
—oc
curs
at a
ll el
evat
ions
, usu
ally
in o
r nea
rst
andi
ng w
ater
. The
mal
e’s
mat
ing
call
is a
n as
cend
ing
“pre
-ee-
eep”
.
Tre
es21
. C
otto
nw
ood
(Pop
ulus
delt
oide
s)—
the
wat
er tr
ee o
f rip
aria
n C
olor
ado,
occ
urs
on th
eea
ster
n pr
airie
as
the
Plai
ns C
otto
nwoo
d, a
nd in
low
land
are
as o
f the
wes
t slo
pe a
s th
e R
io G
rand
or V
alle
y C
otto
nwoo
d. T
he m
ore
abun
dant
Nar
row
leaf
Cot
tonw
ood
(P. a
ugus
tifol
ia) i
s fo
und
at h
ighe
r ele
vatio
ns w
ith th
e L
ance
leaf
hyb
rid in
bet
wee
n.
22.
San
dbar
Will
ow(S
alix
exig
ua)—
som
etim
es c
alle
d C
oyot
e W
illow
, com
mon
alo
ng lo
wer
-el
evat
ion
stre
am b
anks
in ta
ndem
with
cot
tonw
ood.
A c
hara
cter
istic
ripa
rian
spec
ies,
this
will
ow c
olon
izes
and
hel
ps s
tabi
lize
new
ly c
reat
ed s
andb
ars.
Set
tin
g—T
he
Rio
Gra
nde
betw
een
Mon
te V
ista
an
d A
lam
osa
56 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Aquatic Ecosystems,Riparian Areas, andWetlands
Water: Essential for LifePoet Thomas Hornsby Ferril
described Colorado as a statewhere “life is written inwater.” With an averageannual precipitation of justless than 16 inches,Colorado is considered asemi-arid state. Yet, thewater that collects in therivers, creeks, lakes, ponds,spring seeps and surroundingwetlands is vital to sustainthe biodiversity of thestate. Together, freshwaterecosystems, riparian lands,and wetlands constitute anestimated one to three percent ofthe state’s land, but support most ofColorado’s plant and animal species!
Water WorldsColorado’s streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, irrigation
ditches and reservoirs are all aquatic ecosystems. Thekind of habitat that each provides and the variety oflife that each can support is determined by manyfactors—water temperature, water clarity, current,amount and kind of dissolved minerals, and thematerials that line the bottom. Dissolved minerals inthe water influence the variety and abundance ofaquatic plants. For insects, fish, and other animals,oxygen levels are the decisive factor governing whatspecies can thrive in a particular body of water. Themix of plants and animals that live in the cold, fastmoving waters of high mountain streams and rivers isvery different than the mix of species inhabiting rela-tively warm, tranquil low elevation lakes and ponds.
Riparian LandsA riparian land scene was chosen to represent
water-associated ecosystems for this poster series.The word “riparian” is an adjective used to describelands bordering bodies of fresh water, usually thebanks of rivers, streams, and ponds. Riparian areasare found at all elevations and within all ecosystemsof the state from grassland to alpine tundra. Riparianlands represent an ecotone, an area of transitionbetween distinct ecosystems. They are strongly influ-enced by the nearby presence of water, and generally,
have microclimates that are cooler and wetter thanthe bordering land ecosystem. Species diversity inriparian areas is two to three times higher than in thesurrounding ecosystems.
Wet Meadows,Marshes, andPeatlands
Wetlands, as varied asthe topography of the state,
support more life acre foracre than any other habitat.But what are they? How canyou know a wetland whenyou see one?
Wetlands are placeswhere the soils are flooded orsaturated long enough each yearthat most plants would drown.The presence of uniquehydric soils, which are
oxygen poor, and the special“water-loving” plants, hydrophytes, that have adap-tations to thrive in them, indicate a wetland.Common hydrophytes such as cattails, bulrushes,sedges, saltgrass, willows and cottonwoods drawoxygen out of the air down theirstems to their roots.
Two types of common wetlandplants are rushes and sedges.Grass-like in appearance, rusheshave round stems and sedges havetriangular stems with three edges.Just remember: Rushes are Round,Sedges have Edges!
Colorado has three main typesof wetlands: wet meadows,marshes, and peatlands. Wetmeadows are often located nearriparian areas. Wet meadows havesaturated soils during a portion ofthe year, usually spring and earlysummer, just after snowmelt.These lush meadows often lookgreener or darker than the sur-rounding land. Wet meadows arethe most prevalent wetland type inColorado.
Marshes are similar to wetmeadows, but they flood in thespring. Usually, there is an imper-vious layer of rock somewhere
Rush
Riparian Area
57AQ U AT I C EC O S Y S T E M S, RI PA R I A N AR E A S, A N D WE T L A N D S
below the surface of the soils,which holds the water like abucket. In the spring, somemarshes may have standingwater as deep as three to fourfeet. The water slowly evapo-
rates throughout the summer.On Colorado’s eastern grass-
lands, clay soils beneath themarshes hold the water, forming
shallow temporary lakes calledplayas.
Peatlands or “fens” are highelevation wetlands that form whengroundwater seeps to the surfacefrom enormous underground springs.Since the soils are low in oxygen,and the bacteria that decompose thedead plants do not work very effi-ciently, the dead leaves and rootsslowly accumulate over thousands ofyears, packing down into layers ofpeat.
Cottonwoods—the Water MarkersCottonwood trees are common in riparian areas
across our state. Cottonwoods serve as evidence thatsurface water or groundwater is nearby, or was in thepast.
Cottonwoods depend on a cycle of flooding anderosion to reproduce. Cottonwood seeds canonly germinate on bare, wet soil. Oncesprouted, they grow very quickly, sendingroots down three feet or more during theirfirst year. These deep roots help sustain the treeduring periods of low water and anchor the treeduring flood events.
Each year, as spring snowmelt overflows thebanks of stream channels, Colorado’s creeks andrivers wander and reshape themselves. The waterwashes away existing vegetation, leaving bare groundfor more cottonwood seeds to germinate. Atthe same time, old cottonwoods areuprooted and washed into thestream. The fallen trees decomposewhile acting as a dam to preventsand in the flowing waters frompassing through. The sandbars thatform are first colonized by willowsand eventually by new cottonwoods.
At other times, streams meanderfar away from remaining cottonwoods,leaving them as silent markers of bygonestreambeds. Over time, this persistentflooding and meandering creates a mosaicof older, middle-aged and young trees,
benefiting biodiversity by creating a variety of dif-ferent niches.
Colorado boasts several varieties of cotton-wood—the Plains cottonwood is found east of thedivide, while the Rio Grand, or Valley cottonwood, isfound in the west. The Narrowleaf cottonwood isfound at higher elevations, but hybridizes when itintermingles with the other varieties at intermediateelevations to produce the Lanceleaf cottonwood.
Wildlife You May Discover in AquaticEcosystems and Wetlands
The most numerous organisms in aquatic ecosys-tems are impossible to see with the naked eye.These microscopic plants (phytoplankton) andanimals (zooplankton) form the base of the aquaticfood chain and are vital to the healthy functioning ofaquatic ecosystems and wetlands. They provide foodfor macroinvertebrates, animals lacking backbonesbut visible to the naked eye. Macroinvertebrates, inturn, play a significant role in the food chain of fresh-water ecosystems by providing food for fish, birds,reptiles and amphibians.
Some macroinvertebrates are solely aquatic,living their entire lives in the water. A commonaquatic species one might see is the water boatman,which uses its paddle-like hind legs as tiny oars tomove through the water. Like a scuba diver, thewater boatman carries its own air bubble to supplyoxygen. Water striders, backswimmers, diving waspsand beetles also provide entertaining watery antics.
Most macroinvertebrates are adapted foraquatic life only in their immature stages. For
example, caddisfly larvae enclose them-selves in a long case made
from particles of finesand or plant mate-
rial, and attach
Sedge
Cottonwood
58 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
this case to thestream bottom. Inside,the caddisfly larvae grow and mature through theirpupal stage. Mature individuals then cut themselvesfree, crawl or swim to the surface of the water, andtake wing. Mayflies, damselflies, dragonflies andstoneflies are other familiar flying insects, as are mos-quitoes, gnats, and flies.
The diversity of macroinvertebrate species inaquatic ecosystems is a measure of the health of the
ecosystem.Certainmacroinverte-brates are
indicatorspecies, whose
presence or absencereveals much about
the quality of the water.While some species like
sludgeworms and rat-tailedmaggots can live in highly pol-
luted waters where oxygen supplyis low, others like mayflies, caddis-
flies, and riffle beetles are very sensi-tive to pollution and can only survive in cleanerenvironments.
In high mountain streams, brown, rainbow,brook, and native cutthroat trout feed on emerginginsects and smaller fish such as fathead minnows,johnny darters, and sculpins. Some of the largermountain lakes and reservoirs are stocked withkokanee salmon and North American’s largest trout,the mackinaw, or lake trout. At lower elevations,channel catfish and various sucker species are plen-tiful in streams and lakes. In the 1980’s, TigerMuskie, a hybrid of northern pike and muskie, wereoften introduced to control catfish and sucker popu-lations. These large, sterile fish have become afavorite with many Colorado anglers, providingtrophy-fishing opportunities. Largemouth and small-mouth bass, yellow perch, bullhead, green sunfish,crappie, wiper, and bluegill also provide great fishingrecreation in Colorado’s warmer waters.
Colorado’s wetlands and aquatic ecosystemsprovide ideal habitat for reptiles as well as amphib-ians. Most amphibians and reptiles live at elevationsbelow 6,000 feet, with few species above 8,000 feet.Lowland riparian areas, floodplains, ponds, andmarshes, host an abundance of these animals,including Woodhouse’s toad, plains and northernleopard frogs, northern cricket frogs, northern watersnakes and the common garter snake. The GreatPlains toad is found only in lowland riparian areas ineastern Colorado. When danger threatens, this toadinflates itself, closes its eyes, and gets close to theground. On the western side of the state, red-spottedtoads and canyon treefrogs occupy riparian zones inrocky canyon bottoms.
At the higher elevations, wet meadows, marshes,bogs, beaver ponds and other wetlands, especiallythose near areas riddled with rodent burrows thatamphibians can use for hibernation and shelter, arehome to tiger salamanders, western chorus frogs,wood frogs, and boreal toads. Colorado’s boreal toadonce thrived in wetlands above 7,000 feet. Since1985, these toads have disappeared from more than80 percent of their historic range. A likely cause ofthe decline is a chytrid fungus. Scientists don’t knowhow this fungus is transmitted from one area toanother, or if this is the sole factor in the decline ofthis toad, and research continues.
Wetlands and riparian lands contain the greatestdiversity of bird species of any Colorado ecosystem.
Within the cottonwood riparian forests,you can spot insect and seed-
eating birds such as vireos,
Water Boatman
Mayfly
Trout
59AQ U AT I C EC O S Y S T E M S, RI PA R I A N AR E A S, A N D WE T L A N D S
warblers, orioles, blackbirds, grosbeaks, finches andflycatchers, as well as cavity-nesting birds such aswoodpeckers and merganser ducks. Look to thestream banks and you may see an entrance hole for akingfisher’s nesting tunnel. On the shore or in thewater, you may see an American dipper. In its searchfor food, the dipper can dive underwater and canactually walk along river bottoms! It has specialscales that seal its nostrils and oil glandsthat waterproof its plumage. Great blueherons can often be seen wading orslowly walking through shallow waterin search of food.
Raptors, like golden eaglesand prairie falcons, Cooper’shawks, American kestrels,and great horned owlscommonly roost and huntamong the cottonwoods.Bald eagles, whose mainprey is fish, perch on mature cotton-woods alongside open water. Onthe high, rocky cliffs overlookingthese riparian areas in WesternColorado, a visitor may be luckyenough to spot a peregrinefalcon, which preys uponsmaller wetland birds such asred-winged blackbirds andswallows.
Colorado’s marshes are our most important wet-lands for migratory water birds. Ducks, geese, shore-
birds, andwading birds alluse marshes asstopovers during migra-tion, as resting andfeeding sites and/or asbreeding and moltinggrounds. Ducks, killdeerand spotted sandpipersarrive in the earlyspring to feed on fairyshrimp and midgelarvae, a richprotein sourcethat theyrequire for egglaying andmigration. Wetmeadows alsoprovide browse andshelter for shorebirds andwaterfowl. Mallards and pintail ducks commonly nestin these areas in the early spring.
Wetlands are important to mammals also.Cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, and raccoons arecommon. Elk and deer graze in wet meadows along-side domestic livestock. Nearly all mammal speciesin the state visit riparian areas at one time or another,but beaver, mink, muskrat and river otter call themhome.
River otters are carnivores that feed on fish,frogs, and crayfish. River otters are classified as anendangered species by the state. This means thatotters are in jeopardy of becoming extinct inColorado. Historically present in riparian habitats
statewide, the otter was extirpated by 1907. Areintroduction effort, using otters trapped in
other states, began in 1976. More than 100river otters were released at
Cheesman Reservoirand on the Piedra,
Gunnison, UpperColorado andDolores Rivers.Currently, thereare three healthypopulations of
river otters on theGunnison, Piedra
and Green rivers andbiologists are consid-
ering reclassifying theriver otters’ status to
state threatened.
Boreal Toad
Great BlueHeron
Kingfisher
60 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
A Closer Look at One Species:American Beaver
The American beaver is an extraordinarycreature, possessing all the right tools foraquatic life. The largest rodent in NorthAmerica, the beaver has clear membranes tocover its eyes when submerged, built-in earand nose plugs, a thick waterproof pelt tokeep it warm in wintry waters, and huge lungswhich allow it to remain under water as longas fifteen minutes. The beaver even has lipsthat close behind its front incisors, so it canswim carrying food or building materialswithout taking in water!
Awkward on land, the beaver hasappendages that make it a swimming super-star. Its hind feet are webbed, and the paddle-shaped tail provides a rudder to controlswimming direction. The multi-purposetail can be slapped loudly against thesurface of the water to communicatepotential danger and also serves as animportant fat-storage area.
This animal is capable of alteringthe environment to perhaps agreater extent than any otherexcept humans. Natural engi-neers, beavers build dams, lodges,bank burrows, and canals to regulatewater levels to create a perfect habitat forthemselves. Most dam construction occurs afterspring runoff and in the fall in preparation for thewinter. With sharp teeth and strong jaw muscles,beavers can cut through a four inch diameter willow
in about three minutes. Beavers then use their sur-prisingly dexterous forepaws to embed buildingmaterials in the streambed and anchor them by pilingand interlacing other materials. Behind the dams,waters slow and pool, often producing good fishhabitat and increasing forage.
Beavers mate for life and usually live in familygroups of up to eight related individuals calledcolonies. The entire colony shares a lodge made ofsticks, mud and rocks, which may have multipleunderwater entrances. Although they are welldesigned, with air vents and moisture absorbing
floors, lodges, as well as dams, need constantmaintenance and repair.
In Colorado, beavers use willow,aspen and cottonwood for food as well as
for building material. They eat the leaves, buds, andcambium (a thin layer of living, dividing cells justunder the bark of trees). Since they do not hibernate,beavers store food in underwater caches where it isavailable for use throughout the winter. The averagebeaver colony needs about eight to ten acres of suit-able trees to survive. Once their supply of preferredwood is depleted, beavers will abandon the area,
allowing it to return to its pre-damconditions. This sets the stage forundisturbed re-growth of theaspen, cottonwood and willowsthat will someday again entice abeaver family to settle there.
River Otter
AmericanBeaver
61AQ U AT I C EC O S Y S T E M S, RI PA R I A N AR E A S, A N D WE T L A N D S
Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems—Biodiversity at a Crossroads
Wetlands, riparian lands, and aquatic ecosystems,as home to our greatest diversity of species, also hostthe most species listed as threatened and endan-gered. Sixty-nine percent of the mammal, bird,amphibian, and fish species listed in “Wildlife inDanger”, published by the ColoradoDivision of Wildlife, inhabit riparianand aquatic areas.
Among themammals listed asthreatened, both bythe state and federalgovernment, is thePreble’s meadowjumping mouse. Thismeans this mouse, whilenot being in immediate jeop-ardy of extinction, is vulnerablebecause it exists in small numbers andis extremely restricted throughout most ofits range. The Preble’s meadow jumping mouseis brownish in color with a dark stripe runningdown its back. It has large hind feet (for jumping), athree to four-inch body and a five-inch tail.
This little mouse can jump a foot and a halfinto the air and cover a distance of three feet alongthe ground in a single leap. What’s more, it has theuncanny ability to abruptly change directions inmid-jump! It apparently uses its tail as a rudder bothin the air and in the water. Yes, the Preble’s meadowjumping mouse is also an accomplished swimmer.
Like the Preble’s meadow jumping mouse, eachthreatened and endangered species in Colorado isunique and is worth our respect, admiration, andwonder. Through concerted recovery efforts under-taken by dedicated public and private partnerships,there have been many success stories of restoringthreatened and endangered populations. People inColorado continue to make a difference.
Management Issues and ChallengesAcre for acre, Colorado’s aquatic ecosystems and
wetlands are the state’s most valuable lands forwildlife habitat, agricultural production, waterquality, tourism, outdoor recreation and ecosystemservices (refer to the activity “Wetland Metaphors”for details). These regions face natural and humanpressures that must be addressed by government,landowners, and private citizens to conserve theircapacity to meet future wildlife and human needs.
Aquatic ecosystems, riparian lands, and wetlandsare constantly changing. Lakes and ponds fill in with
vegetation and gradually become dry land. Riversmeander across valleys, leaving oxbow lakes, marshesor wet meadows behind. Climate shifts enlarge orshrink existing wetlands. Droughts, like the one thatColorado currently faces, dry streams and withermarshes and riparian areas.
Human activity has dramatically increased therate and magnitude of change in these areas. The netresult is a reduction of these habitats, not only in
Colorado, but worldwide. Thisdecline hasn’t been the
result of negligence orthoughtlessness, but
rather decisions oftenmade with the bestintentions andlimited knowledgeto solve a pressinglocal problem.
Understandabledecisions, made indi-
vidually and in
a local context, toreduce insect-bornedisease, create jobs, feed people, and build roads and cities, have had cumulative unintended conse-quences.
There are a host of human activities that haveimpacted aquatic ecosystems and wetlands:
Draining of Wetlands—Historically, it was commonpractice to drain or fill in wetlands to provide agri-cultural land, build cities and transportationsystems, and to reduce the possibility of insect-borne diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.
Introduction of Invasive Plant Species—Quickgrowing, ornamental exotics such as tamarisk andRussian olive trees were intentionally cultivated bypeople in riparian areas to stabilize stream banks.Unfortunately, these exotics sucked up tremendousquantities of moisture and displaced native plantspecies. While they provided habitat for a few birdspecies, overall they reduced wildlife habitat.Many exotics are very resistant to control efforts.
Preble’s MeadowJumping Mouse
62 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Channelization—Before humans understood theecologically beneficial functions of stream mean-dering, it was common practice to straighten anddeepen watercourses. This was done to makestream dynamics more predictable and to aid intransporting water from one location to another.With flow rates, shores, stream banks andstreambeds altered, and with islands and sandbarsreduced or eliminated, channelization of Colorado’swaterways has also contributed to reduced cotton-wood tree regeneration and the precarious status ofseveral of our state’s species.
Heavy Metal Pollution from Acid Mine Drainage—Mining practices of the 1800’s left a negativelegacy of tailing piles and acid seepage. It is esti-mated that one-third to one-half of the state’s totalstream mileage has heavy metal loads whichexceed current water quality standards.
Other activities that have degraded Colorado’s wetlandand aquatic areas include: contamination from poorlysited or constructed landfills, overgrazing by live-stock, gravel mining, runoff of oils, pesticides,chemicals, and other pollutants, overuse by recre-ationists and changes related to water storage anddiversion (which can positively affect some areaswhile harming others).
When the full value of wetland, riparian landsand aquatic ecosystems was recognized, both publicand private groups began to manage these areas in amanner to ensure that their beneficial functions—
from fishing opportunities to water purification—would continue. Some management tools are mitiga-tion, restoration, enhancement, and acquisition.Mitigation is the strategy by which a wetlanddestroyed by one activity is replaced with a compa-rable human-made wetland in the same region.Restoration is the process of reestablishing the orig-inal condition of a degraded environment. It mayinvolve “undoing” what was previously done, such asde-channelizing a waterway and allowing it tomeander in its historic course. Enhancement makesan existing environment even better, by plantings, byproviding nesting boxes for birds, or improving thewater quality. Acquisition is buying critical habitatsor water rights outright, or negotiating conservationeasements. Colorado has a rich history of protectingcritical habitats, both by private groups such as theNature Conservancy and Ducks Unlimited, and pub-licly through lottery proceeds from the GreatOutdoors Colorado Trust Fund.
Good stewardship of these lands is an ongoingchallenge, often complicated by a fragmented arrayof laws and separate sets of rules managed by dif-ferent local, state, and federal agencies. Much of thisland is privately owned, and wetland and riparianland conservation is often not economically beneficialto the landowner that might otherwise develop theproperty. The challenge of the government role isnot to try to control or usurp private rights, but toencourage landowners to manage these lands in sucha way as to maintain and enhance their value tosociety as a whole.
63AC T I V I T Y: WE T L A N D ME TA P H O R S
Activity: Wetland Metaphors
ObjectivesStudents will:
1.) describe the characteristics of wetlands; and
2.) evaluate the importance of wetlands to wildlifeand humans.
MethodStudents are presented with a selection of
objects for investigation as metaphors for the naturalfunctions of wetlands.
MaterialsA large pillowcase, bag or box; sponge; small
pillow; soap; eggbeater or mixer; small doll cradle;sieve or strainer; paper coffee filter; antacid tablets;small box of cereal; 3-inch x 5-inch cards with pic-tures that could be used to show other wetlandmetaphors. (A zoo could represent the idea ofwildlife diversity in a wetland, a lush vegetablegarden could represent the idea of a productivewetland in which food is abundant, a vacation resortcould represent the idea of a resting or winteringplace for migrating waterfowl.)
NOTE: A metaphoric approach such as this allows avariety of objects to suggest some appropriate linkage to thebasic characteristics of wetlands.
BackgroundWetlands are many different things to many dif-
ferent people. Some people have never heard orthought about wetlands. Others are working activelyto protect wetlands because of their importance.
Wetlands include such areas as freshwater andsaltwater marshes, wet meadows, swamps, lagoons,bogs and prairie potholes. All wetlands, whethercoastal or inland, provide special habitats that serveareas far beyond their boundaries. Wetlands areuniquely important to plants, animals, humans andthe total environment.
Because of the abundance of food, vegetativecover (shelter) and water found there, most wetlandsare rich with diverse wildlife species.
Coastal and inland marshes, for example, providebreeding, resting and wintering habitats for thou-sands of migratory birds—including ducks, geese,swans, cranes and shore birds. Many species of fishthat are important for commercial and personal use
by humans reproduce and spend part, or all, of theirlife cycles in fertile wetlands adjacent to larger, moreopen bodies of water. These fish species includebass, salmon, walleye, perch and pickerel. A widevariety of reptiles, amphibians, insects and crus-taceans also breed and live in wetlands. Frogs andtoads, turtles of all kinds, salamanders, snakes, drag-onflies, water striders, clams and crayfish flourish inwetland habitats. Many mammals—from muskrat andbeaver to white-tail deer and moose—also depend onwetland areas.
Wetlands are often referred to as nurseriesbecause they provide critical breeding and rearinghabitats for countless numbers and kinds of wildlife.
Wetlands also have the unique ability to purifythe environment. They act as natural filteringsystems and have been shown to be extremely effec-tive. For example; they can trap and neutralizesewage waste, allow silt to settle and promote thedecomposition of many toxic substances.
The importance of vegetation associated withwetlands cannot be overlooked. Plants absorb nutri-ents and help cycle them through food webs. Plantsalso help keep nutrient concentrations from reachingtoxic levels. Plants slow down water flow, causing siltto settle out. Through photosynthesis, plants addoxygen to the system and provide food to other lifeforms. Of great importance to humans are the flood-control characteristics of wetlands. When runoff fromrains and spring thaws are high, wetland areas absorbexcess water until it gradually drains away downstreams and rivers and through the soil. Acting asbuffers, healthy wetlands prevent flooding anderosion. In dryer periods, wetlands hold preciousmoisture after open bodies of water have disappeared.
The many activities that take place in wetlandsmake them among the most productive ecosystemsin the world.
As remarkable and resilient as wetlands are,these unique areas have limits. Their destructionand/or abuse can have devastating effects on wildlife,humans and overall environmental quality.
Many of the major attributes of wetlands can beexplored through the use of metaphors. To use ametaphor is to apply a word or phrase to an object orconcept that does not literally denote in order tosuggest a comparison between the two. A metaphorrepresents a concept or idea through another conceptor idea. “A tree is a home” and “Books are windows ofthought” are two examples. In this activity, a variety of
64 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
everyday objects are used to represent the naturefunctions of wetlands. For example:
Object Metaphoric Function
sponge absorbs excess water caused by runoff;retains moisture for a time even ifstanding water dries up (e.g., spongeplaced in a small puddle of waterabsorbs water until saturated, then stayswet after standing water has evaporated)
pillow or is a resting place for migratory birdsbed
mixer or mixes nutrients and oxygen into the eggbeater water
cradle provides a nursery that shelters, protectsand feeds young wildlife
sieve or strains silt, debris, etc., from waterstrainer
filter filters smaller impurities from water
antacid neutralizes toxic substances
cereal provides nutrient-rich foods
soap helps cleanse the environment, as wet-lands do
Wetland habitats are being converted to otheruses (agriculture, roadways, housing developments)or otherwise being altered (drained for pest control orpolluted) at the rate of about a half-million acres peryear. And although many wetlands are protected byfederal and state laws, there still appears to be a sig-nificant need to create a greater understanding of theimportance of wetlands as ecosystems and as wildlifehabitat.
The major purpose of this activity is for studentsto develop an appreciation and understanding of wet-lands through the power of metaphor, linking thecharacteristics and natural functions of wetlands tothe familiar realm of everyday life.
Procedure
1.) Prepare a “Mystery Metaphor Container” (pillow-case, bag or box). It should be possible for stu-dents to put their hands into the container andpull out an object without being able to seeinside the container. Educators may want tocollect as many as one metaphor object perstudent, but at least have enough for one pergroup of four students. Put the container aside touse later.
2.) Discuss the variety of wetlands found in yourlocal area, state, country, etc. Then invite thestudents to sit quietly and close their eyes. Askthem to picture a wetland. Have them examinewhat it looks like. Have them look carefully atthe plants and animals, including insects andsmall creatures. What does the air feel like? Howdoes it smell?
3.) Invite the students to tell what they imagined.Compile a list of their offerings. Encourage dis-cussion and mutual sharing.
4.) With their lists as a point of reference, help thestudents identify which plants and animals aremost likely to be found in a wetland. If possible,have them classify the plants and animalsaccording to the kind of wetland in which theywould be found. State or federal wildlife officialsand representatives of private conservation ornature-related organizations can be helpful.
5.) Next provide the students with backgroundinformation to serve as an overview of the basicecological activities that characterize the wetlandhabitat. For example, educators might includethe following:• sponge effect—absorbs runoff• filter effect—takes out silt, toxins, wastes, etc.• nutrient control—absorbs nutrients from fer-
tilizers and other sources that may cause con-tamination downstream
• natural nursery—provides protection andnourishment for newborn wildlife
Suggest that these activities and many more thatthey could probably this of are taking place inwetlands all the time.
6.) Now bring out the “Mystery Metaphor Container.”Tell the students that everything in the containerhas something to do with a wetland. Have thestudents divide into groups of four. Announcethat when it is their turn, a representative ofeach group will draw an object from the con-tainer. Then, as a group, they must figure outhow the object could represent what a wetland isor does.
7.) Have the designated student reach into the con-tainer and withdraw one object. When each grouphas an object, ask them to work as a team todescribe the relationships between theirmetaphoric object and the wetland. Encouragethe students to build on each other’s ideas. Youcan also assist by strengthening their connections.
NOTE: Allow the students time to discuss their ideaswith each other before doing so in front of the entireclass.
65AC T I V I T Y: WE T L A N D ME TA P H O R S
8.) Ask each group to report its ideas to the class.
9.) Following discussion and review of the functionsrepresented by each metaphor, ask the studentsto summarize the major roles that wetlandsperform in contributing to habitat for wildlife.List the ways in which wetlands are important tohumans. Why do humans convert wetlands toother uses? Ask them if their own attitudes aboutwetlands are different now. If yes, how? If not,why not?
10.) For the final part of this activity, encourage thestudents’ understanding of how the wetlands’condition depends upon each of us. Many kindsof wildlife depend upon wetlands. Our own well-being requires wetland ecosystems. Strengthenthe students’ understanding of how humans areconnected to wetlands. Recreation, aesthetics,utilitarian uses, environmental quality and naturestudy are but a few of the connections we eachhave with wetlands.
Extensions
1.) Visit a wetland to verify the appropriateness ofthe metaphors explored in the classroom.Identify and discuss any limitations to the appro-priateness of these metaphors. Identify whatseem to be the most compelling attributes of themetaphors in helping you understand the charac-teristics and nature of the wetland. Expand onyour understanding of these metaphors. Identifynew and appropriate metaphors.
2.) Investigate local, county, state and federal regu-lations and laws that govern uses of wetlands.
Evaluation
1.) Explain why wetlands are among the world’smost productive ecosystems.
2.) Wetlands are important to a range of organisms inthe animal kingdom, from zooplankton tohumans. Select five species of animals anddescribe how wetlands are important to each.
Duration: one or two 30–60 minute sessionsGroup Size: anySetting: indoors or outdoorsVocabulary: wetlands, metaphor
This activity was reprinted with permission from,“Project WILD Aquatic K-12 Curriculum and Activity Guide”
Cattails
66 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
Glossary
Abiotic: Non-living factor in an environment.
Acquisition: As a management strategy, the process of pro-tecting habitat through such transactions as purchasing crit-ical habitats or exclusive water rights, or negotiatingconservation easements.
Antlers: Skin-covered, bone projections found typically onthe heads of male members of the deer family, that areshed and re-grown annually, in contrast to the horns ofbighorn sheep, mountain goats, and pronghorn, which arenot shed.
Aquatic: Associated with, or living in, water.
Biodiversity: Short for biological diversity, includes thevariety of species, genetic diversity within a species, andthe diversity of ecosystems within a recognizable area.
Biomass: Organic material.
Biome: A large geographic area with uniform climatic con-ditions and distinct vegetation.
Bioregion: An area whose physical, ecological, or culturalcharacteristics set it apart from surrounding areas.
Biotic: Living factor in an environment.
Browsers: Those species that mainly eat twigs and leavesof woody or brushy plants. Often contrasted with grazers.
Buck: Mature male of certain mammal species, includingdeer and pronghorn.
Bull: Mature male of certain species, including bison,cattle, elk and moose.
Cambium: A thin layer of living, dividing cells just underthe bark of trees.
Camouflage: Protective coloration that helps species blendin with their surroundings.
Circumpolar: Occurring in the same habitats across thenorthern hemisphere, in both arctic and alpine tundraregions.
Climax community: A plant community at the end pointof the successional sequence, that maintains itself if theenvironmental conditions stay the same.
Coevolution: Shared shaping of adaptations.
Commensalism: Literally “at table together”, a relation-ship between two species where one benefits and the otherremains relatively unaffected, neither significantly helpednor harmed. See also symbiosis.
Community: Species living and interacting in an area.
Composite organism: Organism composed of two or threespecies functioning as one, e.g., lichens.
Coniferous: Trees that keep their green needlesthroughout the year.
Consumers: Species that primarily eat or consume others.
Cooperative breeding: Survival adaptation in which theprevious year’s offspring help the parents raise the newbrood.
Cultural diversity: The richness of human knowledge,beliefs, and traditions.
Deciduous: Trees that shed their leaves annually.
Decomposers: Species that help break down, or decom-pose, all others.
Delayed implantation: Reproductive strategy in which theattachment of the fertilized egg to the uterine wall isdelayed.
Diurnal: Most active in the daytime.
Ecosystem: The sum of interactions between a communityof species and the non-living components of the environ-ment, such as temperature, soils, water, and elevation.
Ecotone: Area of transition between distinct ecosystems.See also edge.
Edge: Area of overlap between two ecosystems where partsof each surrounding habitat are present. See also ecotone.
Endangered species: A species or subspecies that is injeopardy of becoming extinct.
Endemic species: A species found nowhere else in theworld.
Enhancement: As a management strategy, the process ofbettering an existing environment through such actions asplantings, providing nesting boxes for birds, or improvingwater quality.
Extirpated: Species absent from its native range but notextinct.
Fens: High elevation wetlands that form when ground-water seeps to the surface from enormous undergroundsprings. Also known as peatlands.
Forbs: Non-woody, broad-leafed, flowering plants.
Furbearer: As a legal classification, an animal with mar-ketable fur.
Game animal: As a legal classification, a wildlife speciesthat can be hunted according to legal seasons and limits.
Grazers: Those species that mainly eat grasses and forbs.Often contrasted with browsers.
Habitat: Where organisms live and get the food, water,shelter and living space they need to survive.
Hibernaculum: Place where bats hibernate.
Hibernation: A state of winter dormancy.
Horns: Bone-like projections from the heads of bighornsheep, mountain goats, and pronghorn that are not shedevery year like the antlers of deer and elk.
Hydric: Oxygen poor soils characterized by, and showingthe effects of, the presence of water.
Hydrophytes: “Water-loving” plants that have adaptationsto thrive in oxygen-poor, or hydric, soils.
Indicator species: Species whose relative abundance andcondition reveal much about the condition of the largerecosystem.
67GL O S S A RY
Krummholz: Literally “crooked wood”, the stunted,twisted trees that border the highest edge of the subalpineforest.
Landscape: A general term for an area that shares enoughfeatures to set it apart from another area.
Lek: Strutting ground of male grouse and prairie chickens.
Life zone: A band or belt of plant and animal life, usuallyon the side of a hill or mountain, which changes with eleva-tion and latitude.
Macroinvertebrates: Animals lacking backbones butvisible to the naked eye.
Mitigation: As a management strategy, constructing or cre-ating wetlands to replace those lost to development.
Monoculture: The raising of a crop of a single plantspecies, generally even-aged.
Morphological: Pertaining to physical form and structure.
Mutualism: A mutually beneficial relationship betweentwo species. See also symbiosis.
Myotis: The “mouse-eared” bats.
Niche: The function, opportunity, or “job” available to aliving thing in an ecosystem.
Niche differentiation: Competitive strategy in whichspecies restrict their activities to a specific time period orpart of the environment. Also known as specialization.
Nocturnal: Most active at night.
Parasite: An organism that draws its needed nutrients fromanother.
Parasitism: A relationship between two organisms whereone benefits and the other is harmed. See also symbiosis.
Peatlands: High elevation wetlands that form whengroundwater seeps to the surface from enormous under-ground springs. Also known as fens.
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants manu-facture simple sugars in the presence of sunlight, carbondioxide, and water.
Phytoplankton: Microscopic plants.
Pioneer: Early successional species that are often first tocolonize habitats not yet suitable for other living things.
Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the male part ofthe plant (anther) to the female portion of the plant(stigma).
Pollinator: An organism that pollinates flowers.
Playas: Shallow, temporary lakes.
Precocial: Refers to young that are sufficiently developedat birth or hatching to function with a degree of independ-ence from their parents.
Producers: Species that make their own food, and servemostly as food for others.
Restoration: As a management strategy, the process ofreestablishing the original condition of a degraded environ-ment.
Riparian: Describing lands bordering bodies of freshwater, usually the banks of rivers, streams, and ponds.
Rut: Mating season of male moose, elk, deer, sheep, andgoats.
Scat: Animal feces or droppings.
Specialization: Adaptive strategy in which species restricttheir activities to a specific time period or part of the envi-ronment. Also known as niche differentiation.
Species: Populations of individuals that basically lookalike, behave similarly, and are able to breed and producefertile offspring under natural conditions.
Species abundance: The number of individuals of eachspecies in a given area.
Species richness: The number of different species in agiven area.
Sublimation: Process in which moisture from snow returnsto the atmosphere directly as water vapor.
Succession: The natural process by which plant communi-ties replace previous ones over time.
Symbiosis: Literally “living together”, two organismsliving closely associated for extended periods of time, withat least one species benefiting. See also mutualism, para-sitism, and commensalism.
Taxonomist: Scientist who classifies organisms.
Threatened species: Species or subspecies in jeopardy ofbecoming endangered.
Torpor: A state of lowered metabolic rate. An animal insuch a state is described as torpid.
Treeline: The transitional zone or edge between subalpineforest and alpine tundra, sometimes called timberline.
Trophic level: The role of a species in the food chain, orfeeding level.
Wet meadows: Areas with soils that are saturated during aportion of the year, usually spring and early summer, justafter snowmelts.
Zooplankton: Microscopic animals.
Field IdentificationManuals
Field Identification Manuals are an essentialresource for exploring and understanding nature inColorado and elsewhere. There are many excellentguides available at bookstores and libraries. Our sug-gested list is by no means exhaustive. The books orseries that are marked with a “•” may be more usefulto young or beginning naturalists.
Field Guide SeriesThe Audubon Society Nature Guides The Audubon Society Pocket Guides Golden Field GuidesGolden Guides •National Audubon Society Field GuidesNational Audubon Society First Field Guide Series •National Audubon Society Regional Field Guide SeriesNature Finder GuidesPeterson Field GuidesPeterson Field Guides for Young Naturalists •Peterson First Guides •Peterson Flash Guides (Map-like, with 24 waterproofpanels)Readers Digest North American Wildlife SeriesSimon & Shuster Guides
Smithsonian Kid’s Field Guides •Stokes Beginner’s Guides •Stokes Nature Guides
Other Field GuidesField Guide to the Birds of North America, Second
Edition; National Geographic Society,Washington, D.C.
Guennel, G. K. Guide to Colorado Wildflowers—Volume 1: Plains & Foothills. Colorado: WestcliffePublishers, 1995.
Guennel, G. K. Guide to Colorado Wildflowers—Volume 2: Mountains. Colorado: WestcliffePublishers, 1995.
Hammerson, Geoffrey A. Amphibians and Reptiles inColorado: A Colorado Field Guide, Second Edition.Colorado: University Press of Colorado, ColoradoDivision of Wildlife, 1999.
Weber, William A. Colorado Flora—Eastern Slope.Colorado: University Press of Colorado, 1990.
Weber, William A. Colorado Flora—Western Slope,Revised Edition. Colorado: University Press ofColorado, 1996.
68 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity
References
Alonzo, A., Dallmeier, F., Granek, E. and Raven, P.Biodiversity: Connecting with the Tapestry of Life.Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001.
Andrews, Robert and Righter, Robert. Colorado Birds: A Reference to their Distribution and Habitat. Denver,Colorado: Denver Museum of Natural History, 1992.
Armstrong, David A., Adams, Rick A., Navo, Kirk W.,Freeman, Jerry and Bissell, Steven J. Bats of Colorado:Shadows in the Night. Denver, Colorado: ColoradoDivision of Wildlife, 1995
Fitzgerald, James P., Meaney, Carron A. and Armstrong,David M. Mammals of Colorado. Niwot, Colorado:University Press of Colorado, 1994.
Johnson, Kirk R. and Raynolds, Robert G. Ancient Denvers:Scenes from the Past 300 Million Years of the ColoradoFront Range. Denver, Colorado: Denver Museum ofNature & Science, 2002
Kingerly, Hugh E., Colorado Breeding Bird Atlas. Denver,Colorado: Colorado Bird Atlas Partnership, 1998.
Kruger, Frances Alley and Meaney, Carron A. ExploreColorado: A Naturalist’s Notebook. Denver, Colorado:Denver Museum of Natural History, Englewood,Colorado: Westcliffe Publishers, 1995.
Mutel, Cornelia Fleischer and Emerick, John C. FromGrassland to Glacier: The Natural History of Colorado and the Surrounding Region, Second Edition. Boulder,Colorado: Johnson Books, 1992.
Wildlife in Danger: The Status of Colorado’s Threatened orEndangered Fish, Amphibians, Birds, and Mammals,Denver, Colorado: Colorado Division of Wildlife.
Young, Mary Taylor. Colorado Wildlife Viewing Guide, SecondEdition. Helena, Montana: Falcon Publishing, 2000.
Zwinger, Ann H. and Willard, Beatrice, E. Land Above theTrees: A Guide to American Alpine Tundra. New York:Harper & Row, Perennial Library, 1972.
A great way to spice up your teaching.
Three Project WILD activities are included in this guide:
Which Niche? (page 6)The Edge of Home (page 52)
Wetland Metaphors (page 63)
These are just three of the 170 great activities you will find in the Project WILD and Aquatic WILD activity guides. These guides are free to
Colorado educators who attend one of our exciting WILD workshops.
For information on workshops offered in your area visit our Web site: coloradocorrelations.org
Go to the links on the left and click on Teacher Workshops.
These workshops are offered for continuing education credits. Also check out the workshops offered by our partner programs:
Project Learning Tree, Project WET, and Project Food, Land & People. The activities in Project WILD and our partner programs have been correlated to the Colorado Model Content Standards. You can find those correlations on the same Web page mentioned above. This
interactive Web page will guide you to just the right activity to enhance yourteaching to meet specific standards, or cover chosen topics or subject areas.
First introduced in 1983, Project WILD is now offered in all 50 states and throughout Canada. Over 650,000 educators in the United States
have participated in Project WILD workshops. Project WILD is sponsoredand administered in Colorado by the Colorado Division of Wildlife.
The goal of Project WILD is to assist students of any age in developingawareness, knowledge, skills, and commitment to result in informed decisions, responsible behavior and constructive actions concerning
wildlife and the environment.
For more information, visit coloradocorrelations.org or contact Colorado Project WILD at
(303) 814-1391.