The White Australia Policy, its abolition and the ensuing

development of a Multicultural Society

Stephen Markos

Modern Australia is an immigration nation, however one hundred years ago this

wasn’t the plan. The path to developing a prosperous multicultural society has been a

long road that we (as a nation) are still continuing to explore. It’s been a road filled

with hurdles, challenges and hardships.

And no event has proved a more difficult

hurdle to achieving this multicultural

society than the ‘White Australia Policy’

(Or Immigration Restriction Act as the

government labelled it1). The policy was

implemented in 1901 by the Australian

government (under the rule of our first

Prime Minister Edmund Barton) upon

the countries federation. Essentially, the

government’s intentions when

implementing this policy was for

Australia to remain as ‘white’ a society as possible.

1 York, Barry, Immigration restriction 1901-1957: Annual returns as required under the Australian Immigration Act between 1901-1957 on persons refused admission, persons who passed the dictation test and departures of coloured persons from Australia. Canberra: Centre for immigration and multicultural studies (1992).

Figure 1: The Immigration Restriction Act of 1901

This article will be an informative piece as it pertains to the background and history of

the White Australia policy. It will also however, express my view that the policy being

loosened and eventually abolished, was a positive step forward for Australia.

Additionally, I’ll be using my Grandfather’s migration into Australia, and his effect on

future generations like myself to give substance to this assertion.

1901: A New Countries’ Vision

In 1901, the commonwealth of Australia was built on an idea that the nation was going

to be a utopia for the working man. It can be interpreted that the primary objection

was to achieve the ultimate democratic society. A civilization that was better, a

‘working man’s paradise2’ where every Australian ultimately had equal rights.

Ironically, this democracy was set to be achieved by way of excluding the vast majority

of humanity. Moreover, the Australian government would guard this paradise with

vigour, via racial exclusion. The policy was partly driven by a fear. The fear was that if

Australia didn’t exclude particular segments of humanity, then they would be overrun

by those minorities3. This supposedly gave licence to the governments overwhelming

desire, which was achieving an exclusively white community. Australia wanted to learn

from the mistakes of countries like America, who opened the gates for migrants, and

consequently saw crime rates spill over into major cities as a result (New York City was

2 Goudkamp, Mark, Immigration Nation: Probing Australia’s racist roots, (2011). 3 Pearson H. Charles, National Life and Character: A Forecast, London: Macmillan (1893).

a mecca for immigration during this time, and consequently saw it’s crime rates spike

significantly4).

A White Nation

The White Australia policy had an immediate effect on the 2% of Australia’s

population that were ‘non-white’5. There were around 10,000 South Sea Islanders

living in and around North Queensland, and approximately 30,000 Asians living

mostly around Victoria at the turn of the century. Approximately nine of the ten

thousand Islanders (who were originally brought here on contracts to work on the

sugar cane fields6) were immediately deported back to their homeland.

A number of these

Islander men

however had

settled in Australia

after their labour

contracts were

finished. Many of

them were now

property owners, married Australian woman and had children. It all remained

4 New York (N.Y). Police Dept. Crime Analysis Section & New York (N.Y). Police Dept. Crime Analysis Unit, Statistical report, complaints and arrests, The Department, New York. 5 Jones, Gavin W, 'White Australia, national identity and population change' Legacies of White Australia: race, culture and nation, pp. 110-128. 6 Graves, Adrian, Cane and Labour: the political economy of the Queensland sugar industry, 1862-1906, Edinburgh University Press. (1993).

Figure 2: Sugar Cane workers pictured in North Queensland

irrelevant however, they were taken (forcefully) from their new families and homes

under order of the White Australia Policy.

This below is a letter written by an Islander man named Loui (who had lived and

worked on the sugar cane fields in Burdekin, North Queensland) to his Australian wife

after being deported back to his homeland.

“Dear Rosie, Tell herb that I can’t see him no more, we will meet in heaven. You take

Herb with you, and take all my things, I no see my misses anymore, goodbye Rosie, and

plenty of kisses, this is my last letter. You’re loving Loui.”7

In my view this letter captures just a minor fraction of the emotional hardship that the

White Australia Policy was directly responsible for. The policies’ principles gave no

importance to an individual’s character, un/clean criminal record, nor their family ties

in the country. The policy simply prioritised the unconditional exclusion of all non-

white people living in, or trying to migrate into Australia.

In addition to deporting non-British people living in Australia, the government

ensured that no minorities would be allowed into the country. This endeavour was

enforced legally, with what was known as the fifty word dictation test8. The dictation

test was a requirement for all non-British migrants to sit upon their arrival (and had to

be passed in order for them to ultimately reside in Australia). The test itself consisted

of an Australian customs official reciting a fifty word passage, which the aspiring

migrant would then have to write out correctly. Often these passages were

7 Kalepo family, personal collection. 8 York, Barry, Immigration restriction 1901-1957: Annual returns as required under the Australian Immigration Act between 1901-1957 on persons refused admission, persons who passed the dictation test and departures of coloured persons from Australia. Canberra: Centre for immigration and multicultural studies (1992).

overwhelmingly difficult, and could be written in any language the customs officer saw

fit. Additionally, if you indeed passed the test by chance, the officer could then give

the aspiring migrant a subsequent test in a different language. Of course, the

Australian government used this dictation test to make it impossible for any non-

British migrant to enter the country. If a migrant had arrived in Australia and wasn’t

wanted, then the customs official would make certain that they were deported back to

their homeland. Inevitably, word spread, and eventually no non-British migrants

would even attempt migrating to Australia. The test obviously became notorious for

being time consuming, expensive, and impossible to pass.

There was however one avenue of avoiding the dreaded fifty word dictation test. If a

migrant came to live in Australia before federation, then they were enabled to come

and go from the country as the pleased without sitting the test (assuming they filled

out the relevant paperwork which exempted them from the test9).

This exemption was exercised predominantly by Asian migrants who had come to live

in Australia during the 19th century. Their families

however, were required to sit the test (and so had no hope

of permanently reuniting with their families in Australia).

This was devastating to the Asian population, and many

consequently left Australia to unite with their families

back home. Others however, fought long, gruelling battles

9 York, Barry, Immigration restriction 1901-1957: Annual returns as required under the Australian Immigration Act between 1901-1957 on persons refused admission, persons who passed the dictation test and departures of coloured persons from Australia. Canberra: Centre for immigration and multicultural studies (1992).

Figure 3: an 'Exemption" from the dictation test was possible for a small minority of migrants.

with the government to have their families become Australian citizens (but to no

avail).

The Asian population living in Australia was essentially strangled, and had

subsequently halved by the 1920’s10. The White Australia Policy had essentially given

non-white minorities (like the Asians) living in Australia, no chance to refresh and

rejuvenate their population.

A New Australia?? (Post WWII)

By WWII the Australian population was 99% white, indeed the White Australia policy

had succeeded. And despite a time of uncertainty during the war, most Australians

wanted to keep it that way. The nation was seeing its plan of a white, working class

society coming to fruition.

Public fears for Australia’s safety however greatly escalated after the war. The ever

present threat of an attack from the North (Japan) loomed dangerously11. This

prompted what would ultimately be a historical revamp of Australia’s immigration

policy. Immigration minister Arthur Caldwell in a famous speech asserted that

Australia had to ‘populate our country, or lose it’12. Despite resistance from most of the

Australian population (who at the very least were sceptical about non-British migrants

coming into the country), a new migration plan was eventually put into effect.

10 Bagnall, K, A legacy of White Australia: Records about Chinese Australians in the archives, National Archives of Australia. 11 Dixon, R (assistant secretary, Australian communist party), Immigration and the “White Australia Policy”, Current Book Distributors, 695 George st, Sydney. (1945). 12 Zubrzycki, J, Arthur Caldwell and the origin of post-war immigration, Canberra, Bureau of immigration, multicultural and population research (1995).

At first, Caldwell brought over blonde

haired, blue eyed Balkans to coax the

population into accepting immigration.

And it worked. The ‘Beautiful Balts’ as

they were called, were cautiously

approved of by the Australian public.

Caldwell then quietly opened the

floodgates for the rest of Europe. Black haired, olive skinned Mediterranean’s then

began making their way onto Australian shores. This is when my family took its first

steps onto Australian soil. In fact, all four of my grandparents had come from the

Mediterranean during the 1950’s. I’ll be focusing however on one of my grandparents

for the sake of this particular article. My Grandfather Michael Theodorou from

Cyprus.

A Journey from Cyprus

Not wanting to harp too much on the problems associated with Cyprus, but… It was a

nation in the midst of a heavy conflict. There were many riots, overwhelming racial

tensions, and of course a strong military presence13. Michael, at just two years of age

had tragically lost his father to this conflict14. His father had been caught by a racial

13 Webster, Donald E, Cyprus – War and Adaption, Sage Publications, 1980. 14 Michael Theodorou personal interview (Trans. By Stephen Markos)

Figure 4: The 'Beautiful Balts' arrived in Australia during the late 1940’s

group whilst he was coming home from work, and held captive. Attempting to make

an escape by climbing a wall to safety, he was shot and killed.

Michael was subsequently raised solely by his Mother as the youngest of eight children

(including six boys). Two of his Mother Rhonda’s children weren’t hers biologically,

they had been orphaned as a result of the conflict. She took them in however, and

treated those young children as if they were her own. Michael fondly reflects on his

Mother’s love of all her children whilst growing up “we were everything to our mother,

her only priority was to bring us up the right way. People in our town said she was

beautiful, but she never, ever brought another man into our home. She was under five

feet tall, but very feisty, very strong, and she always supported us with every ounce of

energy she had15”.

The family was poor however, and Rhonda had much higher aspirations for her

children. She encouraged them to find new lives, somewhere they could live in safety,

peace and comfort. Consequently, most of her children (with great sorrow as Michael

describes) left their beloved Mother behind in Cyprus in hopes of finding a better life.

Hoping that one day they could bring her over to live with them.

Michael would only ever return to Cyprus once more in his life, rushing to the bedside

of his dying Mother. It was his Mother’s wish to see all of her children once more

before she died. Michael was the last sibling to the hospital after a delayed flight

“when I got there, the doctors said she was incoherent. But when I entered the room

15 Michael Theodorou personal interview (Trans. By Stephen Markos)

and held her, she musted the strength squeezed my hand back. She died just ten

minutes after I saw her16.”

A New Beginning

Michael set sail for Australia in 1953 at just 21

years of age, on a two month voyage. He

recalls his two month journey on the ship as

one of the most exciting experiences of his

life due to the “impending unknown17”.

Additionally, he had met and fell in love with

a woman whom he had met on the ship ride

to Australia. Michael got off the boat with his

future wife and Mother of his children Polly

Saxionis, who boarded the ship from her

home of Sparta, Greece.

Michael’s first year in Australia was spent working in a factory close to his house in

Alphington, Melbourne. He describes that year as being a very difficult experience. He

dealt with a new foreign language, being physically pushed around in the workplace

by his boss, and random acts of nasty racism on Melbourne’s streets. The only

sanctuary he took was “having the support of his new fiancée”, whom he had asked to

marry in the middle of their first year in Australia.

16 Michael Theodorou personal interview (Trans. By Stephen Markos) 17 Michael Theodorou personal interview (Trans. By Stephen Markos)

Figure 5: Michael pictured in a photo taken immediately before boarding his ship to Australia

A day came during Michael’s second year in Australia, when he pushed his boss back

after being grabbed by the neck. He was consequently fired, and left to find another

job.

This started a new chapter of his life in Australia however. Sick of working under poor

conditions, he opened his own carwash business in the inner city suburb of West

Melbourne. The business took off immediately. New migrants came from the Western

suburbs of Footscray, Yarraville, Williamstown and even Sunshine to get their cars

washed (and have a social gathering). Michael and his friends would wash the cars

while their wives made the customers coffee and biscuits. The carwash was a “party

most of the time18” as he describes, and it made him an increasingly good living as it

became more and more successful.

With thousands of new migrants coming to Australia during the 1950’s, Michael and

Polly felt gradually more comfortable in their new home of Australia. And indeed, as

time went on, Anglo Australians perception of migrants gradually changed as well.

Australia had become the sanctuary that Michael’s mother had always longed for him

to have. And gave he, his wife, children and grandchildren a life that he had

envisioned upon leaving Cyprus.

18 Michael Theodorou personal interview (Trans. By Stephen Markos)

Reflecting on his life years after his

migration into Australia, my Grandfather

feels he’s fulfilled the wild aspirations his

mother had for him back in Cyprus. He

left the war torn country as a young man

with a vision. Now married with children

and grandchildren who are able to have

lives with greater security, safety and

education. The aspirations of having a

greater quality of life have truly been fulfilled for Michael. This is a testimony to the

notion that the Australian government made an extremely beneficial decision when

they finally opened the shores for migrants such as my Grandfather. Of course, many

others have also benefited from Australia’s change of migration policy. Other migrants

who have had those same aspirations fulfilled of having a greater quality of life.

Figure 6: Michael pictured with his wife Polly (left), eldest daughter Rhonda and grandchildren (right)

References

Primary Sources

Figures 1, 3: The National Archives of Australia

Figures 5, 6: Theodorou family personal collection

Kalepo family Letter: Personal Collection.

New York (N.Y). Police Dept. Crime Analysis Section & New York (N.Y). Police Dept. Crime Analysis Unit, Statistical report, complaints and arrests, The Department, New York.

Theodorou, Michael, personal interview (Trans. By Stephen Markos)

Secondary Sources

Bagnall, K, A legacy of White Australia: Records about Chinese Australians in the archives, National Archives of Australia.

Dixon, R (assistant secretary, Australian communist party), Immigration and the “White Australia Policy”, Current

Book Distributors, 695 George st, Sydney. (1945).

Goudkamp, Mark, Immigration Nation: Probing Australia’s racist roots, (2011).

Graves, Adrian, Cane and Labour: the political economy of the Queensland sugar industry, 1862-1906, Edinburgh

University Press. (1993).

Jones, Gavin W, 'White Australia, national identity and population change' Legacies of White Australia: race,

culture and nation, pp. 110-128.

Pearson H. Charles, National Life and Character: A Forecast, London: Macmillan (1893).

Webster, Donald E, Cyprus – War and Adaption, Sage Publications, 1980.

York, Barry, Immigration restriction 1901-1957: Annual returns as required under the Australian Immigration Act between

1901-1957 on persons refused admission, persons who passed the dictation test and departures of coloured persons from

Australia. Canberra: Centre for immigration and multicultural studies (1992).

Zubrzycki, J, Arthur Caldwell and the origin of post-war immigration, Canberra, Bureau of immigration, multicultural and population research (1995).