Why Emotional Intelligence Should Matterto Management: A Survey of the LiteratureKerry S. Webb, Texas Woman's University

This paper on emotional intelligence will ad-dress some important questions including: Whatis emotional intelligence (El)? How is it differ-ent from other established constructs in psychol-ogy? Is it possible to develop El? Is El a betterpredictor of work performance than traditionalmeasures of intelligence?

BackgroundResearch on emotional intelligence began asearly as the 1930s with researchers RobertThorndike and Stein (1937) and Wechsler(1940). David Wechsler deñned intelligence as"the aggregate or global capacity of the indi-vidual to act purposefully, to think rationally,and to deal effectively with his environment"(Wechsler. 1958). He also wrote. "It follows thatwe cannot expect to measure total intelligenceuntil our tests also include some measures of thenon-intellective factors" (Wechsler, 1943).

The work of these early pioneers was largelyoverlooked until 1983 when Howard Gardnerbegan writing about "multiple intelligence." Heproposed that intrapersonal and interpersonalintelligence are as important as the type ofintelligence typically measured by IQ and re-lated tests.

Conducted in the 1940s, the Ohio State Stud-ies were some of the earliest research studies onleadership. J. K. Hemphill (1959) suggested that"consideration" is an important aspect of effec-tive leadership. This research study suggestedthat leaders who are able to establish "mutualtrust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport"with members of their group will be more effec-tive (Fleishman and Harris. 1962).

Around the same time period, the Office ofStrategic Services (1948) created a process ofassessment based on the work of Murray (1938)that included the appraisal of noncognitive andcognitive abilities. This became known as the"assessment center""and was first used in the

private sector by AT&T in 1956 (Bray, 1976).Many of the factors evaluated in the assessmentcenters past and present iticlude social andemotional competencies including communica-tion, sensitivity, initiative, and interpersonalskills (Thornton and Byham. 1982).

By the 1990s, a long tradition of research onthe role of noncognitive factors had been estab-lished to help people succeed in both life and theworkplace. The current research has been builton this tradition.

Current Research, Theory, and PracticeSalovey and Mayer coined the tenn "emotionalintelligence" in 1990 (Salovey and Mayer,1990). They were well aware of the previouswork on non-cognitive aspects of intelligenceand they described emotional intelligence as "aform of social intelligence that involves theability to monitor one's own and others' feelingsand emotions, to discriminate among them, andto use this information to guide one's thinkingand action" (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

These partners launched a research programwith the intent to develop valid measures ofemotional intelligence and to explore its signifi-cance. In one study they found that when peoplesaw an upsetting film, those who scored high onemotional clarity (the ability to identify andname to a mood being experienced) recoveredmore quickly (Salovey. Mayer. Goldman,Turvey, and Palfai, 1995). In another study,individuals who scored higher in the ability toperceive accurately, understand and appraiseothers' emotions were better able to respondflexibly to changes in their social environmentsand build supportive social networks (Salovey,Bedell, Detweiler, and Mayer, 1999).

In the early 1990s, Daniel Goleman becameaware of the work of Salovey and Mayer. Hewas a science writer for the New York Times andlater became a professor at Harvard University.

32 SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009

He published. Emotional Intelligence: Why ItMatters More Than IQ, in 1995, and has sincepublished such works as Workitig with Emo-tional Intelligence (1998), Emotionally Intelli-gent Parenting (2000), Primal Leadership:Leading with Emotional Intelligence (2002), andSocial Intelligence: Beyond IQ to Emotionalintelligence (2006).

Over 30 years ago, D.C. McClelland (1973)and other researchers became concerned withhow little traditional tests of cognitive intelli-gence tell us about what it takes to succeed inlife. One of the primary reasons for the currentinterest in emotional intelligence is its potentialusefulness in predicting a range of criteria acrossdifferent populations. Hunter and Hunter (1984),found that IQ by itself is not a very good predic-tor of job performance. They estimated that, atbest, in an ideal situation, IQ accounts for up to25% of the variance for high-performing work-ers.

Stemberg (1996) has confirmed that researchresults vary and that 10% may be a more realis-tic estimate. Some studies have found that IQaccounts for a little as 4% ofthe variance. Still,IQ will likely remain a significant predictor ofeffectiveness, especially in regard to selection ofjobs, professions, and career paths.

Practitioners who must make decisions onhiring and promotion are far more interested inassessing capabilities related to outstandingperformance and leadership. Qualitative researchsuggests that IQ measures fail to account forlarge portions of the variance related to perfor-mance and career success, especially among topmanagers and senior leaders (Femandez-Araoz,2001). A large body of research indicates that IQdoes not predict success for top performers aswell as competencies that integrate cognitive,emotional, and social abilities — all of whichmay be represented as emotional intelligence.

How El Differs from Other EstablishedConstructs in PsychologyThere is a growing awareness that the abilities,traits, and competencies related to emotionalintelligence are woven together with cognitiveintelligence (Chemiss, 2001). A good exampleof this research is the Sommerville study, a 40-year investigation of 450 boys who grew up inSommerville, Massachusetts. Two-thirds of theboys were from welfare families and one-thirdhad IQs below 90. However, IQ had little rela-tion to how well they did at work or in the restof their lives. What made the biggest difference

was the development of abilities such as beingabie to handle frustration, control emotions, andlearning to get along with other people (Snareyand Vaillant, 1985).

Another good example is a study of 80 PhDsin science who underwent a battery of personal-ity tests, IQ tests, and interviews in the 1950swhile they were graduate students at Berkeley.Forty years later, when they were in their early70s, they were tracked down and their careerswere evaluated based on their resumes, feedbackfrom experts in their fields, and sources likeAmerican Men and Women of Science. It turnedout that social and emotional abilities were fourtimes more important than IQ in determiningprofessional success and prestige (Feist andBan-on, 1996).

It would be inaccurate to suppose that cogni-tive ability is irrelevant for success in science.For starters, a relatively high IQ is needed to beadmitted to a graduate school like Berkeley.Once past this threshold, however, IQ has littleto do with a person's abilily to surpass his or herpeers. It is more important to be able to persist inthe face of difficulty and to get along well withcolleagues and subordinates than it is to have anextra 10 or 15 points of IQ. The same is likelytrue of other occupations.

Given levels of IQ create a "threshold compe-tence," a minimal capability that everyone in agiven pool must have to get and keep their job.However, IQ does seem to account for a sub-stantial amount of variance in performance forentry-level positions. In middle- and upper-leveljobs, the distinguishing factors seem to be re-lated to emotional intelligence and competenciesthat distinguish the superb performers from therun-of-the-mill performers.

While IQ should remain an important predic-tor of the types of vocations a given individualcan pursue, once within that vocation the predic-tive validity of IQ seems to diminish signifi-cantly (Goleman, Boyatzis, and Rhee, 2000).The excitement generated in some media con-texts supports the impression that high emo-tional intelligence might compensate for a lowIQ and allow those with below-average IQ, buthigh emotional intelligence, to thrive. This is afalse impression due to the concept that a"threshold competence" exists for any givenposition in which a minimal IQ is required to getand keep a job.

As popular interest and scientific researchhave begun to challenge long held assumptionsabout what leads to success, the emotional

SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009 33

intelligence paradigm has helped to bring a morebalanced view of the role of cognition andemotion in determining life outcomes. In theMarshmallow Studies at Stanford University,four-year-olds were asked to stay in a roomalone until a researcher returned. They were toldthey could have one marshmallow if they ate itimmediately, but were promised two if theycould wait until tbe researcher returned.

Ten years later the researchers found that thechildren who were able to resist temptation hadtotal SAT scores 210 points higher than thosewho were unable to wait (Shoda, Mishel, andPeake, 1990). This indicates a link betweenemotional and cognitive intelligence. However,cognitive ability seems to play a rather limitedrole in accounting for success.

Value of Emotional Intelligence at WorkMartin Seligman developed a construct he calls''learned optimism" (Schulman. 1995) thatrelates to the attributions people make whenconfronted with failure or setbacks. Optimiststend to make specific, temporary, external causalattributions, while pessimists tend to makeglobal, permanent, internal attributions.

Seligman found that new salesmen who wereoptimists sold 37% more insurance in their firsttwo years than did pessimists. When the com-pany hired a special group of salesmen whofailed the normal screening but scored high onoptimism, they outsold the pessimists by 21% inthe first year and 57% in the second year. Theoptimistic salesmen outsold the average agent by27%.

Seligman also tested 500 members of thefreshmen class at the University of Pennsylva-nia. He found that their scores on optimism werea better predictor of their actual grades duringthe freshman year than SAT scores or highschool grades (Schulman, 1995).

A study of store managers in a retail chainfound that the ability to handle stress predictednet profits, sales per square foot, sales per em-ployee, and per dollar inventory investment(Lusch and Serpkenci, 1990). The ability tomanage feelings and handle stress is a keyaspect of emotional intelligence.

A multinational consulting firm assessed theirpartners on El competencies plus three addi-tional elements. The results showed that employ-ees who scored above the median on at leastnine of the 20 competencies delivered $1.2million more profit from their accounts than didother partners. This resulted in an incredible

139% incremental gain (Boyatzis, 1999).Emotional intelligence involves knowing

when and how to express emotions, as much ascontrolling emotions. Simply controlling emo-tions is not adequate for sustained success. In astudy at Yale University, Sigdai Barsade (1998)gathered a group of volunteers to act out the roleof managers to allocate bonuses to subordinates.They planted a trained actor among the group,and the actor always spoke first. In variousgroups he projected one of four attitudes:

• Cheerful enthusiasm• Relaxed warmth• Depressed sluggishness• Hostile irritability

The results indicated that the actor was able toinfect the group with his emotion. Good feelingsled to cooperation, fairness, and overall groupperformance. Objective measures indicated thatcheerful groups were better able to distribute themoney fairly and in a way that helped the orga-nization. Bachman (1988) also found that themost effective leaders in the U.S. Navy werewarmer, more outgoing, emotionally expressive,and sociable.

In another study, 300 top-level executivesfrom 15 global companies were analyzed, andthe results demonstrated that six emotionalcompetencies separated the star performers fromthe average: influence, team leadership, organi-zational awareness, self-confidence, achieve-ment drive, and leadership (Spencer, 1997).

In jobs of medium complexity, such as salesclerks or mechanics, a top performer is 1200%more productive than those at the bottom and85% more productive than an average per-former. In more complex jobs, such as accountmanagers or insurance salespeople, a top per-former is 127% more productive than an averageperformer (Hunter, Schmidt, and Judiesch,1990).

Competency research in over 200 companiesand organizations around the globe suggests thatapproximately one-third of the difference inperformers is due to technical skills and cogni-tive ability, while two-thirds is due to emotionalcompetence. In top leadership positions, re-search indicates that as much as four-fifths ofthe difference is due to emotional competence(Goleman, 1998).

Eor example, supervisors in a manufacturingplant received training in emotional competen-cies such as how to listen better and how to help

34 SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009

employees solve problems on their own. As aresult, lost-time accidents declined by 50%,formal grievances were reduced from 15 peryear to three (a 500% decline), and the plantexceeded productivity goals by $250,000(Pesuric and Byham, 1996).

Empathy is another important aspect of emo-tional intelligence, and researchers have knownfor years that it contributes to occupationalsuccess. Rosenthal (1977) found that people whowere best at identifying others "emotions weremore successful in their work as well as in theirsocial lives.

It may appear obvious that emotional intelli-gence is of primary importance for success inwork and life. However, this would be toosimplistic a conclusion and also somewhatmisleading. By itself, emotional intelligence isnot a strong predictor of job performance, but, itprovides the foundation for the social competen-cies that are the key to success. The principalresearchers who argue this point are DanielGoleman (1998), Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso(1998).

Daniel Goleman bridged this gap by making adistinction between emotional intelligence andemotional competence. Emotional competencerefers to the personal and social skills that leadto superior performance in work. TTiese compe-tencies are linked to and based on emotionalintelligence. Goleman identifies four key areasof emotional competence:

• Self-awareness• Self-management• Social-awareness• Relationship management '

According to Goleman, studies show thatemotional competence may account for as muchat 75% of success in work and social life (1998).

Multiple Theories of EmotionaiIntelligenceWithin the emotional intelligence paradigmseveral theories attempt to understand and ex-plain the skills, traits, and abilities associatedwith social and emotional intelligence (Bar-On,2000; Goleman, 1995, 1998; Mayer andSalovey, 1997). Multiple theories can oftenhighlight additional aspects of complex con-structs. To predict and foster personal effective-ness, all theories within the emotionalintelligence paradigm seek to understand howindividuals perceive, understand, utilize, and

manage emotions.The first of the three major theories to emerge

was that of Bar-On (1988). In his doctoral dis-sertation he coined the term emotional quotient(EQ) as an analogy to IQ. He defined his modelin terms of an array of traits and abilities relatedto emotional and social knowledge that influ-ence our overall ability to cope effectively withenvironmental demands. Therefore, it can beviewed as a model of psychological well-beingand adaptation (Emmerling and Goleman, 2003).

The oldest instrument for measuring emo-tional intelligence is Bar-On's EQ-I (1977). Theoriginal instrument was a self-report assessmentthat has evolved to a 360-degree assessment. Itwas designed to gauge personal qualities thatenabled some people to possess better emotionalwell-being than others. The model includes:

1) Ability to be aware of, understand, andexpress oneself

2) Ability to be aware of, understand, and relateto others

3) Ability to deal with strong emotions andcontrol one's impulses

4) Ability to adapt to change and to solve prob-lems of a personal or social nature

The five main domains in his model areintrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, adapt-ability, stress management, and general mood.The EQ-I seems to provide a valid and reliableestimate of a person's ability to cope with thepressures and demands of daily life. While it hasgood reliability and discriminant validity, less isknown about its predictive validity in worksituations.

In a study with the U.S Air Force, the EQ-Iwas used to test 1,171 potential recruiters andsaved the Air Force nearly $3 million. Therewere no significant differences based on ethnicor racial groups.

The second theory was developed by Mayer,Caruso, and Salovey ( 1998), who created themultifactor emotional intelligence scale (MEIS).Mayer and Salovey defined emotional intelli-gence as the ability to perceive emotions, toaccess and generate emotions to assist thought,to understand emotions and emotional knowl-edge, and to reflectively regulate emotions topromote emotional and intellectual growth(1997).

The MEIS is framed within a model of intelli-gence and has shown to correlate with traditionalmeasures of intelligence (IQ). This is consistent

SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009 35

with the view that all forms of intelligenceshould show some degree of correlation to beproperly classified as an intelligence. The EQ-I(Bar-On. 1997) and the MEIS (Mayer andSalovey, 1997) do not demonstrate a high corre-lation with one another, which suggests the twoinstruments are measuring different aspects ofemotional intelligence (Emmerling, 2003). Thisis not surprising since these theories differ inbasic definitions of emotional intelligence. Incontrast with the MEIS, the Bar-On EQ-I over-laps to a higher degree with traditional measuresof personality (Bar-On, 1997; Saklofske, Austin,and Minski, 2003; Schutte. Malouff, Hall, Hag-gerty. Cooper, Golden, and Dorheim, 1998).

The MEIS is a test of ability rather than a self-report measure. As such, it is performance- orability-based. The respondents perform a seriesof tasks designed to measure their ability toperceive, identify, understand, and work withemotion. This is done by presenting a series ofvisual images, such as faces, and asking therespondent to identify the emotion(s) present.Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey (1999) point outthat an emotional intelligence must meet threecriteria: I ) It must reflect actual mental perfor-mance, 2) It should describe a set of relatedabilities that are distinct from established intelli-gence, and 3) It should develop with age.

A third theory was put forward by DanielGoleman (1998) in his book, Working withEmotional Intelligence. The instrument used tomeasure emotional intelligence as defined byGoleman is the emotional competence inventory(ECI) based on mastery of four areas of emo-tional competency listed earlier

The ECI 2.0 is a 360-degree instrument inwhich people who are familiar with the respon-dent rate him or her on 20 competencies thatGoleman suggests are linked to emotional intel-ligence. The value of the ECI is demonstrated inits usefulness for assessment, training, and thedevelopment of social and emotional competen-cies in the workplace.

Goleman defines an "emotional competence"as "a learned capability based on emotionalintelligence that results in outstanding perfor-mance at work" (Goleman, 1998b). Golemanperceives that these competencies are learned,whereas Mayer and Salovey perceive emotionalintelligence as representing a person's potentialfor mastering specific skills. Goleman purportsthat emotional competencies represent the de-gree to which one has mastered specific skillsand abilities that build on El and allow for

greater effectiveness at work (Goleman, 2001).Goleman's research is distinct in that he

grounds his theory in the context of work perfor-mance. Where Bar-On seeks to develop a gen-eral measure of social and emotional intelligencepredictive of emotional well-being, and Mayerand Salovey seek to establish the validity andutility of a new form of intelligence, Goleman'smodel seeks to develop a theory of work perfor-mance based on social and emotional competen-cies.

Development of Emotional IntelligenceEmotional intelligence comprises a large set ofabilities that have been studied for years throughtests to measure specific abilities. For instance,Seligman's SASQ, designed to measure learnedoptimism, has been impressive in its ability toidentify high-performing students, salespeople,and athletes, to name a few (Schulman, 1995).As research on star pertbrmers has begun toaccumulate, it is apparent that the vast majorityof competencies that distinguish average per-formers from "star pertbrmers" could be identi-fied as social and emotional competencies(Emmerling and Goleman, 2003). More recentresearch has shown that the more senior theleader, the more important emotional competen-cies become (Goleman, 2002).

A considerable body of research now suggeststhat the key to success lies in a person's abilityto perceive, identify, and manage emotion.These abilities form the basis for the emotionaland social competencies that are important forsuccess in almost any job.

Is it Possible to Develop Ei?Bar-On has found that successively older co-horts tend to score higher on his scale of EI,suggesting that EI can be learned through lifeexperience. A wide range of findings frompsychotherapy (Barlow, 1985), training pro-grams (Marrow, Jarrett, and Rupinski, 1981),and executive education (Boyatzis, Cowan, andKolb, 1995) all provide evidence for peoples'ability to improve their emotional and socialcompetenceV///i sustained effort and a system-atic program.

New findings in the emerging field of affec-tive neuroscience have begun to demonstratethat the brain circuitry of emotion exhibits a fairdegree of plasticity, even in adulthood(Davidson, Jackson, and Kalin, 2000). Forexample, tbe Weatherhead School of Manage-ment at Case Western Reserve University

36 SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009

Percentage Improvement of Emotional Intelligence

a Self-Awareness and Self-Management

• Social Awareness andRelationship Management

1-2 Years 3-5 Years 5-7 Years

Years After the Course

(Boyatzis, Cowan, and Kolb. 1995) conductedlongitudinal studies in which students partici-pated in a required course on competence build-ing that allowed students to assess theiremotional intelligence competencies as well ascognitive ones. The students then selected spe-cific competencies to target and designed andimplemented an individualized learning plan tostrengthen them. Assessment of the students attbe beginning of the program, upon graduation,and again years later on-the-job has shown thatemotional intelligence competencies can besignificantly improved and that these improve-ments are sustainable.

The effects observed in the WeatherheadMBA program were sustained over five to sevenyears, providing evidence that it is not onlypossible to develop emotional intelligence com-petencies, but also to retain them for some time.The results are shown in the following chart(Emmerling and Goleman, 2003).

The results of this individualized approachwere more impressive than those observed intraditional MBA programs and typical corporateleadership development initiatives. Research ontraditional MBA programs found just a 2%increase in social and emotional competencies asa result of program completion (Boyatzis,Cowan, and Kolv, 1995). Corporate leadershipinitiatives fared slightly better, but the effects

were also relatively small and tended to fadesignificantly over time.

Recent research on "mindfulness" training -an emotional self-régulât i on strategy — hasshown that neuro-lingui.stic training can alterbrain centers that regulate negative and positiveemotions. Mindfulness training tries to helppeople stay focused on the present, keepingdistressing and distracting thoughts (worries) atbay, and to pause before acting on emotionalimpulse (Emmerling and Goleman, 2003).Employees from a biotech firm who receivedmindfulness training reported less stress aftereight weeks and felt more creative and enthusi-astic about their work (Davidson and Kabat-Zinn, et al., 2003).

Does El Predict Work PerformanceBetter Than Traditional Measures ofIntelligence?Research clearly indicates that assessing emo-tional competencies helps to identify individualslikely to succeed in a given organizational role.Rather than focusing on "performance gaps" indevelopmental training for employees, a morebalanced approach may achieve greater changeand lasting results if it: I) focuses on strengths,2) articulates a personal vision, 3) developsemotional competencies to achieve that vision,and 4) provides a supportive environment.

SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009 37

The Competency Framework20 competencies determine emotional intelligence

Self-Awareness• Emotional Se If-Awareness• Accurate Se If-Assessment• Self-Confidence

Self-Management• Self-Control• Trustworthiness• Conscientiousness• Adaptability• Achievement Orientation• Initiative

Social Awareness• Empathy• Organizational Awareness• Service Orientation

Relationship Management• Developing Others• Leadership• Infiuence• Communication• Change Catalyst• Conflict Management• Building Bonds• Teamwork and Collaboration

When done correctly, such feedback becomesa central part of work motivation and goal set-ting (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Locke andLatham, 1990). The process of guiding people indiscovering their strengths, identifying a per-sonal vision for growth and improvement inemotional intelligence, and providing feedbackin a supportive environment seems to be the bestpathway to increasing emotional intelligence.Research indicates that improvements in emo-tional intelligence are highly correlated withincreased performance in education and in theworkplace.

What Management Can DoIn business, the key to improving performanceseems to be vitally linked with the improvementof emotional competencies for managers andworkers alike. In education, similar resultsdemonstrate that the key to improving studentperformance is linked to improving emotionalcompetencies for both students and teachers.

Managers may find Goleman's (1998) modelfor developing emotional competencies useful.In this model a worker's potential translates intoeffectiveness based on four areas of emotionalcompetency: self-awareness, self-management,social awareness, relationship management.Within these four areas, Goleman identifies 20specific competencies that may be measured anddeveloped as shown in the table (Boyatzis, R. E.,Goleman, D., and HayGroup 2001).

Through use of the ESCI, a 360-degree instru-ment, a manager can obtain accurate and infor-mative data about his or her level of mastery in

each ofthe 20 emotional competencies. Effec-tive leadership begins with the development ofthe leader's personal skills'before proposingchanges in the habits of employees.

Fabio Sala (2002) provides a framework fordeveloping emotional intelligence in the work-place and explains that the process involves fourphases: 1) preparation, 2) training, 3) transferand maintenance, and 4) evaluation. In thepreparation phase, it is vital to assess theorganization's needs, assess personal strengthsand limits, encourage worker participation, linkgoals to organizational values, and gauge thereadiness ofthe workforce. In the training phase,the manager will strive to foster positive rela-tionships between the trainer and the learners,clearly communicate goals, reinforce the impor-tance of self-directed efforts, provide opportuni-ties to practice new skills, and provide frequentfeedback on workers' practice and behaviors.The transfer and maintenance phase focuses onthe use of emotional skills on the job and devel-oping an organizational culture that supportslearning and using these new skills. Finally, theevaluation phase involves acknowledging im-proved perfonnance and identifies links betweenskill development and work outcomes.

In a study for a large U.S. Government ac-counting organization. Sala (2002) was able todocument an improvement of approximately24% in 19 ofthe 20 emotional intelligencecompetencies after implementing a two-dayworkshop titled "Deciding to Change." Withsuch strong evidence, the most surprising factis that few businesses and schools focus on

38 SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009

implementing programs to enhance the emo-tional intelligence of their most important con-stituents. It will take strong, visionary leadershipto tum this tide, but with sustained effort andsignificant empirical (data-driven) results, theorganizational leaders who pursue this changewill become national, perhaps even global, iconsin the fight to improve the performance andquality of life for workers everywhere.

Dr. Webb, an assistant professor of Manage-ment, is also the founder of Peak Leadership,LLC. a management consulting firm. Dr. Kerryhas coached, trained, and motivated hundreds ofleaders to create high-performance work teamsand develop positive organizational cultures. Hehas published in the areas of increasing em-ployee performance. maintaining worker satis-faction, the role of emotional intelligence inmanagement, and the use of conflict manage-ment Strategie s for enhancing work outcomes.

REFERENCESBachman, W. (1988). Nice guys finish first: A SYMLOG

atialysis of U.S. Naval commands. In e. a. R. B. PoUey(Ed.). The SYMLOG practitioner: Applications of smallgroup research. New York: Praeger.

Barlow. D. H. (Ed.). (1985). Clinical handbook of psychologi-cal disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual. NewYork: Guilford Press.

Bar-On, R. (1997). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory:User's manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

Bar-On. R. (2000). Emotional and social intelligence: In-sights from the emotional quotient inventory. In R. Bar-Onand J. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotional intelligence.San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bar-On, R. (1997). The bar-on emotional quotient inventory(EQ-i): A test of emotional intelligence. Toronto, Canada:Multi-Health Systems.

Bar-On, R. (1997b). The emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i):Technical manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

Bar-On, R. (1988). The development of an operational con-cept of psychological well-being. Unpublished doctoraldissertation. Rhodes University, South Africa.

Barsade, S. (1998). The ripple effect: Emotional contagion ingroups (Working paper). New Haven, CT: Yale Univer-sity School of Management.

Barsade, S.. andGibson. D. E. (1998). Group emotion: A viewfrom the top and bottom. In D. G. e. al. (Eds.), Research onmanaging groups and teams. Greenwich. CT: JAI Press.

Boyatzis. R. (1982). The competent manager: A model ofeffective performance. New York: Wiley.

Boyatzis. R. E. (1994). Stimulating self-directed learningthrough the Managerial Assessment and DevelopmentCourse. Jounial of Management Education. 18(3), 304-323.

Boyatzis, R. E. (1999). Presentation to the Linkage Confer-

ence on Emotional Intelligence. Chicago, IL.Boyatzis, R. E. (2002). Unleashing the power of self-direcied

learning. In R. Sims (Eds.), Changing the way we managechange: The consultants speak. NY: Quorum Books.

Boyatzis, R. E., Cowan, S. S., and Kolb, D. A. (1995).Innovations in professional education : Steps on a journeyto learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Boyatzis. R. E.. Goleman. D.. and HayGroup (2001). Emo-tional Competence Inventory.

Boyatzis. R. E.. Goleman. D.. and Rhee, K. S. (2000). Clus-tering competence in emotional intelligence: Insights fromthe Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI). In R. Bar-onand J.

Bradberry, T., and Greaves, J. (2003). Emotional intelligenceappraisal: Technical manual. TalentSmart, Inc.: San Di-ego. CA.

Bray, D. W., Campbell. R. J.. and Grant. D. L. (1974).Formative years in business: A long-term AT&T study ofmanagerial lives. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Bray. D. W. (1976). The assessment center method. In R. L.Crmgi^s.),Training and Development Handbook. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.

Cavallo. K., and Brienza, D. (2002). Emotional competenceand leadership excellence at Johnson & Johnson, NewBrunswick. NJ: Consortium for Research on EmotionalIntelligence in Organizations. Rutgers University.

Chemiss, C, (2{M)0, April 15). Emotional intelligence: What itis and why it matters. Presented at the annual meeting forthe Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology,New Orleans, LA.

Chemiss. C. (2(X)1). Emotional intelligence and organiza-tional effectiveness. In C. Chemiss and D. Goleman (Eds.).The emotionally intelligent workplace (pp. 3-26). SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chemiss, C . Goleman, D., Emmerling, R.. Cowan. K., andAdler, M. (1998). Bringing emotional intelligence to theworkplace. New Brunswick, NJ: Consortium for Researchon Emotional Intelligence in Organizations, Rutgers Uni-versity.

Chemiss. C . and Goleman. D. (2001 ). The emotionally intel-ligent workplace. San Francisco: Jos.sey-Bass. The Con-sortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence inOrganizations Issues in El, 29.

Chemiss. C . and Adler, M. (2000). Promoting emotionalintelligence in organizations. Alexandria. VA: AmericanSociety for Training and Development.

Ciarrochi. J. V.. Chan, A. Y. C . and Caputi. P. (2001). Acritical evaluation of the emotional intelligence construct.Personality and Individtial Differences, 28, 539-561.

Costa, P. T. Jr., and McCrae, R. R. (1997). Longitudinalstability of adult personality. In R. Hogan, J. A. Johnson,and S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychol-ogy (pp. 269-290). New York: Academic Press.

Csikszentmihalyi. M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of opti-mal experience. New York: Harper Perennial.

Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes' error : Body and emotion inthe making of consciousness. New York: Putnam.

Davidson. K. J.. Kabat-Zinn. J. et al., (2003). Alterations inbrain and immune function produced by mindfulnessmeditation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 564-570

SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009 39

Davies. M., Stankov, L., and Roberts, R. D. (1998). Emotionalintelligence: In search of an elusive construct./íJí/rna/o/Personality and Social Psychology, 75. 989-1015.

Davidson. R., Jackson, D. C . and Kalin, N. H. (20(X)).Emotion, plasticity, context and regulation: Perspectivesfrom affective neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin./26(6), 890-909.

Davis, M., and Kraus, L. (1997). Personality and empathieempathy, in H. Ickes (Eds.) Empathie accuracy. NY:Guilford Press.

Emmerling, R., and Goleman, D. (2003). Emotional intelli-gence : Issues and common misunderstandings. wñúenforthe Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence inOrganizations.

Feist, G. J., and Barron, F. (1996, June). Emotional ¡nielli-gence and academic intelligence in career and life suc-cess. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of theAmerican Psychological Society, San Francisco, CA.

Femandez-Araoz, C. (2(X)I ). The challenge of hiring seniorexecutives. In C.

Fleishman, E.. and Hards, E. F. (1962). Patterns of leadershipbehavior related to employee grievances and turnover.Personnel Psychology, ¡5,43-56.

Gardner, H. ( 1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.Gardner, H. (1999, February). Who owns intelligence? The

Atlantic Monthly.Goleman (Eds.), Emotional competence in organizations.Goleman. D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York:

Bantam.Goleman, D (2001). Emotional intelligence: Issues in para-

digm building. In C. Chemiss and D. Goleman (Eds.), Theemotionally intelligent workplace, (pp. 13-26), Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.

Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence.New York: Bantam Books.

Goleman, D., Boyalzis. R. E., and Rhee, K, S. (2000). Clus-tering competence in emotional intelligence: Insights fromthe emotional competence inventory. In R. Bar-On andJ.D.A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotional intelligence(pp. 343-362). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Goleman. D.. Boyatzis, R.. and McKee, A. (2002). Primalleadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence.Boston: Harvard Business School Press. The Consortiumfor Research on Emotional Intelligence in OrganizationsIssues in El (www.eiconsortium.org), 30.

Gowing, M. (in press). Measurement of individual emotionalcompetence. In C. Chemiss & D.

Hay/McBer( 1996). Generic competency dictionary. Boston:McBer and Company.

Hemphill.J.K. (1959). Job description forexecutives. Z/anwrf/Business Review. 37(5), 55-67.

Hunter. J. E., and Hunter, R. F. (1984). Validity and utility ofaltemative predictors of job performance. PsychologicalBulletin. 760). 12-93.

Hunter, J. E.. Schidt, F. L, and Judiesch, M. K. (1990).Individual differences in output variability as a function ofjob complexity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 28-42.

Kuhn. T. S. ( 1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2"̂ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain: The my.steriousunderpinnings of emotional life. New York: Simon andSchuster.

Llyod, M. (2001 ). Emotional intelligence and Bass BrewersLtd. Dissertation: Nottingham Business School.

Locke, E. A., and Latham. G. P. (1990). A theory of goalsetting and task performance. Upper Saddle River, NJ;Prentice Hall.

Lusch, R. F., and Serpkenci, R. R. (1990). Personal differ-ences, job tension, job outcomes, and store performance:A study of retail mds\a$&K. Journal of Marketing, 54(1),85-101.

Luthans, F., Hodgetts, R. M., and Rosenkrantz, S. A. ( 1988).Real managers, Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Press.

Malouff, J., and Schutte, N. S. (1998, August). Emotionalintelligence scale scores predict counselor performance.Paper presented at the Annual Convention ofthe AmericanPsychological Society, Washington. DC.

Marrow, C. C , Jarrett, M. Q., and Rupinski, M. T. (1997). Aninvestigation of the effect and economic utility of corpo-rate-wide training. Personnel Psychology. 29, 337-343.

Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., and Roberts. R. D. (2003). Emo-tional inteUigence: Science and myth. MIT Press: Boston.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D., and Salovey, P. ( 1999). Emotionalintelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.Intelligence, 27,261-29%.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D.. and Salovey, P. (1998a). Themultifactor emotional intelligence .scale. Unpublished re-port available from the authors.

Mayer, J. D.. and Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotionalintelligence? in P. Saiovey and D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emo-tional development and emotional intelligence: Implica-tions for Educators (pp. 3-34). New York, NY: BasicBooks.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P.. and Caruso, D. ( 1998b). Competingmodels of emotional intelligence. In R. J. Stemberg (Ed.),Handbook of human intelligence (2"̂ ed.). New York:Cambridge University Press.

Mayer. J. D., Salovey, P., and Cartiso. D. R. (2000). Emotionalintelligence as Zeitgeist, as personality, and as a mentalability. In R. Bar-On and J.D.A. Parker (Eds.), Hand-book of emotional intelligence (pp. 92-117). San Fran-cisco: Jossey-Bass. The Consortium for Research on Emo-tional Intelligence in Organizations Issues in El(www.eiconsortium.org), 31.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey. P., and Caruso, D. R. (2002). Mayer-Sal ovey-Caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT)Users manual. Toronto, Canada: MHS Publishers.

McClelland. D. C. (1973). Testing for competence rather thanintelligence. American Psychologist, 28, 1-14.

McClelland, D. C . Baldwin, A. L., Bronfenbrenner, U., andStodbeck, F. L. (1958). Talent and society: New perspec-tives in the identification of talent. Princeton, NJ: D. VanNostrand.

McCrae, R. R. (20(X)). Emotional intelligence from the per-spective ofthe five factor model of personality. InR. Bar-On and J.D.A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotionalintelligence (pp. 263-276). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Meany, M. J. (2001 ), Maternal care, gene expression, and thetransmission of individual differences in stress reactivity

40 SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009

across generations. Annual Revievi- of Neuroscience, 24,1161-1192.

McClelland. D. C. ( 1973). Testing for competence rather thanintelligence. American Psychologist, 28(1), 1-14.

Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. NewYork: Oxford University press. Office of Strategic Ser-vices Assessment Staff. ( 1948). Assessment of men. NewYork: Rinehart.

Nader, L. (I996)(ed.). Naked science: Anthropological in-quiry into boundaries, power, and knowledge. London:Rout ledge.

Orioli. E. M.. Jones, T., and Trocki. K. H. (1999). EQ Maptechnical manual. San Francisco, CA: Q-Metrics.

Palmer, B. R., Gardner, and Stough, C. (2003). The relation-ship between emotional intelligence, personality,and lead-ership effectiveness. Paper presented at the 5"̂ AustralianIndustrial and Organizational Conference. Melbourne.

Parker. D. (Eds.). Handbook of emotional intelligence. SanFrancisco. CA: Jossey-Bass.

Pesuric, A., and Byham, W. (1996). The new look in behaviormodeling. Training and Development, 25-33.

Pilling. B. K.. and Erogiu. S. (1994). An empirical examina-tion of the impact of salesperson empathy and profession-alism and merchandise salability on retail buyer'sevaluations. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Man-

• agement,l4{\), 55~5H.

Popper. K. R. ( 1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Lon-don: Hutchison.

Riemann. R. Angleitner, A., and Strelau, J. (1997). Geneticand environmental influences on personality: A study oftwins reared together using the self-and peer reportedNEO-FFI scales. Journal of Personality. 65, 449-475.

Rosenthal, R. (1977). The PONS Test: Mea-suring sensitivityto nonverbal cues. In P. McReynolds {Eds.), Advances inpsychological assessment. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Saklofske, D. H.. Austin, E. J., and Minski, P. S. (2003).Factor structure and validity of a trait emotional intelli-gence measure. Personality and Individual Differences,34,707-721.

Sala, F. {200ih). tt' s lonely at the top: Executives' emotionalintelligence setf[misj perceptions. Retrieved from http://www.eiconsortium.org

Sala. F. (2002). Do programs designed to increase emotionalintelligence at work—work? Consortium for Research onEmotional Intelligence in Organizations, Retrieved fromhttp://www.eiconsortium.org. Boston:HayGroup.

Sala, F. (2002). Emotional competence inventory (ECI) : Tech-nical manual. Boston: Hay/Mcber Group.

Salovey. P.. Bedell, B., Detweiler, J. B., and Mayer, J. D.(1999). Coping intelligently: Emotional intelligence and

the coping process. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: Thepsychology of what works (pp. 141-164). New York:Oxford University press.

Salovey, P., and Mayer, J. (1990). Emotional inielligence.Imagination, cognition, and personatity. 9(3), 185-211.

Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman. S. L , Turvey, C, andPalfai, T. P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity, andrepair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the TraitMeta-Mood Scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion,disclosure, and health (pp. 125-154), Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.

Salovey. P., Woolery, A., and Mayer, J. D. (in press). Emo-tional intelligence: Conceptualization and measurement.In G. Fletcher and M, S, Clark (Eds.), The Btachiellhandbook of social psychology (Vol. 2: InterpersonalProcesses). Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers.

Schmidt, F. L.. and Hunter. J. B. ( 1981 ). Employment testing:Old theories and new research findings. American Psy-clmlogi.st.36, 1128-1137.

Schulman, P. (1995). Explanatory style and achievement inschool and work. In G. Buchanan and M. E. P. Seligman(Ea^.),Expiam¡tory style. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Schutte. N. S., Malouft J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty. D, J..Cooper, J. T-, Golden, C. J.. and Domhelm, L. 1998).Development and validation of a measure of emotionalintelligence. Personality and Individual Differences. 25,\61-\11.

Shoda, Y., Mischel, W.. and Peake, P. K. (1990). Predictingadolescent cognitive and selfregulatory competencies frompreschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnosticconditions. Developmental Psychology. 26(6). 978-986.

Snarey, J. R., and Vaillant. G. E. (1985). How lower- andworking-class youth become middleclass adults: The as-sociation between ego defense mechanisms and upwardsocialmobility.C/n/í/Dí-ie/opmÉ'rt/. 56(4), 899-910.

Spencer, L. M. J. et al. (1997). Competency asses,<imentmethods: History and State of the Art. Boston: Hay/McBer.

Stemberg, R. (1996). Successful intelligence. New York:Simon and Schuster.

Thomdike, R. L., and Stein, S. (1937). An evaluation of theattempts to measure social intelligence. PsychologicalBulletin, 34, 275-284.

Thornton, G., and Byham, W. C. ( 1982). Assessment centersand managerial performance.t^ew York: AcademicPrefiS.

Wechsler. D. (1943). Non intellective factors in generalintelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 37,444 445.

Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adultintelligence. (4th Ed.). Baltimore, MD: The Williams andWilkins Company.

SAM Advanced Management Journal — Spring 2009 41