Wholistic Education: Toward a Definition and Description

Wholistic Education: Toward a Definition and Description

Rodney H. Clarken

School of Education Northern Michigan University

Paper presented at the 2006 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, April 7-11, 2006

To be distributed only with permission of the author.

Abstract: Holistic education has been marginalized, and therefore, its influence in educational, scientific and political areas limited. This paper attempts develop a concise but comprehensive reliable definition and description of holistic education that is suitable for inclusion in reference books. This statement of principles, practices, perspectives and philosophy will be developed through a review of the literature and through a peer-reviewed process involving scholars and associations in holistic education.

Background In April 2005 I was asked to write the encyclopedia entry for “holistic education” by the editor of the Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education. In reviewing the literature on holistic education in preparation for writing an article, I found a wide variety of definitions and descriptions. Who would be considered the authority on this subject and who had the authority to define and describe holistic education for a broad audience of educators? As the incoming president of the American Educational Research Association’s (AERA) Special Interest Group (SIG) on Wholistic Education (WE), I proposed using the membership of that group to help develop a concise, comprehensive and reliable definition and description of holistic education that would have agreement by a large and fairly representative group of educators with various levels of involvement with holistic education. I felt such a product would have more legitimacy being accepted by a larger audience and of being suitable for inclusion in reference books. Through this peer-review process to try to gain feedback and consensus from authorities in the field of holistic education, as well as from scholars in the cultural and social foundations of education, I thought a definition and description would be developed. that should be acceptable to a broad audience both inside and outside the field of holistic education. Wholistic or Holistic Though I serve as President of the American Educational Research Association’s (AERA) Special Interest Group (SIG) on Wholistic Education and am presenting this paper at that group’s 2006 annual meeting, and therefore used the term “wholistic” in the title of my paper, I will use “holistic” throughout the rest of the paper unless it refers to the proper name. I am recommending that the executive board of the Wholistic Education SIG consider changing their name to “Holistic Education” to reflect the common spelling of holistic. A search on Google for “holistic” brings up about 46,600,000 entries and for “wholistic” about 1,030,000 which is about a 46 to 1 ratio of holistic being used over wholistic (retrieved March 13, 2006). A search for “holistic education” results in 21,400,000 entries and for “wholistic education” only 386,000. Of the first ten entries for “wholistic education”, four of them are links to the AERA Wholistic Education SIG. Each search for “wholistic” asks: “Did you mean: holistic, but search for “holistic” do not ask “Did you mean: wholistic. In the literature and publications on holistic education, the spelling “holistic” is used consistently. None of the sources sited in the extensive bibliography given with this paper used the spelling “wholistic”.

Holistic Education Definitions The problem of defining and describing holistic education is reminiscent of the problem Aristotle had of defining education.

…mankind is by no means agreed about the best things to be taught, whether we look to virtue or the best life. Neither is it clear whether education is more concerned with intellectual or moral virtue. The existing practice is perplexing: no one knows on what principle we should proceed—should the useful like, or should virtue, or should the higher knowledge, be the main aim of our training? (Aristotle, Politics, 8:2:1337a35)

Holistic is an adjective defined as “relating to a whole, including or involving all of something, especially all of somebody’s physical, mental, and social conditions, not just physical symptoms, in the treatment of illness.” (Encarta Dictionary). This dictionary definition and a search on Google for “holistic” reveal a preponderance of the listings referring to physical health and healing. It is not until the 96th listing that holistic education is first mentioned and not until entry 446 that it is listed again. The rest of the listings are health related except for the occasional site on such things as holistic horse keeping, architecture, law, agriculture or theology (retrieved June 7, 2005). The Wholistic Education Special Interest Group of the American Education Research Association defines it purpose “To facilitate and support Wholistic Education toward the well-being of individuals and society through proactive, theory, and research focusing on the integration of intellectual, emotional, physical, and spiritual dimensions of experience.” (Wholistic Education Special Interest Group Newsletter, Winter 2005, p. 1)

Frameworks

Though the principles, perspectives and frameworks of holistic education can be traced as far back as recorded history, the contemporary use of the term is rather new and been described from different points of view. A more recent chronological list of philosophical and psychological influences on holistic education might include the following individuals: Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori, Steiner, Jung, Krishnamurti, Maslow, Rogers, J. Miller and R. Miller.

Perspectives Holistic education is the most defensible, practical and effective approach to developing well-balanced and healthy people who can be valued contributors to society according to their potentialities and the opportunities available to them. It will draw upon the philosophical, religious, psychological and educational literature to make a case that holistic education presents the most comprehensive solution to the educational concerns facing humanity. It is based on the principles that humans are evolving and we are one human species, albeit, varied in many secondary features. Unless and until all aspect of the human being are considered in education, individuals and humanity will suffer from the lack of balance and the denial of part of its reality.

That the body, mind and soul are integral aspects of human nature and that each must be considered in treating and educating the whole person, whether physically, mentally or spiritually, is an ancient idea held by most of humanity for recorded history. It has only recently been challenged by dominant reductionistic and materialistic philosophies of the twentieth century. The result has been a fragmented approach to studying human nature and education and a growing disillusionment in the current apparently dysfunctional approaches to further human interests and potentialities. Though earlier civilization had less developed and informed views of many aspects of human nature, they never the less seem to intuit that human beings were made up of more than physical and mental reality. Method This research involved a review of the literature to draft a one-thousand word description of holistic education that would serve as a concise, accurate and comprehensive definition and description of holistic education. This article (see Appendix B) of 1002 words was submitted on the deadline date of August 30, 2005 to the editor for publication in the Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education. I edited this article very slightly by eliminating the credits and the references and further reading (75 words) starting with my name at the end of the article and by omitting about three sentences, before sending to the WE SIG membership. I have underlined the parts and sentences in the original that were not included in the draft sent to the WE members. I also changed all “holistic” spellings in the original draft to “wholistic” in the WE draft to accord with the spelling of the title of the SIG. The first draft (see appendix A) of the article for feedback was circulated to members of the Wholistic Education Special Interest Group of the American Education Research Association asking for comments and suggestions for additions, corrections of changes. The plan was to post the draft on a website so that all reviewers would have access to all comments and suggestions and my response to them, much like is done on Wikipedia, so that the process would be more transparent, but the very limited responses and suggestions did not warrant such action. I also asked members of that group to recommend others who should be sent the article for their review. Results and/or conclusions First of all, very few members responded and most of the recommendation involved incuding parts I had taken out. David Marshak, the WE SIG Program Chair was the only person to give some editing suggestions and to question my putting Maslow and Rogers together in one category and my spelling the term "wholistic" when just about everyone in the field uses "holistic". He accepted my reasoning for Maslow and Rogers and I changed the spelling to holistic. Appendix C presents the merged documents with changes. Holistic education has been marginalized, and therefore, its influence in educational, scientific and political areas limited. It was my hope that a well-written and supported statement on holistic educations principles, practices, perspectives and philosophy could help define and describe the field. It has the possibility to create more interest in holistic educations value and encourage greater exploration and application of its broad and inclusive principles.

Bibliography Compiled from various lists.

Anderson, L. F. (1931). Pestalozzi. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Aristotle. (1952) Politics. (trans. B. Jowett) In The works of Aristole. (ed. W. D. Ross). Oxford: Claredon.

Ashton-Warner, S. (1964). Teacher. New York: Bantam.

Barnard, H. (Ed.). (1859). Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism: Life, educational principles, and methods of John Henry Pestalozzi with biographical sketches of several of his assistants and disciples (Second edition). New York: F.C. Brownell.

Bernstein, B. (1996). Pedagogy symbolic control and identity: Theory, research, critique. London: Taylor & Francis.

Best, R. (Ed.). (1996). Education, spirituality and the whole child. London: Cassel.

Bowers, C. A. (1993). Education, cultural myths, and the ecological crisis toward deep changes. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Cajete, G. (1994). Look to the mountain: An ecology of indigenous education. Durango: Kivaaki Press.

Clark, E. (1997). Designing and implementing an integrated curriculum: A student-centered approach. Brandon, VT: Psychology Press/Holistic Education Press.

Cohen, A. (1983). The educational philosophy of Martin Buber. London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.

Conti, S. (2002). The spiritual life of teachers: A study of holistic education and the holistic perspective. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.

DeSouza, D. L. (2000). Holistic education: Learning from the experiences of three holistic teachers. Unpublished doctoral research. Harvard University.

DeSouza Rocha, D. L. (2003). Schools where children matter: Exploring educational alternatives. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Doll, W. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Dudty, D., & Dudty, H. (Eds.). (1994). Holistic education: Some Australian explorations. "Belconnen, ACT": Australian Curriculum Studies Association.

Dufault, Y. (2002). A quest for character: Explaining the relationship between first nations teachings and "character education". Unpublished thesis. Toronto, Ontario: The Ontario Institute of Studies in Education, University of Toronto.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L. and Forman, G. (eds, 1993). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Emerson, R. W. (1966). Emerson on education. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Flake, C. (Ed.) (1993) Holistic education: Principles, perspectives, and practices. Brandon, VT, USA: Holistic Education Press.

Fletcher, S. S. F., & Welton, J. (Eds.). (1912). Froebel's chief writings on education. London: Edward Arnold.

Forbes, S. H. (2003). Holistic education: An analysis of its ideas and nature. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Froebel, F. (1890). The education of man (W. N. Hailman, Trans.) (Vol. 5). New York: D. Appleton and Company.

Glazer, S. (Ed.). (1999). The heart of learning: Spirituality in education. New York: Penguin /Putnam.

Harvey, Margaret (1996). Ethnographic studies focused on classroom achievement and support of returned absentees. Unpublished research. University of Minnesota.

Hocking, B, Haskell, J., & Linds, W. (Eds). (2000). Unfolding bodymind: Exploring possibility through education. Vol. Three of the Foundations of Holistic Education Series. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Holistic Education, Inc. (2004). What holistic education claims about itself: An analysis of holistic schools' literature. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA.

Jardine, D. (2000). "Under the tough old stars": Ecopedagogical essays. Volume Four of the Foundations of Holistic Education Series. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Jung, C. G. (1954a). Child Development and Education (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). In H. Read & M. Fordham & G. Adler (Eds.), The development of personality (2nd ed., Vol. 17). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Kessler, R. (2000). The soul of education: Helping students find connection, compassion and character at school. Alexandria, VA.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Krishnamurti, J. (1953). Education and the significance of life. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers Publisher.

Krishnamurti, J. (1974). On education. Pondicherry, India: All India Press.

Liu, Ping (2002). School ecology and classroom instruction at a preschool. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association.

Luvmour, J., and Luvmour, S. (1993). Natural learning rhythms: Discovering how and when your child learns (Revised ed.). Nevada City, CA: EnCompass Press.

Marshak, D. (1997). The common vision: Parenting and educating for wholeness. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing.

Martin, J. (1992). The schoolhome: Rethinking schools for changing families. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Martin, R. (2003). Teachers as learners: A case study of an action research program within holistic education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University.

Martin, R. (2004). Holistic education: Research that is beginning to delineate the field. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA.

Maslow, A. (1975). Some Educational Implications of the Humanistic Psychologies. In T. B. Roberts (Ed.), Four psychologies applied to education: Freudian, behavioral, humanistic, transpersonal. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co.

Miller, J. P. (1993a). The holistic curriculum. Toronto: OISE Press.

Miller, J. P. (1993b). The holistic teacher. Toronto: OISE Press.

Miller, J. P. (1994). The contemplative practitioner: Meditation in education and the professions. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey.

Miller, J. P., Bruce Cassie, J. R., & Drake, S. M. (1990). Holistic learning: A teachers guide to integrated studies. Toronto: OISE.

Miller, J., & Nakagawa, Y. (Eds). (2002). Nurturing our wholeness: Perspectives on spirituality in education. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Miller, J. and Nozawa, A. (2002). Meditating teachers: A qualitative study. Journal of In-Service Education, 28:179-192.

Miller, R. (1992). What are schools for? Holistic education in American culture (Second ed.). Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press.

Miller, R. (2000). Caring for new life: Essays on holistic education. Volume One of the Foundations of Holistic Education Series. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Miller, R. (Ed.). (1993). The renewal of meaning in education: Responses to the cultural and ecological crisis of our times. Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press.

Moffett, J. (1994). The universal schoolhouse: Spiritual awakening through education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Montessori, M. (1964). The Montessori method. New York: Schocken Books.

Montessori, M. (1965). Dr. Montessori's own handbook (1 ed.). New York: Schocken Books Inc.

Montessori, M. (1973). The absorbent mind. Madras: Kalakshetra Publications.

Nakagawa, Y. (2000). Education for awakening: An Eastern approach to holistic education. Volume Two of the Foundations of Holistic Education Series. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Nava, R. (2001). Holistic education: Pedagogy of universal love. Translated by Madeline Newman Rios and Gregory S. Volume Five of the Foundations of Holistic Education Series. Brandon, VT: Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Noddings, N. (1986). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education. Berkley: University of California Press.

Noddings, N. (1992). The challenge to care in schools: An alternative approach to education. New York: Columbia University Teachers College Press.

Orr, D. (1992). Ecological literacy education and the transition to a postmodern world. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press

Palmer, P. J. (1983). To know as we are known: Education as a spiritual journey. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco.

Pestalozzi, J. H. (1907). How Gertrude teaches her children: An attempt to help mothers to teach their own children (L. E. H. a. F. C. Turner, Trans.) (4th ed.). London: Swan, Sonnenshein & Co.

Purpel, D. E. (1989). The moral and spiritual crisis in education: A curriculum for justice and compassion in education. New York: Bergin & Garvey.

Rogers, C. (1967). The Facilitation of Significant Learning. In L. Siegel (Ed.), Some contemporary viewpoints of instruction. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co.

Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus. Ohio: Merrill.

Rousseau, J. J. (1979). Emile: Or on education (A. Bloom, Trans.). London: Penguin Books.

Woodhouse, M. B. (1996). "Honoring the Magical Child: A Manifesto for Holistic Education", In Woodhouse, M. B (Ed.), Paradigm Wars, pp 411-424. Berkeley, CA: Frog.

Whitehead, A. N. (1967). The aims of education. New York: The Free Press (originally Macmillan 1929).

References for Bibliography The following sites were especially helpful in compiling the above bibliography: http://www.holistic-education.net/biblio.htm by Holistic Education, Inc. and http://www.pathsoflearning.net/research/biblio.cfm on The Paths of Learning web site sponsored by the Foundation for Educational Renewal have the same list. http://www.pathsoflearning.net/library/holistic-educ-intro.cfm by Ron Miller

Appendix A: Email sent to all AERA Wholistic Education SIG Members on 11/14/05 Dear AERA Wholistic Education SIG Members, Below and attached is a short draft description of wholistic education that I have written. This first draft is being circulated to members of the Wholistic Education Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association asking for comments, suggestions, additions, corrections or changes. Through this process I hope to develop a more accurate and comprehensive definition and description of wholistic education that should be acceptable to a broad audience. As necessary, I will share future drafts for further comment until we have a description that might serve as a consensus document. I plan to share the final results at the 2006 Annual Meeting of AERA and in a future newsletter. Please direct all comments to [email protected]. Thank you for your support.

Sincerely,

Rodney H. Clarken,

President of AERA Wholistic Education Special Interest Group and Director of Field Experiences and Professor, School of Education, Northern Michigan University, 1401 Presque Isle Avenue, Marquette, MI 49855, Tel: 906-227-2160 (secretary), 227-1881 (office), 226-2079 (home), Fax: 227-2764; Email: [email protected]; Website with info on courses, papers, Baha'i and China: http://www-instruct.nmu.edu/education/rclarken

Toward a Definition of Wholistic Education

Rodney H. Clarken

Northern Michigan University

President, American Education Research Association Special Interest Group on Wholistic

Education

Though the principles, perspectives and frameworks of wholistic education can be traced far

back in recorded history to early philosophical and religious teachings, the contemporary use of

the term is rather new. Definitions, methods, philosophies and descriptions of wholistic

education vary somewhat among educators and scholars as it has been viewed from different

perspectives, but it is basically concerned with educating the whole person--body, mind and

soul--to develop his or her fullest potential.

The terms holism and holistic were coined by Jan Smuts from the Greek words “holus” which

mean whole, and “holon” which means entity. Smuts saw holism as a process of creative

evolution in which the tendency of nature is to form wholes that are greater than the sum of their

parts. He developed a philosophy of holism early in the twentieth century that viewed reality as

organic and evolutionary, including both its material and spiritual aspects.

The historical philosophical and psychological figures who are considered to have most directly

influenced the field of wholistic education often includes Rousseau, Emerson, Pestalozzi,

Froebel, Montessori, Steiner, Jung, Krishnamurti, Whitehead and Maslow. A more recent list of

influences on wholistic education might include the following individuals: C. Rogers, M.

Ferguson, F. Capra. J. Pearce, D. Bohm, D. Sloan, K. Wilber, P. Palmer and T. Roszak.

Although none of these individuals identified themselves as wholistic educators or would be

identified as leaders of wholistic education, their ideas and writings have been an influence on

the field. Wholistic education has some relation to and can to some extent be identified with, but

not limited to romanticism, transcendentalism, humanism, systems theory and integralism.

Wholistic education has developed largely as a reaction to the mechanistic, reductionistic and

materialistic conceptions that have come to dominate popular thinking and education in the last

century. The result of these paradigms has been a fragmented and limited approach to human

development and education that has lead to a focus on developing physical, behavioral and

intellectual capacities for economic and material benefits while ignoring or discounting social,

emotional, psychological, moral, creative, aesthetic and spiritual natures and capacities.

Wholistic education has emerged out of a need to address this imbalance and the growing

disillusionment with the current apparently dysfunctional approaches to further individual and

collective human interests and potentialities. As wholistic education challenges the dominant

worldview and practice in education, it has been marginalized, and its influence in educational,

scientific and political areas limited.

Wholistic educators believe that the body, mind and soul are integral aspects of human nature

that should be considered in treating the whole person and that wholistic education is a more

defensible, practical and effective approach to developing well-balanced and healthy people who

can be valued contributors to society according to their potentialities and the opportunities

available to them. Until all aspects of the human being and the environment are properly treated

in education, individuals and humanity will suffer from a lack of balance and the denial of part of

their reality.

Wholistic education views all aspects of life as interconnected, interrelated and interdependent.

As such, it is ecological and global, encouraging an understanding and appreciation of multiple

contexts and connections. When we disconnect or dissociate with reality, especially parts of

ourselves, we are limiting development. Education should consider the whole person--physically,

mentally and spiritually—and recognize that we affect our environment and our environment

affects us. Wholistic educators are especially concerned with the failure of modern education to

consider the emotional, social and spiritual natures of students. It seeks to develop the full

potential of the person in a humanistic fashion that recognizes and honors each individual’s

unique talents and capacities.

Wholistic education sees active positive engagement in relationships with the world and others

as one of the most powerful means of authentic education. It believes in the innate goodness of

people and that they will develop into happy, healthy and well-balanced individuals given the

right conditions. Education then is primarily a drawing out or unfolding of the individual’s

potentialities, not a dispensing of information or instilling of learning. To do this requires the

educators to be well-developed themselves and to be sensitive, knowledgeable and creative in

helping their students realize their true natures. It encourages individual and collective

responsibility in and ongoing quest for greater realization, fulfillment, meaning, understanding

and connection.

Wholistic education finds traditional education harmful in that it fragments and

compartmentalizes knowledge and learning into subjects and discrete unconnected units,

encourages competition over compassion and cooperation and is subject- and teacher-centered

rather than spirit- and learner-centered. Wholistic education sees the whole as greater than the

sum of its parts and that the whole system approach requires moving from the limitations of a

rationalistic, linear and simple approach to a more intuitive, non-linear and complex view. It

connects and makes a relationship among linearity and intuition; body, mind and spirit; the

individual and the collective and the many and varied forms of knowing and knowledge. As a

result, individuals attains a degree of autonomy and authenticity that allows them to be

progressive agents in advancing their own and others development and welfare.

(Word count-851)

Appendix B: Encyclopedia Article as Submitted for Publication

Holistic Education (Word count-1002)

Though the principles, perspectives and frameworks of holistic education can be traced far back

in recorded history to early philosophical and religious teachings, the contemporary use of the

term is rather new. Definitions, methods, philosophies and descriptions of holistic education vary

somewhat among educators and scholars as it has been viewed from different perspectives, but it

is basically concerned with educating the whole person--body, mind and soul--to develop his or

her fullest potential.

The term holism and holistic was coined by Jan Smuts from the Greek words “holus” which

mean whole, and “holon” which means entity. Smuts saw holism as a process of creative

evolution in which the tendency of nature is to form wholes that are greater than the sum of their

parts. He developed a philosophy of holism early in the twentieth century that viewed reality as

organic and evolutionary, including both its material and spiritual aspects. These ideas, were

published in his most important book, Holism and Evolution, in 1926, have recently become

more accepted, though holistic educators do not generally regard Smuts as an important

influence.

The historical philosophical and psychological figures who are considered to have more directly

influenced the field of holistic education often includes Rousseau, Emerson, Pestalozzi, Froebel,

Montessori, Steiner, Jung, Krishnamurti, Whitehead and Maslow. A more recent list of

influences on holistic education might include the following individuals: C. Rogers, M.

Ferguson, F. Capra. J. Pearce, D. Bohm, D. Sloan, K. Wilber, P. Palmer and T. Roszak.

Although none of these individuals identified themselves as holistic educators or would be

identified as leaders of holistic education, their ideas and writings have been an influence on the

field. J. Miller and R. Miller are current writers who identify with holistic education and would

be considered leading figures in the field.

From the list of influences above it can be seen that holistic education has some relation to and

can to some extent be identified with, but not limited to, the major influences these individuals

have founded, such a romanticism, transcendentalism, humanism, systems theory and

integralism.

Holistic education has developed largely as a reaction to the mechanistic, reductionistic and

materialistic conceptions that have come to dominate popular thinking and education in the last

century. The result of these paradigms has been a fragmented and limited approach to human

development and education that has lead to a focus on developing physical, behavioral and

intellectual capacities for economic and material benefits while ignoring or discounting social,

emotional, psychological, moral, creative, aesthetic and spiritual natures and capacities. Holistic

education has emerged out of a need to address this imbalance and the growing disillusionment

with the current apparently dysfunctional approaches to further individual and collective human

interests and potentialities. As holistic education challenges the dominant worldview and practice

in education, it has been marginalized, and its influence in educational, scientific and political

areas limited.

Holistic educators believe that the body, mind and soul are integral aspects of human nature that

should be considered in treating the whole person and that holistic education is a more

defensible, practical and effective approach to developing well-balanced and healthy people who

can be valued contributors to society according to their potentialities and the opportunities

available to them. Until all aspects of the human being and the environment are properly treated

in education, individuals and humanity will suffer from a lack of balance and the denial of part of

their reality.

Holistic education views all aspects of life as interconnected, interrelated and interdependent. As

such, it is ecological and global, encouraging an understanding and appreciation of multiple

contexts and connections. When we disconnect or dissociate with reality, especially parts of

ourselves, we are limiting development. Education should consider the whole person--physically,

mentally and spiritually—and recognize that we affect our environment and our environment

affects us. Holistic educators are especially concerned with the failure of modern education to

consider the emotional, social and spiritual natures of students. It seeks to develop the full

potential of the person in a humanistic fashion that recognizes and honors each individual’s

unique talents and capacities.

Holistic education sees active positive engagement in relationships with the world and others as

one of the most powerful means of authentic education. It believes in the innate goodness of




educators to be well developed themselves and to be sensitive, knowledgeable and creative in



and connection.

Holistic education finds traditional education harmful in that it fragments and compartmentalizes

knowledge and learning into subjects and discrete unconnected units, encourages competition

over compassion and cooperation and is subject- and teacher-centered rather than spirit- and

learner-centered. Holistic education sees the whole as greater than the sum of its parts and that

the whole system approach requires moving from the limitations of a rationalistic, linear and

simple approach to a more intuitive, non-linear and complex view. It connects and makes a

relationship among linearity and intuition; body, mind and spirit; the individual and the

collective and the many and varied forms of knowing and knowledge. As a result, individuals

attains a degree of autonomy and authenticity that allows them to be progressive agents in

advancing their own and others development and welfare.

Rodney H. Clarken


Co-President, American Education Research Association Special Interest Group on Wholistic

Education

See also Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Montessori, Steiner

References and Further Reading

Forbes, S. H. (2003). Holistic education: An analysis of its ideas and nature. Brandon, VT:

Foundation for Educational Renewal.

Miller, J. P. (1993). The holistic curriculum. Toronto: OISE Press.

Miller, R. (1992). What are schools for? Holistic education in American culture. (Second ed.).

Brandon, VT: Holistic Education Press.

Appendix C Merged Edited Documents

Toward a Definition of Holistic Education

Rodney H. Clarken


President, American Education Research Association Special Interest Group on Holistic Education

Though the principles, perspectives and frameworks of holistic education can be traced far back in recorded history

to early philosophical and religious teachings, the contemporary use of the term is rather new. Definitions, methods,

philosophies and descriptions of holistic education vary somewhat among educators and scholars as it has been

viewed from different perspectives, but it is basically based on the principle of wholeness and concerned with

educating the whole person--body, mind and soul--to develop his or her fullest potential.

The terms holism and holistic were coined by Jan Smuts from the Greek words “holus” which mean whole, and

“holon” which means entity. Smuts saw holism as a process of creative evolution in which the tendency of nature is

to form wholes that are greater than the sum of their parts. He developed a philosophy of holism early in the

twentieth century that viewed reality as organic and evolutionary, including both its material and spiritual aspects.

The historical philosophical and psychological figures who are considered to have most directly

influenced the field of Holistic education often includes Rousseau, Emerson, Pestalozzi, Froebel,

Montessori, Steiner, Jung, Krishnamurti, Whitehead and Maslow. A more recent list of influences on

holistic education might include the following individuals: C. Rogers, M. Ferguson, F. Capra. J. Pearce,

D. Bohm, D. Sloan, K. Wilber, P. Palmer and T. Roszak. Although none of these individuals identified

themselves as holistic educators or would be identified as leaders of holistic education, their ideas and

writings have been an influence on the field. Some key educators who are strongly identified with the

field of holistic education today are J. Miller, R. Miller, P. Gang, E. T. Clark, Jr., and R. Gallegos

Nava. Holistic J. Miller and R. Miller are current writers who identify with wholistic

education and would be considered leading figures in the field. Wholistic education has some

relation to and can to some extent be identified with, but not limited to romanticism, transcendentalism,

humanism, systems theory and integralism.

Holistic education has developed largely as a reaction to the mechanistic, reductionistic and materialistic

conceptions that have come to dominate popular thinking and education in the last century. The result of these

paradigms has been a fragmented and limited approach to human development and education that has lead to a

focus on developing physical, behavioral and intellectual capacities for economic and material benefits while

ignoring or discounting social, emotional, psychological, moral, creative, aesthetic and spiritual natures and

capacities. Holistic education has emerged out of a need to address this imbalance and the growing disillusionment

with the current apparently dysfunctional approaches to further individual and collective human interests and

potentialities.

Holistic education is therefore about balance. Holistic educators believe that the body, mind and soul

are integral aspects of human nature that should be considered in treating the whole person and that

holistic education is a more defensible, practical and effective approach to developing well-balanced and

healthy people who can be valued contributors to society according to their potentialities and the

opportunities available to them. When we disconnect or dissociate with reality, especially parts of

ourselves, we are limiting development. Holistic education seeks to develop the full potential of the

person in a humanistic fashion that recognizes and honors each individual’s unique talents and

capacities.

Wholistic education sees active positive engagement in relationships with the world and others

as one of the most powerful means of authentic education. It believes in the innate goodness of




educators to be well-developed themselves and to be sensitive, knowledgeable and creative in



and connection.

Wholistic education finds conventional education harmful in that it fragments and compartmentalizes

knowledge and learning into subjects and discrete unconnected units, encourages competition over

compassion and cooperation and is subject- and teacher-centered rather than spirit- and learner-centered.

Wholistic education sees the whole as greater than the sum of its parts and that the whole system approach

requires moving from the limitations of a rationalistic, linear and simple approach to a more intuitive,

non-linear and complex view. It connects and makes a relationship among linearity and intuition; body,

mind and spirit; the individual and the collective and the many and varied forms of knowing and

knowledge. As a result, individuals attains a degree of autonomy and authenticity that allows them to be

progressive agents in advancing their own and others development and welfare. Holistic educators are especially

concerned with the failure of modern education to consider the emotional, social, creative and spiritual natures of

students. Until all aspects of the human being and the environment are properly treated in education, individuals

and humanity will suffer from a lack of balance and the denial of part of their reality. Education should therefore

consider the whole person--physically, emotionally, mentally, socially, creatively, intuitively and spiritually—and

recognize that we affect our environment and our environment affects us.

Holistic education is therefore about connections and relationships. Holistic educators finds traditional

education harmful in that it fragments and compartmentalizes knowledge and learning into subjects and discrete

unconnected units, encourages competition over compassion and cooperation, and is subject- and teacher-centered

rather than spirit- and learner-centered. Holistic education views all aspects of life as interconnected, interrelated

and interdependent. As such, it is ecological and global, encouraging an understanding and appreciation of multiple

contexts and connections. Holistic education sees the whole as greater than the sum of its parts and that the whole

system approach requires moving from the limitations of a rationalistic, linear and simple approach to a more

intuitive, non-linear and complex view. It connects and makes a relationship among linearity and intuition; body,

mind and spirit; the individual and the collective, and the many and varied forms of knowing and knowledge.

Holistic education sees active positive engagement in relationships with the world and others, especially the

teacher-student relationship, as one of the most powerful means of authentic education. It believes in the innate

goodness of people and that they will develop into happy, healthy and well-balanced individuals given the right

conditions. Education then is primarily a drawing out or unfolding of the individual’s potentialities, not a

dispensing of information or instilling of learning. To do this requires the educators to be well-developed

themselves and to be sensitive, knowledgeable and creative in helping their students realize their true natures.

Holistic educators encourage individual and collective responsibility in an ongoing quest for greater realization,

fulfillment, meaning, understanding and connection.

As holistic education challenges the dominant worldview and practice in education, it has been marginalized, and

its influence in educational, scientific and political areas unfortunately limited.

(Word count-914)