Yeast

Yeast

Yeast of the species Saccharomycescerevisiae

Scientific classificationDomain: EukaryotaKingdom: Fungi

Typical divisions

Ascomycota (sac fungi)

Saccharomycotina (true yeasts)Taphrinomycotina

Schizosaccharomycetes(fission yeasts)

Basidiomycota (club fungi)

UrediniomycetesSporidiales

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Yeasts are eukaryotic micro-organisms classified in thekingdom Fungi, with about 1,500 species currentlydescribed;[1] they dominate fungal diversity in the oceans.[2]

Most reproduce asexually by budding, although a few do so bybinary fission. Yeasts are unicellular, although some specieswith yeast forms may become multicellular through theformation of a string of connected budding cells known aspseudohyphae, or false hyphae as seen in most molds.[3] Yeastsize can vary greatly depending on the species, typicallymeasuring 3–4 µm in diameter, although some yeasts can reachover 40 µm.[4]

The yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used inbaking and fermenting alcoholic beverages for thousands ofyears.[5] It is also extremely important as a model organism inmodern cell biology research, and is one of the mostthoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchershave used it to gather information about the biology of theeukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology.[6] Other speciesof yeast, such as Candida albicans, are opportunistic pathogensand can cause infections in humans. Yeasts have recently beenused to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells,[7] andproduce ethanol for the biofuel industry.

Yeasts do not form an exact taxonomic or phylogeneticgrouping. At present it is estimated that only 1% of all yeastspecies have been described.[8] The term "yeast" is often takenas a synonym for S. cerevisiae,[9] but the phylogeneticdiversity of yeasts is shown by their placement in bothdivisions Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. The budding yeasts("true yeasts") are classified in the order Saccharomycetales.[10]

Contents1 History2 Growth and nutrition3 Ecology4 Reproduction5 Uses

5.1 Alcoholic beverages5.1.1 Beer

5.1.1.1 Brettanomyces5.1.2 Distilled beverages5.1.3 Wine

5.2 Baking5.3 Bioremediation5.4 Industrial ethanol production5.5 Non-alcoholic beverages5.6 Nutritional supplements5.7 Probiotics5.8 Aquarium hobby5.9 Science5.10 Yeast extract

6 Pathogenic yeasts7 Food spoilage8 See also9 Footnotes

9.1 Cited texts10 External links

HistorySee also: History of wine and History of beer

The word "yeast" comes to us from Old English gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-,meaning boil, foam, or bubble.[11] Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticatedorganisms. People have used yeast for fermentation and baking throughout history. Archaeologistsdigging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeasted bread, as well asdrawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and breweries.[12] In 1680 the Dutch naturalist Anton vanLeeuwenhoek first microscopically observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be livingorganisms, but rather globular structures.[13] In 1857 French microbiologist Louis Pasteur proved in thepaper "Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique" that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by livingyeasts and not by a chemical catalyst.[12][14] Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeastbroth, cell growth could be increased, but the fermentation inhibited – an observation later called thePasteur effect.

By the late 1700s, two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, socalled "high" or top yeast, and S. carlsbergensis, "low" or bottom yeast. High yeast was soldcommercially by the Dutch for bread making starting in 1780, while around 1800, the Germans startedproducing S. cerevisiae in the form of cream. In 1825 a method was developed to remove the liquid sothe yeast could be prepared as solid blocks.[15] The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhancedby the introduction of the filter press in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed amanufacturing process to create granulated yeast, a technique that was used until the first WorldWar.[16] In the United States, naturally occurring airborne yeasts were used almost exclusively untilcommercial yeast was marketed at the Centennial Exposition in 1876 in Philadelphia, where Charles L.Fleischmann exhibited the product and a process to use it, as well as serving the resultant baked bread.

Growth and nutritionYeasts are chemoorganotrophs as they use organic compounds as a source of energy and do not requiresunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars such as glucose and fructose, ordisaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some species can metabolize pentose sugars like ribose,[17]

alcohols, and organic acids. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration(obligate aerobes), or are anaerobic but also have aerobic methods of energy production (facultativeanaerobes). Unlike bacteria, there are no known yeast species that grow only anaerobically (obligateanaerobes). Yeasts grow best in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment.

Yeasts vary in what temperature range they grow best. For example, Leucosporidium frigidum grows at-2 to 20 °C (28 to 68 °F), Saccharomyces telluris at 5 to 35 °C (41 to 95 °F) and Candida slooffi at 28to 45 °C (82 to 113 °F).[18] The cells can survive freezing under certain conditions, with viabilitydecreasing over time.

Yeasts are generally grown in the laboratory on solid growth media or in liquid broths. Common mediaused for the cultivation of yeasts include; potato dextrose agar (PDA) or potato dextrose broth,Wallerstein Laboratories nutrient (WLN) agar, yeast peptone dextrose agar (YPD), and yeast mouldagar or broth (YM). Homebrewers who cultivate yeast frequently use dried malt extract (DME) andagar as a solid growth medium. The antibiotic cycloheximide is sometimes added to yeast growthmedia to inhibit the growth of Saccharomyces yeasts and select for wild/indigenous yeast species. Thiswill change the yeast process.

The appearance of a white thready yeast commonly known as kahm yeast is often a byproduct of thelactofermentation (or pickling) of certain vegetables, usually the result of exposure to air. Althoughharmless it can give pickled vegetables a bad flavour and so must be removed regularly duringfermentation.[19]

EcologyYeasts are very common in the environment, but are usually isolated from sugar-rich material.Examples include naturally occurring yeasts on the skins of fruits and berries (such as grapes, apples orpeaches), and exudates from plants (such as plant saps or cacti). Some yeasts are found in associationwith soil and insects.[20][21] The ecological function and biodiversity of yeast are relatively unknowncompared to those of other microorganisms.[22] Yeasts including Candida albicans, Rhodotorula rubra,Torulopsis and Trichosporon cutaneum have been found living in between people's toes as part of theirskin flora.[23] Yeasts are also present in the gut flora of mammals and some insects.[24]

An Indian study of seven bee species and 9 plant species found that 45 species from 16 genera colonisethe nectaries of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the Candida genus; themost common species in honey stomachs was Dekkera intermedia and in flower nectaries, Candidablankii.[25] Flowers that are colonised by yeasts have less nectar to bees in them. Yeast colonisingnectaries of the Stinking Hellebore have been found to raise the temperature of the flower, which mayaid in attracting pollinators by increasing the evaporation of volatile organic compounds.[22][26] A blackyeast has been recorded as a partner in a complex relationship between ants, their mutualistic fungus, afungal parasite of the fungus and a bacterium that kills the parasite. The yeast have a negative effect onthe bacteria that normally produce antibiotics to kill the parasite and so may affect the ants' health byallowing the parasite to spread.[27]

The yeast cell's life cycle:1. Budding

2. Conjugation3. Spore

ReproductionSee also: Mating of yeast

Yeasts have asexual and sexual reproductive cycles. Themost common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexualreproduction by budding.[28] Here a small bud, or daughtercell, is formed on the parent cell. The nucleus of the parentcell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into thedaughter cell. The bud continues to grow until it separatesfrom the parent cell, forming a new cell.[29] Some yeasts,including Schizosaccharomyces pombe, reproduce by binaryfission instead of budding.[28]

Under high stress conditions haploid cells will generally die,however under the same conditions diploid cells canundergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis)and producing a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate (conjugate), reforming thediploid.[30]

UsesThe useful physiological properties of yeast have led to their use in the field of biotechnology.Fermentation of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this technology. Many types ofyeasts are used for making many foods: baker's yeast in bread production; brewer's yeast in beerfermentation; yeast in wine fermentation and for xylitol production.[31] So-called red rice yeast isactually a mold, Monascus purpureus. Yeasts include some of the most widely used model organismsfor genetics and cell biology.

Alcoholic beverages

Alcoholic beverages are defined as beverages that contain ethanol (C2H5OH). This ethanol is almostalways produced by fermentation – the metabolism of carbohydrates by certain species of yeast underanaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Beverages such as wine, beer, or distilled spirits all use yeast atsome stage of their production.

Beer

"Brewer's yeast" (also known as "brewing yeast") can mean anylive yeast used in brewing. It can also mean yeast obtained as aby-product of brewing, dried and killed, and used as a dietarysupplement for its B vitamin content.

Brewers classify yeasts as top-fermenting and bottom-fermenting. This distinction was introduced by the Dane EmilChristian Hansen. "Top-fermenting yeasts" are so called becausethey form a foam at the top of the wort during fermentation.

A mixture of diatomaceous earth andyeast after filtering beer

Fermenting tanks with yeast being used tobrew beer

They can produce higher alcohol concentrations and preferhigher temperatures, typically 16 to 24 °C (61 to 75 °F),producing fruitier, sweeter, ale-type beers. An example of a top-fermenting yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, known to brewersas ale yeast. "Bottom-fermenting yeasts" are typically used to produce lager-type beers, though can alsoproduce ale-type beers. These yeasts ferment more sugars, leaving a crisper taste, and grow well at lowtemperatures. An example of bottom fermenting yeast is Saccharomyces pastorianus, formerly knownas Saccharomyces carlsbergensis.

For both types, yeast is fully distributed through the beer while it is fermenting, and both equallyflocculate (clump together and precipitate to the bottom of the vessel) when fermentation is finished.By no means do all top-fermenting yeasts demonstrate this behaviour, but it features strongly in manyEnglish ale yeasts which may also exhibit chain forming (the failure of budded cells to break from themother cell) which is technically different from true flocculation.

In industrial brewing, to ensure purity of strain, a "clean"sample of the yeast is stored refrigerated in a laboratory.After a certain number of fermentation cycles, a full scalepropagation is produced from this laboratory sample.Typically, it is grown up in about three or four stages usingsterile brewing wort and oxygen.

The most common top-fermenting brewer's yeast,Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is the same species as thecommon baking yeast. However, baking and brewing yeaststypically belong to different strains, cultivated to favordifferent characteristics: baking yeast strains are moreaggressive, in order to carbonate dough in the shortestamount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act slower, but tend to produce fewer off-flavors andtolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%).

Brettanomyces

Brettanomyces is a genus of wild yeast important in brewing lambic, a beer produced not by thedeliberate addition of brewer's yeasts, but by spontaneous fermentation by wild yeasts and bacteria.Brettanomyces lambicus, B. bruxellensis and B. claussenii are native to the Senne Valley region ofBelgium, where lambic beer is produced.[32]

Distilled beverages

A distilled beverage is a beverage that contains ethanol that has been purified by distillation.Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution of ethanol inthe process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol.Components other than ethanol are collected in the condensate, including water, esters, and otheralcohols which account for the flavor of the beverage.

Wine

Fresh grapes

Wine

Main article: Fermentation (wine)

Yeast is used in winemaking where it converts the sugarspresent in grape juice or must into alcohol. Yeast isnormally already invisibly present on the grapes. Thefermentation can be done with this endogenous wildyeast;[33] however, this may give unpredictable resultsdepending on the exact types of yeast species present. Forthis reason a pure yeast culture is generally added to themust, which rapidly comes to dominate the fermentation.This represses wild yeasts and ensures a reliable andpredictable fermentation.[34] Most added wine yeasts are strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, thoughnot all strains of the species are suitable.[34] Different S. cerevisiae yeast strains have differingphysiological and fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a directimpact on the finished wine.[35] Significant research has been undertaken into the development ofnovel wine yeast strains that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines.[36][37]

The growth of some yeasts such as Zygosaccharomyces and Brettanomyces in wine can result in winefaults and subsequent spoilage.[38] Brettanomyces produces an array of metabolites when growing inwine, some of which are volatile phenolic compounds. Together these compounds are often referred toas "Brettanomyces character", and are often described as antiseptic or "barnyard" type aromas.Brettanomyces is a significant contributor to wine faults within the wine industry.[39]

Baking

Main article: Baker's yeast

Yeast, most commonly Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is used in baking as a leavening agent, where itconverts the fermentable sugars present in dough into the gas carbon dioxide. This causes the dough toexpand or rise as gas forms pockets or bubbles. When the dough is baked the yeast dies and the airpockets "set", giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of potatoes, water frompotato boiling, eggs, or sugar in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeasts. Salt , hot water andfats such as butter slow yeast growth[citation needed]. Most yeasts used in baking are of the same speciescommon in alcoholic fermentation. Additionally, Saccharomyces exiguus (also known as S. minor) is awild yeast found on plants, fruits, and grains that is occasionally used for baking. Sugar and vinegar arethe best conditions for yeast to ferment. In bread making the yeast initially respires aerobically,producing carbon dioxide and water. When the oxygen is depleted anaerobic respiration begins,producing ethanol as a waste product; however, this evaporates during baking.[40]

It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. The

A block of fresh yeast.

Active dried yeast, a granulated form inwhich yeast is commercially sold.

It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. Thefirst records that show this use came from AncientEgypt.[41] Researchers speculate that a mixture of flourmeal and water was left longer than usual on a warm dayand the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of theflour caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting breadwould have been lighter and tastier than the normal flat,hard cake.

Today there are several retailers of baker's yeast; one of thebest-known in North America is Fleischmann’s Yeast,which was developed in 1868. During World War IIFleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast,which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelflife than fresh yeast. The company created yeast that wouldrise twice as fast, reducing baking time. Baker's yeast is alsosold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square "cake". Thisform perishes quickly, and must therefore be used soonafter production. A weak solution of water and sugar can beused to determine if yeast is expired. In the solution, activeyeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar intoethanol and carbon dioxide. Some recipes refer to this asproofing the yeast as it "proves" [tests] the viability of theyeast before the other ingredients are added. When using asourdough starter, flour and water are added instead ofsugar; this is referred to as proofing the sponge.

When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with flour, salt, and warm water or milk. The dough iskneaded until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. Some breaddoughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again. A longer rising time gives a betterflavour, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially. Thedough is then shaped into loaves, left to rise until it is the correct size, and then baked. Dried yeast isusually specified for use in a bread machine, however a (wet) sourdough starter can also work.

Bioremediation

Some yeasts can find potential application in the field of bioremediation. One such yeast, Yarrowialipolytica, is known to degrade palm oil mill effluent,[42] TNT (an explosive material),[43] and otherhydrocarbons such as alkanes, fatty acids, fats and oils.[44] It can also tolerate high concentrations ofsalt and heavy metals,[45] and is being investigated for its potential as a heavy metal biosorbent.[46]

Industrial ethanol production

The ability of yeast to convert sugar into ethanol has been harnessed by the biotechnology industry toproduce ethanol fuel. The process starts by milling a feedstock, such as sugar cane, field corn, or cheapcereal grains, and then adding dilute sulfuric acid, or fungal alpha amylase enzymes, to break down thestarches into complex sugars. A gluco amylase is then added to break the complex sugars down intosimple sugars. After this, yeasts are added to convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is thendistilled off to obtain ethanol up to 96% in concentration.[47]

A Kombucha culturefermenting in a jar

Saccharomyces yeasts have been genetically engineered to ferment xylose, one of the majorfermentable sugars present in cellulosic biomasses, such as agriculture residues, paper wastes, andwood chips.[48][49] Such a development means that ethanol can be efficiently produced from moreinexpensive feedstocks, making cellulosic ethanol fuel a more competitively priced alternative togasoline fuels.[50]

Non-alcoholic beverages

Root beer and other sweet carbonated beverages can be producedusing the same methods as beer, except that fermentation is stoppedsooner, producing carbon dioxide, but only trace amounts of alcohol,and a significant amount of sugar is left in the drink. Yeast insymbiosis with acetic acid bacteria is used in the preparation ofKombucha, a fermented sweetened tea. Species of yeast found in thetea can vary, and may include: Brettanomyces bruxellensis, Candidastellata, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Torulaspora delbrueckii andZygosaccharomyces bailii.[51] Kombucha is a popular beverageamong Eastern Europe and some former soviet republics, under thename Kvas. Kefir and kumis are made by fermenting milk with yeastand bacteria.[52]

Nutritional supplements

See also: Tibicos

Yeast is used in nutritional supplements popular with vegans and the health conscious, where it is oftenreferred to as "nutritional yeast". It is a deactivated yeast, usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It is anexcellent source of protein and vitamins, especially the B-complex vitamins, whose functions arerelated to metabolism as well as other minerals and cofactors required for growth. It is also naturallylow in fat and sodium. Some brands of nutritional yeast, though not all, are fortified with vitamin B12,which is produced separately from bacteria. Nutritional yeast, though it has a similar appearance tobrewer's yeast, is very different and has a very different taste.

Nutritional yeast has a nutty, cheesy, creamy flavor which makes it popular as an ingredient in cheesesubstitutes. It is often used by vegans in place of Parmesan cheese. Another popular use is as a toppingfor popcorn. It can also be used in mashed and fried potatoes, as well as putting it into scrambled eggs.It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to cornmeal, and can be foundin the bulk aisle of most natural food stores. In Australia it is sometimes sold as "savory yeast flakes".Though "nutritional yeast" usually refers to commercial products, inadequately fed prisoners have used"home-grown" yeast to prevent vitamin deficiency.[53]

Probiotics

Some probiotic supplements use the yeast Saccharomyces boulardii to maintain and restore the naturalflora in the large and small gastrointestinal tract. S. boulardii has been shown to reduce the symptomsof acute diarrhea in children,[54][55] prevent reinfection of Clostridium difficile,[56] reduce bowelmovements in diarrhea predominant IBS patients,[57] and reduce the incidence of antibiotic,[58]

traveler's,[59] and HIV/AIDS[60] associated diarrheas.

Diagram showing a yeast cell

Marmite andVegemite have a

Marmite and Vegemite,products made from

Aquarium hobby

Yeast is often used by aquarium hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide (CO2) to fertilize plants inplanted aquariums. A homemade setup is widely used as a cheap and simple alternative to pressurizedCO2 systems. While not as effective as these, the homemade setup is considerably cheaper for lessdemanding hobbyists.

There are several recipes for homemade CO2, but they are variations of the basic recipe: Baking yeastis inserted in a plastic bottle together with sugar, baking soda and water. This produces CO2 for about 2or 3 weeks. The CO2 is injected in the aquarium via a narrow hose and released through a CO2 diffuserthat helps dissolve the gas in the water. The CO2 is used by plants in the photosynthesis process.

CO2 injection is very important to plant growth in planted aquariums.[61]

Science

Several yeasts, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae, have beenwidely used in genetics and cell biology. This is largely becauseS. cerevisiae is a simple eukaryotic cell, serving as a model forall eukaryotes including humans for the study of fundamentalcellular processes such as the cell cycle, DNA replication,recombination, cell division and metabolism. Also yeasts areeasily manipulated and cultured in the lab which has allowed forthe development of powerful standard techniques, such as Yeasttwo-hybrid, Synthetic genetic array analysis and tetrad analysis.Many proteins important in human biology were first discoveredby studying their homologs in yeast; these proteins include cellcycle proteins, signaling proteins, and protein-processingenzymes.

On 24 April 1996 S. cerevisiae was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its genome, consistingof 12 million base pairs, fully sequenced as part of the Genome project.[62] At the time it was the mostcomplex organism to have its full genome sequenced and took 7 years and the involvement of morethan 100 laboratories to accomplish.[63] The second yeast species to have its genome sequenced wasSchizosaccharomyces pombe, which was completed in 2002.[64][65] It was the sixth eukaryotic genomesequenced and consists of 13.8 million base pairs.

Yeast extract

Main article: Yeast extract

Yeast extract is the common name for variousforms of processed yeast products that are usedas food additives or flavours. They are often usedin the same way that monosodium glutamate(MSG) is used, and like MSG, often contain freeglutamic acid. The general method for makingyeast extract for food products such as Vegemite

Vegemite have adistinctive dark

colour

products made fromyeast extract

A photomicrograph of Candida albicansshowing hyphal outgrowth and other

morphological characteristics.

and Marmite on a commercial scale is to add saltto a suspension of yeast making the solutionhypertonic, which leads to the cells shrivellingup. This triggers autolysis, where the yeast's digestive enzymes break theirown proteins down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells arethen heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls whichwould give poor texture) are separated. Yeast autolysates are used in Vegemite and Promite (Australia);Marmite, Bovril and Oxo (the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and South Africa); and Cenovis(Switzerland).

Pathogenic yeastsSome species of yeast are opportunistic pathogens wherethey can cause infection in people with compromisedimmune systems.

Cryptococcus neoformans is a significant pathogen ofimmunocompromised people causing the disease termedcryptococcosis. This disease occurs in about 7–9% of AIDSpatients in the USA, and a slightly smaller percentage (3–6%) in western Europe.[66] The cells of the yeast aresurrounded by a rigid polysaccharide capsule, which helpsto prevent them from being recognised and engulfed bywhite blood cells in the human body.

Yeasts of the Candida genus are another group ofopportunistic pathogens which causes oral and vaginalinfections in humans, known as candidiasis. Candida is commonly found as a commensal yeast in themucus membranes of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strainscan become pathogenic. Here the yeast cells sprout a hyphal outgrowth, which locally penetrates themucosal membrane, causing irritation and shedding of the tissues.[66] The pathogenic yeasts ofcandidiasis in probable descending order of virulence for humans are: C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C.stellatoidea, C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis, C. guilliermondii, C. viswanathii, C. lusitaniae andRhodotorula mucilaginosa.[67] Candida glabrata is the second most common Candida pathogen afterC. albicans, causing infections of the urogenital tract, and of the bloodstream (candidemia).[68]

Food spoilageYeasts are able to grow in foods with a low pH, (5.0 or lower) and in the presence of sugars, organicacids and other easily metabolized carbon sources.[69] During their growth, yeasts metabolize somefood components and produce metabolic end products. This causes the physical, chemical, and sensoryproperties of a food to change, and the food is spoiled.[70] The growth of yeast within food products isoften seen on their surface, as in cheeses or meats, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, suchas juices, and semi-liquid products, such as syrups and jams.[69] The yeast of the Zygosaccharomycesgenus have had a long history as a spoilage yeast within the food industry. This is mainly due to thefact that these species can grow in the presence of high sucrose, ethanol, acetic acid, sorbic acid,benzoic acid, and sulfur dioxide concentrations,[71] representing some of the commonly used food

preservation methods. Methylene blue is used to test for the presence of live yeast cells.

See alsoFungal infectionYeast infectionBioaerosolBaker's yeastCandidiasis (yeast infection)Ethanol fermentationTetrad (genetics)Winemaking

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3. ^ Kurtzman CP, Fell JW (2005). Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts (in: The Yeast Handbook, GáborP, de la Rosa CL, eds.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 11–30. ISBN 3-540-26100-1.

4. ^ Walker K, Skelton H, Smith K. (2002). accessdate=2009-11-28 "Cutaneous lesions showing giant yeastforms of Blastomyces dermatitidis" (http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0303-6987&date=2002&volume=29&issue=10&spage=616) . Journalof Cutaneous Pathology 29 (10): 616–18. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0560.2002.291009.x(http://dx.doi.org/10.1034%2Fj.1600-0560.2002.291009.x) . PMID 12453301(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12453301) . http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0303-6987&date=2002&volume=29&issue=10&spage=616accessdate=2009-11-28.

5. ^ Jean-Luc Legras, Didier Merdinoglu, Jean-Marie Cornuet and Francis Karst. (2007.). "Bread, beer andwine: Saccharomyces cerevisiae diversity reflects human history". Molecular Ecology 16 (10): 2091–2102.doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03266.x (http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-294X.2007.03266.x) .PMID 17498234 (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17498234) .

6. ^ Ostergaard S, Olsson L, Nielsen J. (2000). "Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae"(http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10704473) . Microbiology and Molecular BiologyReviews 64 (1): 34–50. doi:10.1128/MMBR.64.1.34-50.2000 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.64.1.34-50.2000) . PMID 10704473 (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10704473) . PMC 98985(http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=98985) .http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10704473. Retrieved 2009-11-28.

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Cited texts

Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M. (1996). Introductory Mycology. New York: Wiley.ISBN 0-471-52229-5.Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA. (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi. 10th ed.Wallingford: CABI. ISBN 0-85199-826-7.Moore-Landecker E. (1996). Fundamentals of the Fungi. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall. ISBN 0-13-376864-3.

External linksYeast Development, Different Forms of Yeast... (http://www.exploreyeast.com/)Cell cycle and metabolic cycle regulated transcription in yeast (http://moment.utmb.edu/cgi-bin/sceptrans.cgi)Yeast Resource Center (http://depts.washington.edu/yeastrc/)Yeast growth and the cell cycle (http://biochemie.web.med.uni-muenchen.de/Yeast_Biol/10%20Yeast%20Growth%20and%20the%20Cell%20Cycle.pdf)Yeast virtual library (http://wiki.yeastgenome.org/index.php/General_Topics)Ancient Egyptian Bread Making(http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/dailylife/breadmaking.htm)Current research on Yeasts at the Norwich Research Park(http://www.micron.ac.uk/organisms/sacch.html)

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