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Where is Vietnam?
WhyDidtheUnitedStatesFightaWarinVietnam?
• BasicallytoholdthelineagainstthespreadofworldCommunism.AmericapaidforthewartheFrenchfoughtagainstCommunistVietnamasapartoftheTrumanDoctrine(1947)“tohelpfreepeoplestomaintaintheirfreeinstitutionsandtheirnationalintegrityagainst…totalitarianregimes.”Inthe1950ʼs,Americabecameinvolvedagain.
LongestandMostUnpopularWar• TheVietnamWarwasthelongestandmostunpopularwarinAmericanhistory.Duringthewar:• 58,000Americanslosttheirlives.• Theoldestmankilledwas62yearsold;theyoungest,16.• 61%ofthemenkilledwere21oryounger.
• 304,000werewounded.• 75,000wereseverelydisabled.• TheUnitedStatesspentover$200billiondollarsonthewar.
ConflictBetweenFrance&Vietnam• TheVietnamWargrewoutofthelongconflictbetweenFranceandVietnam.• InJuly1954,afteronehundredyearsofcolonialrule,adefeatedFrancewasforcedtoleaveVietnam.• NationalistforcesunderthedirectionofGeneralVoNguyenGiap defeatedthealliedFrenchtroopsattheremotemountainoutpostofDien BienPhu inthenorthwestcornerofVietnam.
TheGenevaPeaceAccords• TheGenevaPeaceAccords,signedbyFranceandVietnaminthesummerof1954,providedforthetemporarypartitionofVietnamatthe17thparallel,withnationalelectionsin1956toreunifythecountry.• IntheNorth,acommunistregime,supportedbytheSovietUnionandthePeople'sRepublicofChina,setupitsheadquartersinHanoiundertheleadershipofHoChiMinh.
OppositiontoGenevaAccords• TheUnitedStatespreventedtheelectionsthatwerepromisedundertheGenevaconferencebecauseitknewthattheCommunistswouldwin.• SecretaryofStateJohnFosterDullesthoughttheGenevaAccordsgrantedtoomuchpowertotheCommunistPartyofVietnam.
– HeandPresidentDwightD.Eisenhowersupportedthecreationofacounter-revolutionaryalternativesouthofthe17thparallel.
• ThiswasaccomplishedthroughformationoftheSoutheastAsiaTreatyOrganization(SEATO).
ANewNationintheSouth• UsingSEATOforpoliticalcover,theEisenhoweradministrationhelpedcreateanewnationinsouthernVietnam.• In1955,withthehelpofmassiveamountsofAmericanmilitary,political,andeconomicaid,thegovernmentoftheRepublicofVietnam(SouthVietnam)wasborn.• Thefollowingyear,NgoDinh Diem,astaunchlyanti-CommunistfigurefromtheSouth,wonadubiouselectionthatmadehimpresidentofSouthVietnam
TheDominoTheory•Americanpolicymakersdevelopedthe“DominoTheory” asajustificationfortheinvolvement.Thistheorystated,“IfSouthVietnamfallstotheCommunist,Laos,Cambodia,Thailand,Burma,IndiaandPakistanwouldalsofalllikedominos.ThePacificIslandsandevenAustraliacouldbeatrisk”.
SouthVietnamUnderDiem• DiemclaimedthathisnewlycreatedgovernmentwasunderattackfromCommunistsinthenorth.• Inlate1957,withAmericanmilitaryaid,Diembegantocounterattack.• HeusedthehelpoftheCIA(throughOperationPhoenix)toidentifythosewhosoughttobringhisgovernmentdownandarrestedthousands.
• HepassedarepressiveseriesofactsknownasLaw10/59thatmadeitlegaltoholdsuspectedCommunistsinjailwithoutbringingformalcharges.
OppositiontoDiem• TheoutcryagainstDiem'sharshandoppressiveactionswasimmediate.• Buddhistmonksandnunswerejoinedbystudents,businesspeople,intellectuals,andpeasantsinoppositiontoDiem’scorruptrule.
• ThemoretheseforcesattackedDiem'stroopsandsecretpolice,themoreDiemcomplainedthattheCommunistsweretryingtotakeSouthVietnambyforce.Thiswas"ahostileactofaggressionbyNorthVietnamagainstpeace-lovinganddemocraticSouthVietnam."
TheNationalLiberationFront• TheCommunistssupportedthecreationofabroad-basedunitedfronttohelpmobilizesouthernersinoppositiontothegovernmentinSouthVietnam.
• On December 20, 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF) was born.– It brought together Communists and non-Communists in an umbrella
organization that had limited, but important goals – Anyone could join as long as they opposed Ngo Dinh Diem and wanted to
unify Vietnam.
WashingtonWhitePapers• Inaseriesofgovernment"WhitePapers,"WashingtoninsidersdenouncedtheNLF,claimingthatitwasmerelyapuppetofHanoi.Theycalleditthe"VietCong,"aderogatoryandslangtermmeaningVietnameseCommunist.• TheNLF,ontheotherhand,arguedthatitwasautonomousandindependentoftheCommunistsinHanoiandthatitwasmadeupmostlyofnon-Communists.Manyanti-waractivistssupportedtheNLF'sclaims.
December1961WhitePaper
• In1961,PresidentKennedysentateamtoVietnamtoreportonconditionsintheSouthandtoassessfutureAmericanaidrequirements.• Thereport,knownasthe"December1961WhitePaper,"arguedfor:
– An increase in military, technical, and economic aid– The introduction of large-scale American "advisers"
to help stabilize the Diem regime and crush the NLF.
TheKennedyResponse• AsKennedyweighedthemeritsoftheserecommendations,someofhisotheradvisersurgedthepresidenttowithdrawfromVietnamaltogether.• IntypicalKennedyfashion,thepresidentchoseamiddleroute.• Insteadofalarge-scalemilitarybuilduporanegotiatedsettlement,theUnitedStateswouldincreasethelevelofitsmilitaryinvolvementinSouthVietnamthroughmoremachineryandadvisers,butnomilitarytroops.
TheStrategicHamletProgram
• TocounteracttheNLF'ssuccessinthecountryside,WashingtonandSaigonlaunchedanambitiousmilitaryeffortintheruralareas.• CalledtheStrategicHamletProgram,thenewcounterinsurgencyplanroundedupvillagersandplacedthemin"safehamlets"controlledbythegovernmentofSouthVietnam.
• TheideawastoisolatetheNLFfromvillagers,itsbaseofsupport
NLFSuccesses
• Thisculturally-insensitiveplanfurtheralienatedthepeasantsfromtheSaigonregimeandproducedmorerecruitsfortheNLF.• Bythesummerof1963,becauseofNLFsuccessesanditsownfailures,itwasclearthatthegovernmentofSouthVietnamwasonthevergeofpoliticalcollapse.
BuddhistSelf-Immolations
• Diem'sbrother,NgoDinhNhu,hadraidedtheBuddhistpagodasofSouthVietnam,claimingthattheyhadharboredtheCommuniststhatwerecreatingthepoliticalinstability.• TheresultwasmassiveprotestsonthestreetsofSaigonthatledBuddhistmonkstoself-immolation.• ThepicturesofthemonksengulfedinflamesmadeworldheadlinesandcausedconsiderableconsternationinWashington.
MilitaryCoup
• BylateSeptember,theBuddhistprotesthadcreatedsuchdisloca-tioninthesouththattheKennedyadministrationsupportedacoup.• In1963,someofDiem'sowngeneralsapproachedtheAmericanEmbassyinSaigonwithplanstooverthrowDiem.• WithWashington'stacitapproval,Diemandhisbrotherwerecapturedandlaterkilled.• Threeweekslater,PresidentKennedywasassassinatedonthestreetsofDallas.
EscalationoftheConflict• AtthetimeoftheKennedyandDiemassassinations,therewere16,000militaryadvisersinVietnam.• TheKennedyadministrationhadmanagedtorunthewarfromWashingtonwithoutthelarge-scaleintroductionofAmericancombattroops.• ThecontinuingpoliticalproblemsinSaigon,however,convincedthenewpresident,LyndonBainesJohnson,thatmoreaggressiveactionwasneeded.
• After a dubious North Vietnamese raid on two U.S. ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, the Johnson administration argued for expansive war powers for the president.
AttackonAmericanShips• InAugust1964,inresponsetoAmericanandSouthVietnameseespionagealongitscoast,NorthVietnamlaunchedanattackagainsttheC.TurnerJoyandtheU.S.S.Maddox,twoAmericanshipsoncallintheGulfofTonkin.• ThefirstattackoccurredonAugust2,1964.
• AsecondattackwassupposedtohavetakenplaceonAugust4,butauthoritieshaverecentlyconcludedthatnosecondattackevertookplace.
TheGulfofTonkinResolution• TheJohnsonadministrationusedtheAugust4attacktoobtainaCongressionalresolution,nowknownastheGulfofTonkinResolution,thatgavethepresidentbroadwarpowers.• TheResolutionwasfollowedbylimitedreprisalairattacksagainstNorthVietnam.
OperationRollingThunder• Inearly1965,theNLFattackedtwoU.S.armyinstallationsinSouthVietnam,andasaresult,JohnsonorderedsustainedbombingmissionsoverNorthVietnam.• Thebombingmissions,knownas“OperationRollingThunder,” causedtheCommunistPartytoreassessitsownwarstrategy
Phosphorous&NapalmBombs
• “OperationRollingThunder” wasbackedupbyphosphorousandnapalmbombs– thelattercausingdreadfulburnstothousandofinnocentcivilians.
OperationRanchHand• WhenthisfailedtobreakdownthejunglecovertheUSAFstarted“OperationRanchHand” – thedefoliationprogram,usingAgentOrange.• Thisdeadlychemicalcocktail,containingdioxin,killedoffmillionsofacresofjungletotrytoweakentheVietcong– butleftahorrendouslegacyinVietnam.• Thedioxingotintothefoodchaincausingchromosomedamagetohumans.Therewerehundredsofcasesofchildrenbornwithdeformities.
Helicopters
• Ofallaircraft,thehelicopterwasthemostuseful,droppingplatoonsinthejungleclearingsandoutagain.Theywereexcellentairambulances.
HowdidtheNorthVietnameseFightBackAgainsttheU.S.Invaders?
• TheNorthVietnameseusedclassicMaoistguerrillatactics.“Guerrillasmustmovethroughthepeasantslikefishthroughsea,” i.e.,thepeasantswillsupportthemasmuchastheycanwithshelter,food,weapons,storage,intelligence,recruits.
NorthVietnameseTactics• InareasheldbytheNLF,theCommunistsdistributedthelandtothepeasants.(By1973,theNLFheldabouthalfofSouthVietnam.)• Theirweaponswerecheapandreliable.
– The AK47 assault rifle out-performed the American M16
– The portable rocket launcher took out many US vehicles & aircraft.– They recycled dud bombs dropped by the Americans. Deadly
booby-traps could inflict huge damage on young American conscripts!
TunnelComplexes
• TheVietnamesebuiltlargetunnelcomplexessuchastheonesatCuChinearSaigon.ThisprotectedthemfromthebombingraidsbytheAmericansandgavethemcoverforattackingtheinvaders.
Search&DestroyTactics• TheUnitedStatescounteredwith“SearchandDestroy”tactics.InareaswheretheNLFwerethoughttobeoperating,troopswentinandcheckedforweapons.Iftheyfoundthem,
they rounded up the villagers and burned the villages down. • This often alienated the peasants from the American/South
Vietnamese cause. – As one marine said – “If they weren’t Vietcong before we got there,
they sure as hell were by the time we left”. – The NFL often helped the villager’s re-build their homes and bury
their dead.
ProtractedWarStrategy
• After“OperationRollingThunder,” theCommunistPartymovedtoaprotractedwarstrategy:theideawastogettheUnitedStatesboggeddowninawarthatitcouldnotwinmilitarilyandcreateunfavorableconditionsforpoliticalvictory.
TheWarinAmerica
• TheVietnamWarhadamajorimpactoneverydaylifeinAmerica,andtheJohnsonadministrationwasforcedtoconsiderdomesticconsequencesofitsdecisionsdaily.• Sincetherewerenotenoughvolunteerstocontinuetofightaprotractedwar,thegovernmentinstitutedadraft.
Anti-WarSentiments
• AsthedeathsmountedandAmericanscontinuedtoleaveforSoutheastAsia,theJohnsonadministrationwasmetwiththefullweightofAmericananti-warsentiments.
Anti-WarProtests
• Protestseruptedoncollegecampusesandinmajorcitiesatfirst,butby1968everycornerofthecountryseemedtohavefeltthewar'simpact.
1968DemocraticConvention• Oneofthemostfamousincidentsintheanti-warmovementwasthepoliceriotinChicagoduringthe1968DemocraticNationalConvention.• HundredsofthousandsofpeoplecametoChicagoinAugust1968toprotestAmericaninterventioninVietnamandtheleadersoftheDemocraticPartywhocontinuedtoprosecutethewar.
TheTetOffensive• By1968,thingshadgonefrombadtoworsefortheJohnsonadministration.InlateJanuary,NorthVietnamandtheNLFlaunchedcoordinatedattacksagainstmajorsoutherncities.• Theseattacks,knownastheTetOffensive,weredesignedtoforcetheJohnsonadministrationtothebargainingtable.
TheMyLaiMassacre• AseriousblowtoU.S.credibilitycamewiththeexposureoftheMyLaimassacre(March1968).• Hushedupatthetimeandonlydiscoveredbyatenaciousjournalist,thisinvolvedthekillingof400men,womenandchildrenbyUStroops.
ASecretPlantoEndtheWar• InlateMarch1968,adisgracedLyndonJohnsonannouncedthathewouldnotseektheDemocraticParty'sre-nominationforpresidentandhintedthathewouldgotothebargainingtablewiththeCommuniststoendthewar.• Negotiationsbeganinthespringof1968,buttheDemocraticPartycouldnotrescuethepresidencyfromRepublicanchallengerRichardNixonwhoclaimedhehadasecretplantoendthewar.
Vietnamization
• Nixon'ssecretplaninvolvedaprocesscalled“Vietnamization.”ThisstrategybroughtAmericantroopshomewhileincreasingtheairwaroverNorthVietnamandrelyingmoreontheSouthVietnamesearmyforgroundattacks.
ExpansiontoLaos&Cambodia
• TheNixonyearsalsosawtheexpansionofthewarintoneighboringLaosandCambodia,violatingtheinternationalrightsofthesecountriesinsecretcampaigns,astheWhiteHousetrieddesperatelytoroutoutCommunistsanctuariesandsupplyroutes.
CampusProtests&Shootings
• TheintensebombingcampaignsandinterventioninCambodiainlateApril1970sparkedintensecampusprotestsallacrossAmerica.
KentState
• AtKentStateinOhio,fourstudentswerekilledbyNationalGuardsmenwhowerecalledouttopreserveorderoncampusafterdaysofanti-Nixonprotest.
JacksonState
• ShockwavescrossedthenationasstudentsatJacksonStateinMississippiwerealsoshotandkilledforpoliticalreasons,promptingonemothertocry,"TheyarekillingourbabiesinVietnamandinourownbackyard."
TheChristmasBombings• InDecember1972,theNixonadministrationunleashedaseriesofdeadlybombingraidsagainsttargetsinNorthVietnamʼslargestcities,HanoiandHaiphong.• Theseattacks,nowknownastheChristmasbombings,broughtimmediatecondemnationfromtheinternationalcommunityandforcedtheNixonadministrationtoreconsideritstacticsandnegotiationstrategy.
TheParisPeaceAgreement• InearlyJanuary1973,theNixonWhiteHouseconvincedSaigonthattheywouldnotabandontheSouthVietnamesearmyiftheysignedthepeaceaccord.• OnJanuary23,therefore,thefinaldraftwasinitialed,endingopenhostilitiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandNorthVietnam.• TheParisPeaceAgreementdidnotendtheconflictinVietnam,however,asSaigoncontinuedtobattleCommunistforces.
TheFalltoCommunism• FromMarch1973untilthefallofSaigononApril30,1975,theSouthVietnamesearmytrieddesperatelytosavetheSouthfrompoliticalandmilitarycollapse.• TheendfinallycamewhenNorthVietnamesetanksrolledsouthalongNationalHighwayOne.• OnthemorningofApril30,CommunistforcescapturedthepresidentialpalaceinSaigon,endingtheVietnamWar.
WhyDidtheUnitedStatesLosetheVietnamWar?
1. TheyunderestimatedthetenacityandorganizationoftheNorthVietnameseandtheNationalLiberationFront.
2. DespitedroppingmoretonnageofhighexplosiveonVietnamthanthewholeofWorldWarII,theAmericanscouldnotstopthemovementoftroopsorsuppliestothesouthalongtheHoChiMinhTrail.
3. TheNorthVietnameseconducteda“Peopleswar” inwhicheveryoneplayedapart.
4. Atfirst,mostAmericanssupportedthewar.Butby1970,thePeaceMovementhadsupportfromallpartsofsocietyandnogovernmentcouldignoreit.
5. After1969,thereweredeepquestionsabouttheefficiencyofUStroops.Therewasaseriousdrugproblem;desertionrateswerehighandmoralelow.Manytroopswere“time-servers,” i.e.,countedthedaysuntilthetourwasover.
6. TheUSneverreallyunderstoodthecultureoftheVietnamesepeople.CocaCola,chewinggum,ballpointpens,andicecreamconescouldnotdislodgetheirancientbeliefs.
7. Americawasnotpreparedtokeeplosinghighnumbersofcasualtiesforsuchlimitedprogressinadifficultjunglewar,forwhichtheywerenotsuited.
8. ThestrengthandresourcefulnessoftheNLF.Forexample,thehighlycomplexCuChitunnelsystemtheU.S.nevershutdown.
Sources
• BattlefieldVietnam:ABriefHistoryhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html• VietnamRevisionGuidehttp://www.learnhistory.org.uk/vietnam/ustactics.htm