Why is periodontal disease more prevalent and more severe in people with Down syndrome?

P E R I O D O N T A L D I S E A S E IN P A T I E N T S W I T H D O W N S Y N D R O M E

Why is periodontal disease more prevalent and more severe in people with Down syndrome? James Morgan, BA, BDentSc

Co. Kildare, Ireland. Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Spec Care Dentist 27(5): 196-201, 2007

Introduct ion Down syndrome (DS) is an autosomal chromosomal disorder resulting from trisomy of all or part of chromosome 21.’ Approximately 95% of people with DS have an extra complete chromosome 21. The remaining 5% result from other chromosomal abnor- malities including translocation in 3% of people and mosaicism in 2% of The incidence of DS is generally cited as being between 1 in 600 to 1 in 1,000 live births.’ In Ireland, this condition affects approximately 1 in 580 live births, which is the high- est incidence in E ~ r o p e . ~

Periodontal disease is defined as “an inflammatory disease of the supporting tissues of the teeth caused by specific microorganisms, resulting in progressive destruction of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone with pocket formation, recession, or both.”’

The pathogenesis of periodontal disease is complex. In response to microbial substances released from plaque bacteria in the gingival sulcus, epithelial and connective tissue cells are stimulated to produce inflammatory mediators, leading to infiltration of the connective tissue by numerous defense cells. In the early stages of the immune response, neutrophils predominate. As further microbial substances enter the systemic circulation, committed lymphocytes return to the site of infection, and antibodies specific to bacterial antigens are produced by plasma cells. This essentially protective response is enough to control the infection in people who are not susceptible to periodontitk6

In susceptible individuals, however, the primary host defenses are unable to control the microbial challenge, leading to the epithelium becoming increasingly permeable and ulcerated. There is increased migration of neutrophils into the tissues, which secrete a variety of inflammatory mediators and proteolytic enzymes. Once the concentration of these inflammatory mediators and enzymes becomes pathologically high, ~ ~ S ~ Q ~ Q @ L & ht%\\\L~\Qi Of tlhP t&agen fibers, periodontal ligament, and alveolar bone occurs.6 Preshaw et aL6 noted that the majority of periodontal destruction is the result of “collateral damage arising from the activation of the host defenses against the presence of bacteria”.

In 2005, the World Health Organization provided an overview of periodontal disease worldwide and reported that 10% to 15% of adults suf- fered from periodontal d i~ease .~ Brown et al8 reported that the prevalence of periodontal disease among the general population in the United States ranged from 29% for persons aged 19 to 45 years, to 50% for persons aged 45 years and older. An increased prevalence severity of periodontal disease has been reported in people with DS compared with age-matched subjects of similar levels of intellectual impairment and compared with the general population?u Prevalence varies between 58% and 96% for those under 35 years of age.”

196 Spec Care Dentist 27(5) 2007

P E R I O D O N T A L D I S E A S E I N P A T I E N T S W I T H D O W N S Y N D R O M E

The increased prevalence and severity of periodontal disease in persons with Down syndrome may be attributed to a range of local factors associated with the oral cavity, as well as systemic factors associated with the genetic disorder itself.

Prevalence and severity of periodontal disease Johnson and YoungI4 examined 70 children with DS (mean age 10.8 +/- 3.0 years) and compared them with 40 age-matched subjects who did not have DS but had similar learning disabilities. The presence of periodontal disease was observed in 96% of persons in the group with DS and it was much more severe than in the control group. Bone loss followed a horizontal pattern and was most obvious in the lower anterior segment. Agholme et al.,” Cichon et ~ l . , ’ ~ and Saxen et al.” also observed this pattern of bone loss.

Saxen et al.” used orthopantomo- grams to provide a more objective method for evaluating periodontal disease. Bone loss was measured from the cemento-enamel junction to the alveolar bone margin. A tooth with bone loss of 5mm or more was regarded as affected. It was reported that 69% of subjects with DS aged 9 to 39 years had more than 5mm bone loss compared with 20% of the control group, despite similar levels of plaque and calculus. In a follow-up study carried out five years later, the prevalence of bone loss of 5mm or more had increased to 75% in the subjects with DS.l8

In a longitudinal study carried out by Agholme et al.,” periapical and bitewing radiographs were used to aid in the diag- nosis of periodontal disease. It was reported that 35% of subjects with DS (mean age 16.6 years) had experienced alveolar bone loss. Seven years later the prevalence of alveolar bone loss had increased to 74%.

DS who were living in institutions had poorer levels of plaque control, increased calculus deposits, and an increased prevalence of periodontal disease when compared to subjects living at home with DS. Swallowzo came to the same conclusions.

Cu t re~s ’~ reported that persons with

Etiology of periodontal disease in Down syndrome Local factors

Oral hygiene Cohen et ~1 . ’ ’ studied a group of 100 subjects with DS and found that oral hygiene was generally poor. This was in agreement with Sakellari et aI.ln who reported that people with DS had poorer oral hygiene than healthy individuals. In another study, Sakellari et ~ 1 . ’ ~ found that the mean plaque score was 100% in a group of subjects with DS who were between the ages of 26 and 37 years. Sakellari2’ also found that following oral hygiene instruction, subjects with DS had reduced ability to maintain adequate plaque control. This could possibly be associated with impairment of fine motor function resulting in poor manual dex- terity, as reported by Desai.’

Cohen et ~1 . ’ ’ reported that calculus deposits were abundant among children with Down syndrome. This was in agreement with a similar study by Johnson and Y~ung . ’~ However, a less severe dis- tribution of calculus was reported by Barr-Agholme et ~ 1 . ~ ~ (20%) and by Sasaki et ~ 1 . ’ ~ (14.8%), respectively.

Open-mouth breathing Persons with Down syndrome exhibit characteristic phenotypical orofacial anomalies including an underdeveloped facial mid-third resulting in a hypoplastic maxilla and mandibular prognathism.’ The hypoplastic maxilla, combined with an enlarged tonsillar volume, causes upper airway congestion and a tendency for increased mouth-breathing.’,’ Swallow” reported that 82.9% of children with DS had their lips habitually apart.

Tooth morphology Several authors have discovered irregu- larities in the morphology of crowns and roots in persons with DS.

Desai et al.’ reported that clinical crowns were usually shorter and smaller than normal in subjects with DS, and that root length was reduced. Bajic et dZ5 reported a significant reduction in root length as well as an increased prevalence of fused molar roots in persons with DS. The prevalence of fused molar roots in

the maxilla was 65.1%, and in the mandible it was 40.5%, compared with 40.5% and 21.1%, respectively, in the general population. Cu t re~s ’~ also suggested that tooth morphology, including short roots, could influence periodontal disease in persons with Down syndrome.

Microbiological plaque

Studies1n,’1.22,26-28 detailing the microbiological composition of plaque from subjects with DS vary in reporting different types of organisms involved in the periopatho- genic process. Sakellari et ~ 1 . ’ ~ reported that subjects with DS in all age groups had significantly higher levels of periodontopathic bacteria. In particular, a significantly higher prevalence of P gingivalis, A. actinomycetemcomitans (A.u.), I: forsythesis, and P intermedia was observed. These findings suggest that colonization by significant periodontal pathogens occurs frequently in subjects with DS, even in adolescence. Amano et ~ 1 . ’ ~ observed that even in early child- hood (age 2 to 4 years) significantly higher levels of P gingivalis, B. forsythis, and 1 denticola were detected in subjects with DS. These are considered to be important pathogens in severe types of adult periodontitis.’6 In particular, the occurrence of P gingivalis was found to increase with age. No significant differ- ences, however, were found in relation to A.a. between subjects with DS and healthy age-matched controls. Morinushi et aLZ7 measured the serum antibody titer of subjects with DS to various periodontopathic bacteria and found that even in subjects with DS under the age of 6 years, the average antibody titer to A.u., E nucleaturn, and P intermedia exceeded that of the normal adult reference pool. It was also found that these titers increased significantly with age. These findings suggest that A.u., E nucleatum, and P intermedia are probably present in significant numbers in subjects with DS, even in those under the age of 6 years.

Hanookai et ~ 1 . ~ ~ investigated the prevalence of herpes virus species in periodontally involved subgingival sites in subjects with DS. It was found that 32% of patients had Epstein-Barr virus-1,

composition

Morgan Spec Care Dent ist 27(2) 2007 197


26% human cytomegalovirus, and 16% herpes simplex virus. Herpes virus species may cause periodontal pathology by suppressing the activity of B- and T- lymphocytes as well as up-regulating certain pro-inflammatory mediators such as IL-1 and TNF-alpha.z8

Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis

Cohen et reported that of 100 subjects with DS examined, 29% had experienced ANUG. In a later study, Brown et uL30 compared 149 subjects with DS with 657 normal subjects and found that at least 35.6% of patients with DS had experienced at least one episode of ANUG compared with 4.1% of the control group. Of the affected subjects with DS, 49.1% had experienced recur- rent episodes. The mean age at the time of the first recorded episode was 9.4 +/- 4.4 years, even though ANUG typically affects young Dissimilarities in the diagnostic criteria for ANUG have led to confusion in the literature as to its prevalence among the general population. These values range from less than 1% to 6.9%.32

(ANUG)

Systemic factors Neutrophil dysfunction

“Neutrophils are the primary cells involved in the first line of host defense against bacterial infe~tion.”~) “Neutrophils have multiple surface receptors that enable them to bind to and phagocytize bacteria once they reach the site of i n f e ~ t i o n . ” ~ ~ In the different stages of periodontal disease, accumulation of neutrophils in the connective tissue, junctional epithelium, and gingival sulcus are characteristic morphological findings. 35

Izumi et al.” reported that neutrophil chemotaxis was significantly impaired in subjects with DS when compared with healthy controls. The authors found that 50% of subjects with DS had defective neutrophil chemotaxis. They also found that the prevalence of bone loss in subjects with DS was inversely proportional to the neutrophil chemotactic index of the patient. These findings are in agreement with Yavuzyilmaz et al.,35 who

found a reduction in neutrophil chemotaxis, in neutrophil phagocytosis, and in the mean random migration of neutrophils. The relatively short half-life of neutrophils in people with DS (3.7 hours compared with 6.6 hours in healthy individuals) may account for their neutrophil d y s f ~ n c t i o n . ~ ~

T-lymphocyte dysfunction Cichon et ~ 1 . ’ ~ reported that peripheral T- lymphocytes in subjects with DS have a diminished ability to recognize and respond to specific antigens. This study demonstrated a quantitative and qualitative deficiency of T-lymphocytes. Clee-Sohoel et ~ 1 . ~ ~ observed that the number of T-cell receptor-bearing lymphocytes in marginal periodontitis in subjects with DS was less than in other- wise healthy individuals. Shaw and Saxby3’ stated that the percentage of cir- culating T-cells is low from birth and suggested that T-cell maturation may be an integral part of Down syndrome. Whittingham et ~ 1 . ~ ~ demonstrated an atypical immunodeficiency of the T-lymphocyte system. The authors reported that the T-cell pattern included hypo- responsiveness to antigenic stimulus, a low mitotic activity, and an increase in immature T-lymphocytes.

Bjorksten et ~ 1 . ’ ~ reported a link between depressed neutrophil chemotaxis and depressed lymphocyte responsiveness in patients with DS who had low serum zinc levels. Following a two-month course of treatment with zinc phosphate, an increase in serum zinc levels as well as enhanced neutrophil and T-lymphocyte function was observed. Zinc is involved in numerous metabolic pathways and is essential for synthesiz- ing RNA and DNA.+O

Inflammatory mediators and proteolytic

Komatsu et ul.+l found that tissue destruction related to progressive periodontitis was due to actions of both the host and bacterial-derived proteolytic enzymes. Barr-Agholme et a1.4L reported that the mean level of Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) of subjects with DS was signifi-

enzymes

cantly higher than in the healthy controls. This finding was in agreement with a similar study carried out by Tsilingaridis et ~ 1 . ~ ’ PGE2 was present in inflamed periodontal tissue and was a potent mediator of bone r e ~ o r p t i o n . ~ ~ Barr-Agholme et uL4* also proposed that the enhanced levels of PGE2 found in the GCF of patients with Down syndrome might be related to the altered composition of the subgingival microflora. This suggestion was based on the fact that lipopolysaccharide from A.u. has been reported to stimulate the production of PGE2 in monocytes.42

Komatsu et ~ 1 . ~ ~ reported that the production of matrix metalloproteinases was significantly higher in subjects with DS than in the control group. These findings were in agreement with Tsilingaridis et ~ l . + ~ “Matrix metalloproteinases com- prise a family of proteolytic enzymes that collectively degrade the extra-cellular matrix in chronic inflammatory diseases such as periodontitis.”’+

Hyper-innewation of the gingiva Barr-Agholme et a1.” observed that the gingivae of subjects with DS display pro- found inflammatory reactions alongside hyper-innervation of what was assumed to be the sensory part of the innervation of the gingiva. This “hyper-innervation” may not be particular to Down syndrome but may be a reaction brought on by inflammation. Alternatively, chemical transmitters released from these nerves may be responsible for the inflammatory reaction observed.+j This phenomenon may explain results obtained from two studies on experimental gingivitis, which showed that despite identical plaque accumulation, the gingivae of subjects with DS had more extensive inflammation when compared to age-matched healthy ind iv id~a l s .~~ 47 However, func- tional defects of neutrophils and lymphocytes have also been proposed as possible explanations for the difference in gingival response to plaque.47

Barriers to dental services Kaye et ~ l . + ~ reported that while most adults with DS regularly attended their dentist, little treatment was actually pro-

198 Spec Care Dentist 27(5) 2007 Periodontal disease In patients wi th Down syndrome


vided. Allison et al.+’observed that parents of children with Down syndrome frequently encounter problems with access to oral care for their children. Children with DS were significantly less likely to receive dental treatment than their non-DS siblings. Although some authors16 lR have reported that preventive programs have little effect on the progression of periodontal disease in patients with Down syndrome, more recent studies9 24 have shown the effectiveness of frequent preventive care. Yoshihara et al.’ demonstrated the useful- ness of periodic preventive care in suppressing the severity and progression of periodontal disease in subjects with DS. In their study, patients were divided into two groups: those who had received frequent preventive care, and those who had not been treated professionally in more than a year. Significant reductions were noted in mean pocket depth (2.5mm and 3.lmm, respectively), mean frequency of periodontal pockets (46% and 91% respectively), and frequency of the prevalence of pathological alveolar bone loss (62% and 100% respectively), when the “managed group” was compared to the “interrupted group.” Sasaki et al.24 showed the efficacy of monthly preventive care, which consisted of mechanical plaque control and oral hygiene instruction over a period of two and a half years. Significant reduction in gingival inflammation and probing pocket depths were noted at that time (mean pocket depth at baseline was 2.9mm and after 2.5 years was 1.3mm). The use of chlorhexidine mouthwash to compensate for ineffective plaque removal has also been advocated.5@

Discussion People with Down syndrome experience more prevalent and severe periodontal di~ease.~.’~ It has been r e p ~ r t e d ~ ~ . ~ ’ that the progression of the disease in persons with DS was similar to aggressive periodontal disease. A multi-factorial etiology accounting for this prevalence and severity has been proposed. People with DS have poorer levels of oral hygiene,2,1@,21,22 and increased c ~ ~ c u ~ u s . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ + However.

most authors agree that the amount of plaque and calculus present was not com- mensurate with the severity of periodontal disease observed. Lh~17,L9,21,47,51

Open-mouth breathing reduces the cleansing action of the saliva and encourages the accumulation of plaque; it also dehydrates the gingival tissues, which may impair the individual’s resistance to i n f e ~ t i o n . ~ ~ Shorter root lengths and an increased prevalence of fused roots may also influence periodontal d i ~ e a s e . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ It has been suggested that the fused molar roots favor the progression of periodontal disease because occlusal forces have a greater effect on these than on teeth with divergent

Subgingival plaque in people with DS harbors increased amounts of suspected periodontal [email protected] Gram-nega- tive bacteria contain lipopolysaccharide in their cell wall. Among other effects, lipopolysaccharide has the potential to activate the complement system, produce inflammation, and stimulate bone resorp- t i ~ n . ~ ~ Herpes virus can also influence periodontal disease. Hanookai et a1.28 suggested that periodontal herpes virus and bacterial co-infections might favor destructive periodontal disease. However, few studies have been carried out on this subject.

ANUG is more prevalent in Down s y n d r ~ m e . ’ ~ . ~ ~ ANUG can result in the formation of characteristic gingival craters, which encourages plaque stagna- tion, and can favor the progression of any underlying periodontal

Neutrophils and T-lymphocyte function is impaired in people with DS.16,33.35,36 Neutrophils play an intimate role in the periodontal disease process because they have the ability to detect and migrate toward infection and phagocytose microorganism^.'^ Van Dyke et ~ 1 . ~ ~ suggested that because of this close involvement in periodontal disease, a decrease in neutrophil function might result in more severe periodontal break- down. They also suggested that in diseases where neutrophil function was impaired (for example, neutropenia, Papillon-Lefevre syndrome, and Down syndrome), an increase in periodontal disease was usually seen.54 The immune

system can be further compromised by the T-cell dysfunction in Down syndrome. Whittingham et al.3R proposed that the T-cell dysfunction “might be explained by failing immuno-competence due to accelerated ageing”. He further proposed that it might even be caused “by a heavy load of infections early in life because of an incapacity to maintain adequate standards of personal hygiene”.

Preshaw et aL6 highlighted the important role played by both inflammatory mediators and proteolytic enzymes in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease. Both PGE2 and matrix metalloproteinases have been shown to be present in significantly higher levels in people with DS.41 43

PGE2 is a vasodilator, which is “involved in the increased vascular permeability occurring at sites of inflammation, and a mediator of bone demineralization” .44

Matrix metalloproteinases can degrade type I-V collagens, laminin, gelatin, fibronectin, and elastin.44

Institutionalization has been ~hown’’.~@ to be associated with an increased prevalence and severity of periodontal disease. Swallow*@ proposed that this may be a reflection of the quality of oral hygiene practiced, whereby aid given to non-institutionalized children by their parents may slow the disease’s process. Cutress’’ suggested that fecal-oral trans- mission of contagious microorganisms in institutionalized patients may account for the increased prevalence of periodontal disease.

Recent s t ~ d i e s ’ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ + have reported the effectiveness of frequent preventive care in slowing the progression and reducing the severity of periodontal disease. Therefore, any barriers that hinder the access of people with DS to dental services could have detrimental effects on their oral health. Fiske and Shafik’ rec- ommended the development and instigation of a realistic preventive pro- gram that would include regular scaling and root planing, and advice regarding anti-microbial agents. The results obtained by Yoshihara et al.’ suggest that to combat the severity and progression of periodontal disease in persons with DS, a more frequent treatment interval than the six months suggested by Hennequin

Morgan Spec Care Dentist 27(5) 2007 199


et al.’ should be employed. In their study, the mean interval between dental visits in the managed group was 3.7 (+/- 1.3 months). Sakellari et al.L1 also recom- mended a three-month treatment interval. It has been suggested that an oral hygiene regime that includes chlorhexidine - as a mouthwash, a gel, or as a professionally applied varnish - may be beneficial in reducing oral plaque, and may help compensate for inadequate too th-br~shing .~~

C o n c l u s i o n s The increased prevalence and severity of periodontal disease in persons with Down syndrome is due partly to an inability to adequately maintain oral hygiene. Other contributing factors include an earlier and more extensive colonization with known periodontal pathogens along with other local factors such as open-mouth breathing, tooth morphology, altered microbial plaque composition, and acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. Increasing evidence, however, supports the theory that an impaired immunity due to a reduction in neutrophil chemotaxis, neutrophil phagocytosis, and T-lymphocyte function, as well as an increased production of inflammatory mediators and proteolytic enzymes, may contribute most to the prevalence and severity of periodontal disease in persons with Down syndrome.

Down syndrome is the most com- monly diagnosed intellectual disability in Ireland.4 In recent years, trends toward de-institutionalizing people with Down syndrome and placing them in commu- nity settings have emerged.15 Therefore, it is increasingly likely that most dental practitioners will encounter a patient with Down syndrome. Every effort must be made to encourage the implementa- tion of frequent preventive care in order to decrease the severity and progression of periodontal disease in their patients.

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s The author acknowledges Prof. June Nunn for her advice and encouragement in writing this article.

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Why is periodontal disease more prevalent and more severe in people with Down syndrome?