When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between

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When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between National When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between National

Security, Religious Freedom, National Identity and Islam in the Security, Religious Freedom, National Identity and Islam in the

U.S. and France U.S. and France

Clara Abramson Trinity College, Hartford Connecticut, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses

Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Abramson, Clara, "When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between National Security, Religious Freedom, National Identity and Islam in the U.S. and France". Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2017. Trinity College Digital Repository, https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/646

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WhenValuesCompete:ReconcilingtheTensionBetweenNationalSecurity,

ReligiousFreedom,NationalIdentityAndIslamintheU.S.andFrance

ClaraAbramsonClassof2017

PublicPolicyandLawHonorsThesisTrinityCollege2016-2017

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Acknowledgments

Iwouldliketothankeveryonewhoencouragedandsupportedmeinwritingthis

thesis.AbigthankyoutoProfessorMarkSilkforthenumerousdiscussionsandforasking

thehardquestionsthatpromptedmetodigdeeperanddevelopthisthesis.Icouldnothave

donethiswithoutyourguidanceandadvice.ThankyoutoProfessorKarenHumphrey’sfor

convincingmetomajorinFrench,itisnotwithoutmystudyofFrancethatIwouldhave

developedthisinterest,andofcoursethankyoufortakingontheroleofasecondreader.I

wouldalsoliketothankProfessorAdrienneFulcoforencouragingme,forsharingyour

zestforpoliticswithallofus,andforyourdedicationtothePublicPolicyandLawprogram

thathastaughtmesomuchandhelpedmegrowasawriter,thinkerandperson.Andlastly

thankstomyfamily,friendsandroommatesformotivatingmeandforalwaystellingme

howproudtheyareofme.Ihopethisthesisshedsnewlightonthistimelyissueandthat

bothcountriescanreconcilethetensionstoachievegreatersafety,equalityandhappiness

foralltheirresidents.

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TableofContentsAcknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4Chapter1:LaïcitéandTheEvolutionofReligioninFrance…………………………………………………….6

1.1 The1905lawontheSeparationsoftheChurchesandtheState………………………….....…..11

1.2 DefiningandInterpretingModernLaïcité………………………………………………………………....15

1.3 TheLegacyofImmigrationinFrance……………………………………………………………….............16

Chapter2:FoundationsofAmericanReligionandImmigration…………………………………..…….....21

2.1TheConstitutionandtheRighttoFreedomofReligion.……………………………………………….23

2.2PopularReactionsandPolicyAgainstReligionandImmigrants…………………………………...29

2.3U.S.ReligiousJurisprudence:SupremeCourtCases……………………………………………………..31

Chapter3:FreedomofReligionV.LaïcitéinModernDayFrance…………..........................................36

3.1TheStartofUnfairApplicationofLaïcité………………………………………………………………….....36

3.2The2004ActonReligiousSymbolsa.k.a.TheHeadscarfBan…………………………………....…39

3.3RationalizingtheBan…………………………………………………………………………………………….….42

3.4S.A.S.v.France…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..43

Chapter4:CombattingIslamintheU.S.andDisputesOverReligiousFreedom……………………..49

4.1InstillingFear:TerrorandConflictintheMiddleEast………………………………………………….49

4.2Effectsof9/11:AnAttackonCivilLiberties………………………………………………………………..50

4.3LimitsonReligiousFreedom……………………………………………………………………………………..53

4.4AnEraofReligiousbasedLegislation…………………………………………………………………………56

4.5The2010PolicyShift:OpenHostilityTowardsMuslims……………………………………..………59

Chapter5:TheClashofFrenchValuesandIslam………………………………………………………………….65

5.1TheBurkiniDebateBegins:August2016……………………………………………………………………65

5.2France’sHighestCourtRulesAgainsttheBurkiniBan………………………………………………....69

5.3TheNeedforIntegration:BalancingIslamandLaïcité………………..………………………………70

Chapter6:OurFuture:ReligiousFreedomUndertheTrumpAdministration……………………….75

6.1TheMuslimBan…………………………………………………………………………………………………………79

6.2IslamInU.S.Politics:IstheU.S.Obsessed?.............................................................................................83

6.3HowAreMuslimsFaringintheU.S.?.........................................................................................................84

6.4TheMedia:TheCulpritofMisplacedFears……………………………………………………..………….89

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...91Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...101Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………103

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Introduction TheUnitedStatesandFrancearebothstrugglingwithapolicydilemmaofnational

andinternationalsignificancearisingfromthetensionbetweenprinciplesofreligious

freedomandtheneedtoprotecttheirnationalidentity.Manyresidentsofbothcountries

believethatMuslimsthreatentheirnationalsecurity.ThiswidespreadfearofMuslimsis

evidentinbothcountries,onthelocalandfederallevel.States,countiesandtownsaswell

asfederallegislativebodiesinthetwocountrieshaveattemptedtolimitthereligious

freedomsofMuslimcitizens,residentsandimmigrants.Politicalpartiesanddemographic

groupsfromacrossthepoliticalspectrum,fromlefttoright,viewthispolicydilemmaasan

existentialchallengetotheirrespectivecountries.Ontheonehand,someMuslims’non-

acceptanceoftheiradoptedcountry’smainstreamsocialnormsandmores,andeventheir

legalsystems,makessomeAmericanandFrenchgroupsarguethattheessenceoftheir

societiesisatrisk.TheparticipationofevenaverysmallnumberofMuslimsinterrorist

acts,attimeswithtiesordeclaredallegiancetoforeignterrororganizations,generates

fearsanddemandsforasecuritypolicythattreatsanentireimmigrantpopulationasa

threat.Conversely,thedemandforpoliciesthatimposean“American”or“French”wayof

lifeorcultureandforcereligiousexpressionoutraisesconcernsamongmanyAmerican

andFrenchcitizensandpoliticians.Theyfearthattheircountries’fundamental

commitmenttoreligiousfreedom,civillibertiesandtraditionofsanctuary,akeypartof

theirnationalvaluesystem,couldbesacrificed.Withpredictionsthatthenumberof

MuslimsworldwidewillbeequaltothatofChristiansby2050,thetensionbetweenthese

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principleswillonlybecomemoresalient.1

Thisthesisseekstoexplorehowreligiousfreedom,controlledthroughU.S.and

Frenchlegislationandjurisprudence,hasconflictedwithnationalidentity.National

identityhasbenmeasuredbyconformingornottosocial,politicalandculturalnorms.This

thesiswillalsodemonstratehowreligiousfreedomhasconflictedwithnationalsecurity

policy,resultinginpoliciesthatreflectAmericansuspicionofMuslimsandinspirebacklash

fromtheMuslimworld.ChaptersoneandtwowillanalyzehowFranceandtheUnited

Stateshaveeachfacedthechallengeofprotectingreligiousfreedom,absorbingimmigrants

intotheirnationsandmaintainingnationalidentityandsecurityovertheirlonghistories.

Next,Chaptersthreeandfourwillmovetothemorecontemporarychallengesofbalancing

religionandnationalidentity,raisedinFranceprimarilybyitspopulationofNorthAfrican

immigrantsandintheUnitedStatesbyamorediverserangeofimmigrantgroupsfrom

Muslim-majoritycountries.ThenChaptersfiveandsixwillexplorethespecificcurrentday

concernsandpolicychallengessuchastheburkiniinFranceandtheanti-Muslimpolicies

ofPresidentTrump,andwillprovideacritiqueofthepolicyoptionsforeachcountryand

thestrengthsandweaknessesofvariousapproaches.

Finally,theconclusionwillassessthecurrentpoliticalplayersandhowtheiractions

mayinfluencefuturereligiousandimmigrationpolicy,anddrawonthestrengthsand

weaknessesofeachcountry’spoliciestodevelopnewpolicyalternatives.

1“Nones”ontheRise:One-in-FiveAdultsHaveNoReligiousAffiliation.”PewForumonReligion&PublicLife.PewResearchCenter,9Oct.2012.Web.27Apr.2017.

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CHAPTER1:LAICITÉANDTHEEVOLUTIONOFRELIGIONINFRANCE Whileallcountriesviewtheroleofreligiondifferently,France’snotionoflaïcité2

separatesitfromthemajorityofwesterncountries.MostoftheFrenchembracelaïcité;

forthemitisaliberalandtolerantconceptthatpreventsreligionfromintrudingintothe

civicspace.Sowhatistheproblem?Thisprincipleofstrictsecularismhasevolved

throughoutthecountry’slonghistoryandhasdevelopedintoamechanismusedtocurb

religionandreligiouspracticeratherthansafeguardreligiousliberty,namelythatof

Muslims.AsthepercentageofMuslimsinFrancerisesandFrancebecomesincreasingly

diverse,thetensionbetweenlaïcitéandfreedomofreligionhasbecomeapoliticalcrisis

thatremainslargelyunsolved.France’srootsintraditionhaveledthecountrytodevelop

arigidnationalidentityandcreateapolicyoflaïcitéthatmostareunwillingtoadaptto

solvethecurrentwoes.ThestoryofthisideologicaldevelopmentbeginswiththeFrench

Revolution.

In1789Francefounditselfinaprecariousplace.Themonarchyandchurchwere

thecenterofpowerinacountrythatnolongersupportedeitherinstitution.Economic,

politicalandreligiouscrisesledtothepopularrevoltknownastheFrenchRevolution.

Throughviolencethepeoplerebelledagainstthemonarchy,aristocracyandclergy.

Priestswereguillotined,NotreDamewastakenover,politicaldissidentswere

imprisoned,andbattlesbrokeoutinthestreetsofParis,markingwhathadbeenthemost

radicalpersecutionofChristiansinEuropesinceendoftheRomanEmpire.3TheKingat

thetime,LouisXVI,wasforcedtoswitchhisrulefromthatofanabsolutemonarchtoa

2Laïcitéistranslatedtosecularism,butalsocallsforseparationofchurchandstate,libertyofconscienceandstateneutralityinreligiousmatters.3Jones,Colin.Paris:TheBiographyofaCity.NewYork.PenguinBooks.Print.2006.Ch6.

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constitutionalmonarch.WhenLouisXVIfacedtheguillotinetheconstitutionalmonarchy

eventuallygavewaytoarepublic.Theendofthemonarchyandtherebellionagainstthe

Churchsignaledashifttowardsrepublicanism,andawayfromreligion.

WiththedestructionoftheancienregimeandtheConstitutionasthenewbasisfor

ruling,religionnolongerplayedanimportantroleinFrenchlifeasithadsinceit’s

foundingwhenreligionandpoliticsweretightlyintertwined.Thisshiftawayfrom

religionoccurredforseveralreasons.ThephilosophesoftheEnlightenmentcriticizedthe

Churchandsystematicallyquestionedthecredibilityofreligion.Theirfocusonprogress

andreasonasthebasisforbeingerodedfaithinreligionanddepictedtheclergyas

uselessmembersofsocietywho,bypledgingallegiancetothereligiousstatesacrificed

civilliberties.4Inaddition,theFrenchpeoplesawCatholicismasathreattodemocracy

foritshostilitytoindividuallibertiesanditshegemonicpresence.TheCatholicChurch,as

partoftheState,exercisedconsiderablepoweroverthecountrythroughlandholdings

andrevenues.Thiscausedastronghostilitytowardsthereligiouspowersandclergywho

fordecadespriortotheRevolutionhadbecomerichofftheFrenchpeople.Their

disregardforFrenchcitizensandtheusurpationofCatholicpowerledtheNational

Assemblytonationalizeallchurchland,puttingthepowerintothehandsofthe

government.5Thispoliticalmovesignaledaweakeningofchurchpowerandwas

reflectiveofadiminishingreligiosityinFrenchsociety.

Thenextsignificantstateactionwastherequirementofallclergytotakeapublic

oathofloyaltytothestate.ThispledgeofloyaltytothestatecametocharacterizeFrench

4Betros,Gemma.HistoryReview68.2010.Print.TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.Web.22Nov.2016.5Prélot,Pierre-Henri."AmericanCivilReligionAsSeenFromFrance:ACommentarytoFredGedick'spaper."TheGeorgeWashingtonLawReview41.2011.Print.914.

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nationalvalues,andledtodevelopmentoftheconceptoflaïcité.Laïcitéisoftentranslated

intoEnglishassecularism,butitalsosuggeststhesamepledgeofloyaltytheclergywere

forcedtotake.Theideawasandcontinuestobe,thattheFrencharefirstandforemost

membersofthenationofFrance.Religionshouldcomesecondtocitizenship.Despite

effortstoridthenationofCatholicism,throughthenationalizationoflandandthepledge

ofloyalty,theFrenchpeoplecontinuedtopracticeintheirhomes.Ratherthanforce

Catholicismout,thegovernmenthadforcedreligionintoprivatelife.Theneedto

separateChurchandStatewhileallowingprivatepracticebecamemoreapparentandit

wasintheRepublics’firstConstitution,the1791DéclarationdesDroitsdel’Hommeetdu

Citoyen,thattheconceptoffreedomofreligionwasoutlined.6Ratherthangrantingthe

peopleprotectionofthestateagainstreligiousinfluenceinsociety,theDéclaration

emancipatedthepeoplefromtheCatholicChurch.Itprovidedthatnooneshallbe

disturbedforhisorheropinions,evenreligiousones,aslongastheirmanifestationdoes

notdisturbthepublicorderestablishedbylaw.Theprescriptionofmaintaining“public

order”beforeallelsehasbecomeafoundationalFrenchconcept.ThisperiodinFrench

historywascharacterizedbythedemandthatthepeopleputthestateorpublicorder

beforethechurchandreligion,thoughthewaytoensurethisremainunresolved.

ThoughtheConstitutionof1791emancipatedtheStatefromtheCatholicChurch,

additionallegislationwaspassedin1795tofurtherseparatethetwo.The1795law

formallyseparatedChurchandState,andprohibitedthewearingof“religiousornaments

orclothing”inpublic.7However,thepoliticalclimatechangedwhenjustafewyearslater

Napoleoncameintopower.ThoughhehimselfwasnotanadherentoftheCatholic

6BrittonD.Davis,117.7BrittonD.Davis,117.

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Church,herecognizedthatarelationshipwiththeCatholicChurchcouldprovidehim

withtheeconomicandmoralbenefits.NapoleonsoughttousetheChurchtohis

advantageandattemptedtonegotiatewiththepope.8However,thisfailedwhenin1802

NapoleonintroducedtheConcordat,alawthatrequiredallactionsfromRometobe

approvedbytheFrenchgovernment.9RelationsbetweenRomeandFrancequickly

deteriorated.FrancebecameincreasinglydividedamongthosewhosupportedNapoleon

andthosewhoremainedloyaltotheCatholicChurchandpapalauthority.

Thepoliticalinstabilityandclassconflictcontinuedintothenineteenthcentury.The

revolutionof1848ensued,andendedwiththedevelopmentofanewconstitutionand

thecreationoftheSecondRepublic.Intheconstitutionof1848thecitizensweregranted

therighttopersonalliberty,freedomofassociation,peacefulandunarmedassembly,

petitionandfreedomofexpression.Theselibertiesdid,however,havelimits.AsKarl

Marxnotes,libertiescame“alwayswiththemarginalnotethatitisunlimitedsofarasit

isnotlimitedbytheequalrightsofothersandthepublicsafetyorbylaws.”10The

bourgeois,asdraftersoftheconstitutionandthewieldersofpoliticalpower,soughtto

servetheirinterestsandtheirsalone:limitingCatholicisminthecivicsphere.Asaresult,

publicsafetyonlyreferredtothesafetyofthebourgeoisie.Resistancetothechurchwas

furtheremphasizedintheaftermathoftheanti-clericalParisCommuneof1870.The

eventsofthecommuneinclinedJulesFerry,MinisterofEducationfrom1879to1882,to

reducetheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurch.In1881theLoiFerrywaspassedmaking

publiceducationcompulsory,freeandlaïc(freefromreligiousteachings).Educationwas

8Betros,Gemma.“TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.”9Betros,Gemma.“TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.”10Marx,Karl."TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte."ZodiacandBrianBagginsforMarx/EngelsInternetArchive1995,1999.Web.(13).

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andissacredtorepublicanism,andrepublicanismembracesaseparationofChurchand

State.Marxmadetheobservationthat“eachparagraphoftheconstitutioncontainsits

ownantithesis…solongasthenameoffreedomwasrespectedandonlyitsactual

realizationprevented,ofcourseinalegalway,theconstitutionalexistenceofliberty

remainedintact,inviolate,howevermortaltheblowsdealttoitsexistenceinactuallife.”11

Inshort,theconstitutionalprotectionsdidnotguaranteethepeopleabsoluteliberties,

becausehistoryhadrevealedthatpublicorderhadtocomefirst.Thesamedisruptionof

politicalpoweroccursinFrancetoday.Thepoliticiansenactlawsthatprivilegeorder

overindividualliberties,andwhentheysenseasmallthreattopublicordertheyjustify

thesuspensionofthoseliberties.Thiswasthecaseduringthelatenineteenthcentury.

Franceexperiencedasurgeinnationalismandimmigrants,perceivedasathreat,were

targetedinlegislation.

OnemaincauseforthesurgeinnationalismwastheDreyfusAffair.Francewasin

themidstofawaroverlanddisputeswithGermanywhenayoungFrenchartilleryofficer

ofJewishdecentwasconvictedoftreasoninaclosedtrialin1894.L’AffaireDreyfus

fueledtheriseinnationalismandfurtherdiscreditedtheChurchbysplittingthenation

intotwocamps:thepro-army,Catholic“anti-Dreyfusards”andtheanti-clerical,pro-

republican“Dreyfusards”.12AsaJewfromAlsace,Dreyfusembodiedeverythingthe

nationalistrightloathed.TheconflictwithGermanyandtheinternaldivisioncreated

concernaboutFrance’spower,causingtheFrenchtoviewanyindependentinstitution

thatinfluencedsocietyasalimitonthenationalgovernments’abilitytoexertcontrol

11Marx,Karl."TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte."ZodiacandBrianBagginsforMarx/EngelsInternetArchive1995,1999.Webpdf.(13).12"ACountryDivided:DreyfusardsandAnti-Dreyfusards."The National Library of Israel. The National Library of Israel,n.d.Web.01Feb.2017.

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overitscitizensandtheirloyalties.13Thefearthatradicalswouldoverpowerthe

governmentledtheFrenchtocreateagovernmentthatwouldimposethepeople’swill

throughlegislationratherthancheckandbalancesasdoestheAmericansystem.Aware

ofthecountry’sfraughtreligioushistory,legislatorsproceededwithcaution,passing

legislationthatwouldlimitthereligioninthepublicspherewiththebeliefthatlegislation

couldcurethecountry’ssocialills.

Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,thegovernment,dissatisfiedwiththelegal

religiousframework,continuedtopasslegislationthatwouldbuildawallofseparation

betweenchurchandstate.In1901FrancepassedtheLawonAssociationsrequiring

parliamentaryapprovalofallreligiouscongregationsandprovisionsonfreedomof

association.14Nevertheless,the1901lawwasnotsufficientinendingtheadversarial

relationshipbetweentheCatholicChurchandtheState.Thisbackandforthbetweenthe

increasinglysecularFrenchgovernmentandtheCatholicauthoritypointedtoone

conclusion--theneedtoseparatetheChurchandStateonceandforall.

1.1The1905lawontheSeparationsoftheChurchesandtheState

The1905LawofSeparationofChurchesandtheStateofficiallyresolvedtheconflict

betweenthetwoinstitutionsanddevelopedprinciplesfundamentaltothenations’

character.The1905Lawisbasedonthreepillars,“freedomofconscience,separationof

StateandChurches,andtheequalrespectofallfaithsandbeliefs.”15First,thelaw,by

endingofficialrecognitionoftheCatholicChurch,grantsthepeoplefreedomofbeliefand

practice,withthecaveatthatreligiouspracticemaynotdisturbpublicorder,anideathat13Harrigan,P.J."TheSocialAppealsofCatholicSecondaryEducationinFranceinthe1870s."JournalofSocialHistory8.3(1975):(135).Print.14BrittonD.Davis,121.15BrittonD.Davis,122.

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datesbacktotheConstitutionoftheSecondRepublic.Second,thelawprotectsfrom

discriminationonthebasisofreligionbyendingpublicsubsidizationofreligious

institutions.Third,thelawrespectstherulesofeveryreligionandthereforeprovides

occasionalexemptionstosomereligiousgroups.Forexamplethestatehasfundedthe

buildingofafewchurchesandmosques.Nonetheless,thethreepillarsinstitutedapolicy

ofstateneutralitytowardreligiousbeliefsinthepublicspheremeanttoinstilltolerance.

ThelawhighlightedanevolutioninFrenchpolitics,asitwasafarmorepeaceful

approachtocurbingtheperceivedthreatoftheCatholicChurchthantherevolutionary

responsesacenturyearlier.Itfurthermarkedthedeclineofreligion,thoughCatholicism

intheculturalsensehasremainedaconstantinFrenchsociety.

ThisstruggleforpowerbetweentheFrenchstateandtheCatholicChurch

characterizedtheroleofreligioninFrance.AlthoughFrancehaslongembracedreligious

freedominitsconstitutionaldocuments,ithascreatedlegislationthatunfairlytargets

certainpopulations.ThenatureofFrenchreligiousfreedom,definedbythesingular

threatofonereligiousbody,explainswhycomparedtotheU.S.,whichsimultaneously

affirmedtheprincipleoffreedomofreligioninitsrespectiveConstitutionof1789,France

founditselfwithaquitedifferentconceptionofthemeaningandimplementationof

religiousliberty.ProfessorofConstitutionalLawandCivilLibertiesatL’Universitéde

Ceris-Pontoise,Pierre-HenriPrélotobservesthattheFrenchperceptionoffreedomof

religionisuncommon.Hesays,“InFrance,freedomofreligionemancipatedthepeople

fromCatholicismandgrantsthemtheprotectionofthestateagainstreligiousinfluencein

society.”16ThissuggeststhatFrenchfreedomofreligionshouldinfactbeinterpretedas

16Prélot,Pierre-Henri,914.

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freedomfromreligionmeaningthat“mancanonlybelongtothenationalcommunity

regardlessofreligiousbeliefs.”17ThedifferencebetweenthistheologyandtheAmerican

pointofviewisclear.ThethreatintheUnitedStateswasnotareligiousbodybutthe

governmentitself.Thisdirectedthefederalgovernmenttoguaranteethepeoplefreedom

topracticewithoutgovernmentinterference,ratherthanenforceapolicyofnon-practice

(atleastinthepublicsphere)aswasdoneinFrance.

Politicians,historians,anthropologistsandFrenchcitizensalikecontinuetodebate

theintentofthe1905lawandwhatitsapplicationshouldlooklike.Theyaskthemselves,

isitalawoflibertyorrestriction?Pierre-HenriPrélotarguesthattheLawof1905isa

lawofrestriction.Hebelievesthatitsfocusonsecularismisnecessaryformaintaining

publicorder,datingbacktotheneedtomaintainpublicorderinlightofthepoliticalwar

withtheChurch.

JeanBaubérot,ChairofHistoryandSociologyofLaïcitéattheSchoolofAdvanced

Studies,disagrees.Baubérotsaysofthelawof1905:“itisnotalawthatseekstochase

religionoutofpubliclife:tothecontraryit’saliberaltextabouttolerance.”18Baubérot

useshistorytoadvancehisposition.Hestatesthatatthebeginningofthetwentieth

century,theparliamentarycommissiondirectedtoworkonthelawof1905wasajoint

appointmentofJulesFerry,FerdinandBuissonandAristideBriand,allliberalstatesmen.

Themendidnotwanttosuppressreligion,butmitigatethepolitical-religiouscrisisthat

haddevastatedthenationsincetheseventeenthcentury.AccordingtoBaubérot,the

threemenengagedinacampaignoflaïcitéthatwassecular,butnotanti-religiousnor

17Prélot,Pierre-Henri,914.18Chemin,Anne."«Laloide1905,étapefondamentaledelalaïcisationdelaRépubliquefrançaise,estlibéraleettolérante»."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,15Nov.2016.Web.4Feb.2017.

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anti-clerical.Theysawthe1905Lawasameanstoprotectfreedomofbeliefandpractice,

whileatthesametimeensuringanon-religiousState.

Thepoliticaldecisionsandactionsofthetwentiethcenturycontinuedtoshapehow

theFrenchviewedtherighttofreedomofreligion,whichbyinlargewascloserto

Prélot’sview.Thoughitmayappearunrelated,the1971decisionoftheConseil

Constitutionel(theFrenchequivalentoftheU.S.SupremeCourt)toincorporatethe

FrenchpreambleoftheConstitutionof1946totheConstitutionof1958hadasignificant

effectonreligiousfreedom.19Thepreambleofthe1946constitutionproclaimedthat

womenhaveequalrightstothoseofmeninallspheres.Thisinclusionbecamethebasis

fortherighttogenderequality,whichdecadeslatertheFrenchgovernmentandfeminists

wouldcallontoimposethe2004,2010and2016lawsbanningreligioussymbols,veils

andburkinisinpublic.Inadditiontothecallforequalityofthepreamble,articleIofthe

FrenchConstitutionof1958states:“Franceshallbeanindivisible,secular,democratic,

andsocialrepublic.Itshallensuretheequalityofallcitizensbeforethelaw,without

distinctionoforigin,raceorreligion.Itshallrespectallbeliefs.”20Despitethecallfor

equalityirrespectiveofreligionintheConstitution,politicianscontinuetoreferbackto

theLawof1905whenestablishingfreedomofreligion.Theissuewithusingthelawas

thebasisforreligioninmodernlifeisthatfirst,socialanddemographicconditionsand

themakeupofFrancehavechangedimmensely,andsecond,theFrenchpoliticianswho

draftedthe1905lawdisagreedoverthemeaningofseparationofChurchandState.One

campargueditmeantallowingeveryonetopracticehisorherownreligion(softlaïcité),

theotherarguedthatfreepracticeofreligionmustnotbepublic,statesanctionedand

19BrittonD.Davis,125.20BrittonD.Davis,125.

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confinedtotheprivatedomain(strictlaïcité).Whenexaminedmoreclosely,thetextof

thelawof1905echoestheformerdefinitionoffreedomofreligion.Theprincipleof

laïcitéhowever,echoesthesecondmorerestrictivevision.

1.2DefiningandinterpretingmodernLaïcité

InmodernFrancelaïcitéisseenasthecornerstoneofFrenchsociety,areflectionof

Frenchidentity,aruleofFrenchlife.Historytellusthatthemoderncharacterizationof

laïcitéhasgrownoutoftheneedoftheFrenchgovernmenttoseparateitselffromthe

CatholicChurchandregaincontrolofthepeople.Asaresultoftheseparation,religious

practiceandsymbolsareseenasastepbackinthewrongdirectionandasathreattothe

establisheddemocracyoftheFifthRepublic.Hence,theFifthRepubliccontinuesto

grapplewithnotionsofreligiousfreedomandpracticeofitbyitsMuslimresidents.This

isinpartbecausethecurrentinterpretationoftheprincipleoflaïcitépermeatesstate

lines.Itseekstocontroltheinternalorganizationofareligion.BrittonDavisrecognizes

laïcitéasapoliticaltool.Shepointsoutthatlaïcitéisanundefinedconceptwith“no

officialagreementastowhatitmeansorwhatitrequiresoftheFrenchRepublic.”21This

allowsfortheprincipletobeadaptedtoeitherattackorprotectareligiousaction.

Beginningin1989withtheHeadscarfDilemma,principlesoflaïcitéwereeffectedin

Frenchpolicyinwaysthatthreatenedlibertyinsteadofprotectingit.Byanalyzingthe

strifereligiouspastofFrance,characterizedbyreligiousconflictbetweentheCatholic

ChurchandtheState,thecausesofthecurrenttensionsbecomeclearer.However,one

shapingfactorismissing--immigration.

21BrittonD.Davis,125.

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1.3ImmigrationinFrance

InordertounderstandhowFrenchviewsofMuslimshaveevolved,itisnecessaryto

reviewimmigrationinFrance.Lowratesofforeignimmigrationandlaterlarge-scale

immigrationfromitsformercolonieshaveplayedintothecurrentconceptionoflaïcitéand

whatitmeanstobeFrench.TheFrench22havebeenforthemostpartwhiteandcatholic,

givingwaytoarigidnationalidentity.TheFrançaisdesouche,(Frenchwithroots)those

withfourgrandparentsborninFranceconsiderthemselvestobethetrueFrenchcitizens.

In1851only1.1percentoftheFrenchpopulationwasforeignborn,whileintheU.S.9.7

percentofthepopulationwasforeignborn.23Thepercentpointdifferencewasquite

significantindefiningthecharacterofeachnation.Twodecadeslaterin1911aftertheLaw

ofSeparationofChurchesandState,theforeignbornpopulationinFranceremainedlowat

2.9percent,24meanwhiletheU.S.theforeignbornpopulationhadreached14.7percent.25

Thesedifferencesinimmigrationledtoaverydifferentdevelopmentofnationalidentity

foreachnation.TheU.S.wasamulti-religiousandmulti-culturalnationandthereforeit

wasnotemancipationfromreligionthatthecountryneeded,butprotectiontopractice.

Franceremainedfairlyhomogenous,whiteandcatholicandthustheredevelopedastrong

FrenchnationalidentitythatcontinuestobecentraltoFrenchlife.Anyonewhodidnotfit

theFrenchmoldwassupposedtosuppresshisorherownforeignidentityforthesakeof

thenation.ForthisreasonweseethatFrancefavorsapolicyofassimilationratherthan

accommodation.

22Throughoutthisthesismyuseoftheterm“theFrench”referstothewhite,catholicmajority.23Bureau,USCensus."ForeignBorn."USCensusBureau.N.p.,n.d.Web.22Jan.2017.24Schain,Martin.ThePoliticsofImmigrationinFrance,BritainandtheUnitedStates:AcomparativeStudy.NewYork.PalgraveMacmillan;ch2,40.2008.

25"TheForeignBornPopulationintheU.S."USCensusBureau.USCensusBureau.,2010.Web.22Jan.2017.

17

ThisdatesbacktothenineteenthcenturywhenFrenchcolonialpowerruledover

manyMuslim-majoritycountries.Franceerecteditsfirstimmigrationandnaturalization

lawin1889.Thelaw,JusSolis,establishedcitizenshipforanyoneborninaFrenchterritory,

andthusappearedtobeaninvitationtojoinFrenchsociety.Tothedisappointmentof

theseMuslimpeoples,lawswereenactedthatlimitedtheirrights.Manycategoriesof

peoplesuchastheAlgerianMuslimswereFrenchnationalsyetdidnothavethesame

politicalorsocialrightsasfullFrenchcitizens.ThiswasduetotheCrémieuxdecreein

placefrom1830to1870.26ThelawplacedhandicapsontheabilityofcertainFrench

nationalstovote,assembleandserveascivilservants,institutionalizingdiscrimination

betweenFrenchnationalsandFrenchcitizens.Yetinspiteofthisdiscriminationand

culturalizedconceptionofintegration,Frenchnationalityillustratessomesenseof

inclusivenessinitswillingnesstoextendlimitedcitizenshiptoitsformerethnically

differentterritories.ThetheoryperhapsbeingthatthestrongerthelinkwithFrench

societythemorelikelytheimmigrantcommunitywouldintegratewiththetraditional

republicanFrenchpeople.TheFrenchplaceextremeemphasisontheimportanceof

assimilationandoftenperceiveanyonewhochallengesFrenchidentityasathreattoor

burdenonFrenchsociety.

Tothisend,throughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturythegovernment

passedimmigrationlawsinabackandforthpatternofrestrictingandthenloosening

legislationinanefforttoreduceimmigrationandintegratenewarrivals.Thoughseveral

lawsincludeddiscriminatorymeasuresonthebasisofrace,theimmigrationlaws,withthe26Hajjat,Abdellali,andChristopheBertossi."EUDOCitizenshipObservatory,CountryReport:France."EuropeanUniversityInstitute,FlorenceRobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies.EUDOCitizenshipObservatory,Jan2013.Web.AccessedMar.2017.

18

exceptionofCrémieux,didnottargetreligiousgroupsbecausereligionwasalargely

privatematter.TheFrenchwereinsteadconcernedwithcontrollingthebehaviorofthe

immigrantswhohadmadeittoFrenchsoil.Todothisthegovernmenttightened

immigrationlawsinthenameofnationalsecurity.Onesuchlawwasthatof1912requiring

immigrantstocarryidentitydocumentswithdetaileddescriptionsandpictures,andgiving

administrativeauthoritiestheabilitytodenyentrytopeoplewhose“presenceappeared

dangerous”.27

Instarkcontrasttothelawof1912,thewarandpostwarperiodwelcomed

immigrants.Thestateitselfbecameinvolvedintherecruitmentofimmigrantmanpower.

However,theFrenchpeoplewerelessenthusiasticoftheriseinimmigrationwhenthey

experiencedadepressionofwages.Anunfavorablebiastowardsimmigrantsdevelopedin

the1930’s,andasthedepressiongrewworselegislationwaspassedauthorizingquotason

employmentinseveralindustries.ThisendedastheSecondWorldWarbegan.

Theimmigrationpolicyofthepostwarperiodwasbasedonthesameprinciples.

Postwarreconstructionhadrevitalizedtheeconomyandproducedalabormarket.The

needforimmigrantswasfurtheredbythepopulationreductioncausedbywartimedeaths

andlowfertilityrates.Promptedbytheboomingeconomyandjobopportunities,large

numbersofMuslimcitizenshailingfromformercoloniesbegantoimmigratetoFrance.

ThisshiftfromnunstoMuslimswasquitejarringfortheFrenchwhostilllivedina

majoritycatholiccountry28.TheNorthAfricanscontinuedtobeviewedastheleast

desirable,especiallytheAlgerianswhohadjustfoughtabrutalwarofindependence

againsttheFrenchin1954ledbyaradicalIslamicgroupattemptingtooverthrowthe27Schain,Martin,42.28Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateandPublicSpace"."Review-A-Day.Powells.com,8Mar.2007.Web.01Mar.2017.

19

seculargovernment.29Themethodsofwarfaresuchasguerrillafighting,torturetactics

andterrorismdrewinternationalattentionandcausedtheAlgerianstobeseenasviolent

peoplewhoposedathreattointernalsecurity.Despitetheirundesirablestandinglarge

numbersofAlgerianworkerswereabletomigratetoFrancethroughfamilyreunification,

guestworkerpoliciesandanincreaseinasylumdesignations.

AsthesizeandpermanenceoftheMuslimcommunitygrewmoreapparentinthe

1960’sand1970’s,thegovernmenttriedtobothreducethenumberofimmigrantsentering

thecountryandsendthemhometotheircountriesoforigin.Inthe1960’stheFrench

AdministrationattemptedtolimitAlgerianimmigration,whichrepresentedthelargest

groupofMaghrebimmigrantswithapopulationof800,000,throughaseriesof

negotiationsandcontractswiththeAlgeriangovernment.30Tenyearslater,theFrench

governmentattemptedtosendonemillionofthelegalMuslimimmigrantshome,first

throughinformalencouragementandthenwithpoliciesthatwouldsubsidizethereturn

triphome.31Whentheefforttosendtheimmigrantshomefailed,thegovernmentreverted

toanewtactic:encouragingintegrationbysupportingMuslimorganizations.Scaredthata

lackofintegrationandemploymentcouldleadtheMuslimpopulationtorebel,the

governmentsupportedIslam,encouragingthecreationofMuslimorganizations.This

accountedfortheincreasingvisibilityofIslaminFranceandtheensuingchangeinpolicy.

Bythe1990s,manyoftheMuslimimmigrantshadestablishedpatternsof

settlement.Bylivinginonegeographicareaandcultivatingtheircollectiveidentity,they

inadvertentlymadetheirownassimilationandintegrationmoredifficult.Nationhood

29Hitchens,Christopher."AChronologyoftheAlgerianWarofIndependence."TheAtlantic.AtlanticMediaCompany,01Nov.2006.Web.06Mar.2017.30Schain,Martin.47.31Schain,Martin,51.

20

scholarWilliamBrubackerexplainstheconflictsovertheimmigrationandintegrationof

NorthAfricansthroughahistoricalframework.Hebelievesthat“theinfluxofimmigrants

fromnon-white,non-Christiancountriesandthoseimmigrants’expressioninthe1980sof

theirdesiretoretaintheirowncultureandreligioninevitablyranupagainstthebrickwall

oftheFrenchideaofcitizenship.”32TheFrenchfeltthreatenedbytheMaghrebpopulation

resultinginyetanotherpolicyshift.Politiciansseekingtoremedythelackofintegration

introducedtherequirementofproofof“goodintegration”intheLoiChevenementof

1998.33ThelawreflectsthecornerstoneofFrenchsociety:therequirementofbelongingto

thecountryfirstandanyothergroupsecond.TodaytheriseofIslaminFrancehasonce

againcalledintoquestiontheemphasisthenationplacesonitsvaluesnamely,respectfor

tolerance,willingnesstoprotectcivillibertiesandhowfaritwillgotosafeguardwhatit

regardsasitstrueidentity.

Thischapterhasprovidedthehistoricalfoundationofreligionandimmigrationin

Francenecessarytoexaminethecurrenttensionsbetweenlaïcité,Islam,nationalsecurity,

andFrenchpolicy.ThenextchapterwillprovidethehistoricalcontextintheUnitedStates

tosetupthelatercomparativeanalysis.

32Bellar,ElisaT.,TheHeadscarfAffair:TheConseild’ÉtatontheRoleofReligionandCultureinFrenchSociety,39TexasInternationalLawJournal:586(2004).33Schain,Martin,55.

21

CHAPTER2:FOUNDATIONSOFAMERICANRELIGIONANDIMMIGRATION

AlthoughtheUnitedStatesisamulti-religiousnationtoday,thatwasnotalwaysthe

case.TheUnitedStateshasgonethroughofreligiousevolutionofsorts.Itbeganasa

religioushavenbutverysoonseveralcoloniesbecameintolerantofminorityreligions.The

coloniesprogressedduringtheeraoftheConstitutionandtheEnlightenmentresultingin

anexpansionoffreedomofreligion.Butthen,Pan-Protestantismtookholdearlyinthe

nineteenthcenturycreatingaclimateintolerantofotherreligiousgroups.This,coupled

withtheSecondAwakeningandaninfluxofCatholicsandMormonswhoarrivedinthemid

nineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,causedthecountrytorespondwithafearofaliensand

minorityreligions.SincethenU.S.hascontinuedtostruggletocomeupwithasound

principleandapplicationoffreedomofreligionthatallowsforreligiousliberty,andatthe

sametimeminimizesthreatsbothperceivedandactualfromforeign-bornpopulationsand

religiousminorities,today,namelyMuslims.

ThewidelyheldnotionthatAmericahasalwaysbeenawelcomingnationtolerantof

allreligionsisuntrue.Whilethemajorityofearly-generationAmericanswereChristian,

therewassignificantreligiousconflictamongtheProtestantsects.Thecoloniststookthe

newlandforaProtestantcountry.ThehomogeneityofchieflyPuritancoloniesinNew

Englandcreatedaclimateintolerantofotherreligions.Fewwerespared,Puritandissidents

andCatholicswereseenasabhorrentandwerediscriminatedagainst,killedorbanished.

FourQuakerswerehangedinBostonbetween1661and1695forstandingupfortheir

beliefs.34IntheMassachusettsBayColonyintolerancewasparticularlystrong.Itquickly

becameclearthatreligioustolerancewasatermunknowntothecolonists.

34Davis,KennethC.“America’sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."

22

Therewerefewandverysmallreligiousminorities,ahandfulofCatholics,ahandful

ofJewsandahandfulofMuslims35.Thoughthehomogeneitybegantolessenasnew

immigrantgroupsarrived,theintoleranceremainedhigh.SmallnumbersofIrishbegan

immigratingtothecoloniesasearlyasthe1600’s.Havingobservedthedisastrouseffects

ofCatholicisminEurope,theEnglishsoughttokeepthemout.StillunderBritishcontrol,

coloniallawlimitedthenumberofCatholicsauthorizedtoenterthecolonies.

Consequently,themajorityofIrishcomingtothenewlandwereProtestant.Thisfostered

religiousintolerancethatwouldcontinuethroughoutthecolonialera,withastrongtarget

ontheCatholics.CottonMather,aMassachusettspreacher,condemnedCatholicsinhis

sermonsandcreatedstatutesthatdiscriminatedagainstCatholicsbylimitingtheirability

tovoteandownproperty.36DespiteagrowingseparationfromBritain,Britishrule

continuedtoimpactthepoliticsofthecolonies,causingthecoloniststograppleovertheir

positiononreligioustolerance.

Asmoreandmoreimmigrantscametothecolonies,thestrugglebecamegreater

andreligiousdifferencesdividedthecolonies.Thefirstbigwaveofnon-Protestant

immigrantscamein1718.37ThisfirstmajormigrationwasagroupofIrishPresbyterians,

Catholics,AnglicansandQuakers.38Promptedbyreligiouspersecution,lackofpolitical

autonomyanddireeconomicconditionsbackhometheIrishsoughtrefugeinthecolonies.

Aftertheirarrivalmoregroupssoughtrefugeinthenewnation.Marylandwasfoundedasa

religioushavenforRomanCatholicsbutstillwelcomedpersonsofallfaithstopractice

35ThesmallnumberofMuslimswasduetotheAfricanslaves.ThepresenceofIslamwasunknowntomanycolonists.36Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."37ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords."ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords.N.p.,n.d.Web.20Jan.2017.38"ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords."ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords.N.p.,n.d.Web.20Jan.2017.

23

withoutpersecution,discriminationorexclusionfrompoliticallife.39Theinclusivespiritof

itsfoundingdidnotlastverylong.By1750tensionsbetweentheCatholicandProtestant

Marylanderswerehigh.HistorianTimothyW.Bosworthwrote,“Protestant’sreferencesto

CatholicsofprovincialMarylandappearedquitesimilartoviewsexpressedabout

“subversive”minoritygroupsthroughoutAmericanHistory.”40Thearrivalofmore

religiousgroupscreatedanewuncertaintyamongthecolonistswhodidnotanticipate

suchreligiousdiversity.SoonitwasnolongerjustBritishlawthattriedtoprevent

immigrantswithfaithsotherthanProtestantismfromimmigratingtothecoloniesand

participatinginpoliticallife,butAmericanlawandpolicybegantodosoaswell.

2.1TheConstitutionandtheRighttoFreedomofReligion

WhentheRevolutionarywarendedandKingGeorgetheIIIextendedanolive

branchtoCatholicsinCanadain1774,anti-Catholicsentimentsgrewstrongerin

America.41Theincreasingintolerancedidnotstopatdisdain;lawswereenactedtokeep

non-Protestantsfromwieldingpoliticalpower.InMassachusettsonlyChristianswereable

toholdoffice,whileCatholicscouldholdofficeiftheyrenouncedallegiancetothePope.

NewYork’sStateConstitutionin1777bannedCatholicsfrompublicoffice.Marylandand

SouthCarolinaformedProtestantstatechurches.42Thenachangeoccurred;spurredby

Enlightenmentthought,politicians,acknowledgingtheyhadcometoAmericatoescape

religiouspersecution,begantoquestiontheethicsoftheserestrictiveanddiscriminatory

lawsmanyhadoncetriedtoescapewhenfleeingEngland.

39Chapelle,SuzanneElleryGreene.Maryland:AHistoryofitsPeople.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUPress,1986.Print.40Bosworth,TimothyW.“Anti-CatholicismasaPoliticalToolinMid-Eighteenth-CenturyMaryland.”TheCatholicHistoricalReview.Vol.61,No.4(Oct.,1975),pp.540.Web.7Apr.2017.41"Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."42Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."

24

ItwasaroundthistimethatThomasJeffersonbeganadialogueabouttherightto

freedomofreligion.AsgovernorofVirginia,Jeffersondraftedabillthatwouldcallforlegal

equalityforallcitizensirrespectiveofreligionorlackofreligion.WhenJeffersonwas

unabletomustersupportforthebill,Madisoncametohisaidandbeganacampaign

againstreligioningovernmentwithanessaytitled,“MemorialandRemonstranceAgainst

ReligiousAssessments.”43OneofthemostimportantpointsMadisonmadewasthata

religiousstatewouldbe“adeparturefromthatgenerouspolicy,whichofferinganAsylum

tothepersecutedandoppressedofeveryNationandReligion,promisedalustretoour

country.”44ThatistosaytheUnitedStateswasfoundedasanationforthepersecutedand

toattempttolimitfreedomofreligionwouldhavebeentogoagainsttheveryvaluesthat

promptedthecreationofthenewnation.

EventuallyJeffersonwasabletogathersupportfortheVirginiaActforEstablishing

ReligiousFreedom.Afterthebillwaspassed,Jeffersonfamouslywrotethat“withinthe

mantleofitsprotection,[were]theJew,theGentile,theChristianandtheMahometan,the

HindooandInfidelofeverydenomination.”45Aschampionsoffreedomofreligionand

separationofChurchandState,JeffersonandMadisonslowlychangedAmericanattitudes.

AsymboloftheattitudinalchangewastheAmericanConstitutionof1787.InArticle

VI,theConstitutionestablishedthattherewouldbenoreligioustestforoffice,thefirstof

futureprotectionsoffreedomofreligion.Itstatedthat,federallyelectedandappointed

officials“shallbeboundbyOathorAffirmation,tosupportthisConstitution,butno

religiousTestshalleverberequiredasaQualificationtoanyOfficeorpublicTrustunder

43Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."44Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."45Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."

25

theUnitedStates.”46Knowingalltoowellthedangersofacountrydividedbyreligionand

runbytheheadofthechurch,Washington,Madison,JeffersonandAdamsfoughttoensure

thatAmericawouldbeatolerantrepublicbyincludingprinciplesofreligiousfreedomin

thefoundingdocumentofthenation.

However,notallweresatisfiedwiththeConstitution’sabilitytoprotectindividual

libertiesofthepeople.Theanti-federalistsdemandedmore.Inanefforttoappealtothe

anti-federalists,Madisonintroducedanumberofamendmentsthatcametobeknownas

theBillofRights.ItwastheBillofRightsthatgrantedthepeopleoftheUnitedStates

fundamentalrightsandprotectionsbythegovernment,includingtherighttopractice

religionfreely.ItwasincongressionaldebatesthatMadison’sideasweredevelopedinto

thereligionclausesoftheFirstAmendment.InJuneof1789Madisonoutlinedhisproposed

amendments,“Thecivilrightsofnoneshallbeabridgedonaccountofreligiousbeliefor

worship,norshallanynationalreligionbeestablished,norshallthefullandequalrightsof

consciencebeinanymanner,oronanypretext,infringed…”47Hisfellowcongressmendid

notimmediatelyaccepthisproposedamendments.Mr.Sylvester,oneofthecongressmen

presentatthedebateinAugustof1789fearedtheamendmentwouldabolishreligionall

together.MadisoncounteredthatthepurposewastopreventCongressfrommakinglaws

thatwouldenforcetheobservationofreligion,createanationalreligionor“compelmento

worshipgodinanymannercontrarytotheirconscience.”48Thechiefconcernduringthe

periodwasprotectingthepeoplefromgovernmentimpositionofreligion.Theideaof

restrictingpracticeofreligionwasnotpartofthediscussion,becausenooneimaginedthe

46Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."47Wilson,JohnFrederick.,andDonaldL.Drakeman.ChurchandStateinAmericanHistory:TheBurdenofReligiousPluralism.Seconded.Boston:BeaconPress,1987.Print.(76).48Wilson,JohnFrederick.,andDonaldL.Drakeman,76.

26

complexityofamulti-religiouscountry.Thisdistinctionbetweentheneedtoprotectthe

peoplefromthegovernment,versustheneedtoprotectpeoplefromtheChurch,ashad

beenthecaseinEnglandandinFrance,isoneofthemostsignificantfactorsineach

countriesnotionofseparationofchurchandstateandfreedomofreligion.

UltimatelyCongressrecognizedtheimportanceoffreedomofreligionandreacheda

compromise.TheBillofRightswasratifiedin1791guaranteeingthepeopleperhapstheir

mostimportantright,therighttofreedomofreligion.49InadditiontotheBillofRights,

PresidentWashington,inalettertotheHebrewCongregationinNewport,RhodeIsland,

promisedthecountryfulllibertyofconscience.Theletterreads:

“TheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesgivestobigotrynosanction,to

persecutionnoassistance,requiresonlythattheywholiveunderits

protectionshoulddemeanthemselvesasgoodcitizens,ingivingitonall

occasionstheireffectualsupport.Everyoneshallsitinsafetyunderhisown

vineandfigtree,andthereshallbenonetomakehimafraid.”50

ThisletterisconsideredbyAmericanhistorianMelvinUrofskytobea“treasureofthe

nation”foritsstrongcallforreligiousliberty.51FrenchpoliticianAlexisdeTocqueville

wrotethatAmericahadbeen“bornfree,unfetteredbythereligiousandsocialbigotriesof

medievalEurope.”52Tocquevilleiscorrectinhighlightingthestarkdifferencesbetweenthe

nations.ThoughtheUnitedStateswasfoundedbyagroupofBritishProtestants,bythe

timeoftheRevolutionthenationhadbecomeareligiousandpoliticalhavenformany

Europeans.Comparatively,inEurope,theanti-clericalFrenchRevolutionwasjust49"TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregationinNewport,RI,August21,1790."BillofRightsInstitute.N.p.,n.d.Web.3Feb.2017.50TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation…”51TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation…”52TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation...”

27

beginning.Washingtonrecognizedthediversityofthenationanditwasinthisveinthatthe

Americanmotto,EPluribusUnion-OutofMany,One,becameasymbolofAmerican

toleranceanddiversity.

TodayAmericacontinuestoknownasthelandofreligiousliberty,withthereligion

clausesoftheFirstAmendmentbeingacornerstoneofthisfreedom.TheFirstAmendment

grantsthepeopletherighttofreedomofreligion,protectsindividualsfromstate

restrictionofreligionandprotectsreligionsintheirownright.Thisprotectionisnot

unique;mostWesterncountriessharethisconceptionofreligion,howeverinterpretations

differ.53IntheUnitedStates,civilreligionisacommonfaith.54Moreprecisely,American

civilreligionhasbeendefinedas,“asetofreligiousbeliefs…sharedbymostAmericansand

consistentwiththeparticulartheologiesof[mostAmericanreligions]”55.Essentially,

Americancivilreligionisamixtureofreligiousandsecularbeliefsthatdatesbacktothe

country’sfounding.CivilreligionismeanttounitetheAmericanpeoplethroughashared

butseparatepartnershipbetweentheStateandtheChurch.DespitethenameAmerican

civilreligionisnotfundamentallyreligious.Infact,Americancivilreligiondevelopedasthe

U.S.becamelessreligious,influencedbyenlightenment.

Asenlightenmentideasdisseminatedthroughoutthecountrytheideaofseparating

ChurchandStatebecamemorepalatable.Tenofthefourteenstateseitherdisbandedtheir

establishmentsorstoppedenactingpoliciesthatsupportedastatereligious

establishment.56Thisincludedlooseningpoliticallimitsondissentinggroups.Atthe

nationallevelthefirstCongresshadintroducedanamendmentthateliminatedreligious53Prélot,Pieree-Henry,914.54Prélot,Pieree-Henry,918.55Prélot,Pieree-Henry,918.56Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofAmericanHistory(2014):n.pag.OxfordResearchEncyclopedias.Web.12Jan.2017.

28

testsforpublicofficeandestablishedseparationofChurchandState.TheSupremeCourt

firstusedthetermseparationofChurchandStatein1879,howeveritwasnotuntilthe

incorporationoftheFourteenthAmendmentthatthetermbecameaconstitutional

promise.IntheCourt’sfirstEstablishmentClauseholdingJusticeBlackwrotethatthe

amendmentmeant:

“Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church.

Neithercanpasslawswhichaidonereligion,aidallreligions,orprefer

onereligionoveranother[…]Notaxinanyamount, largeorsmall,can

be levied to support any religious activities or institutions, whatever

they may be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or

practice religion […] In the words of Jefferson, the clause against

establishment of religion by law was intended to erect “a wall of

separationbetweenChurchandState.”57

Therhetoricofthe1946Eversonv.BoardofEducationdecisiondidnotreflecttheultimate

holdinginwhichthecourtruledinfavorofthestate,allowingstatereimbursementof

religiousbussing.58Conservativesandliberalsagreedontheprincipleofseparationof

churchandstate,howevertheyhaddifferingviewsandunderstandingswhenitcameinto

practice.Liberalsunderstoodtheseparationtomeanthatthegovernmentcouldnot

maintainastatereligion,financereligiousactivitiesorcoerceactiononbehalforagainst

religion.Conservativesunderstoodittomeanthatthegovernmenthadleewaytorecognize

religioustraditionsandcustomsandusetheminnon-denominationalwaysaswellas

57Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."58Ultimatelythecourtheldthatserviceslikebussingthatare“separateandsoindisputablymarkedofffromthereligiousfunction”anddonotviolatetheFirstAmendment.("Eversonv.BoardofEducationoftheTownshipofEwing."LII/LegalInformationInstitute.CornellUniversityLawSchool,n.d.Web.3Feb.2017.)

29

financiallyassistreligiousbodieswhenitbenefittedtheState.Thepoliticians,whowere

amongtheeliteAmericans,favoredthefirstview,upholdingthevaluesoftheConstitution.

However,subsequentbehaviordidnotechotheprinciplesoftheConstitution.The

Foundersdidnotanticipate,in1792,howdiversetheU.S.wouldbecome.Thelawsofthe

ConstitutionwerecreatedwiththebeliefthattheU.S.wouldremainafairlyhomogenous

society.Whenameretwentyyearslaterthepopulationbegantodiversify,therealitywas

notthatoftheConstitution.Nooneexpectedthechangeinreligiousdiversitythatwould

resultfromsurgesofimmigrationofMormons,Catholics,andJews,andtherefore,whenit

beganthepeoplefeltlittleobligationtoupholdthevaluesofthelegalframework.

2.2PopularReactionsandPolicyAgainstReligionandImmigrants

AtthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyAmericanswerenolongercommittedto

preventingdiscriminationonthebasisofreligion.TheAmericanpublicdidnotsharethe

sameviewasthepoliticalelitewhobelievedfreedomofreligionwasaprotectedright.The

countrysawareturnofintoleranceasimmigrationincreased.Violenceeruptedinthe

1830’swhenasecondwaveofIrishCatholicimmigrantsarrivedandagaininthe1840’s

followingtheIrishPotatofamine.TheIrishthatcameduringthisperiodwerepoorby

Americanstandardsandwerewillingtoworkforlowwages.ManyAmericansgrewto

resentthemandtheirunsanitarylivingconditionsthatpollutedneighborhoods.Age-old

tensionsbetweenProtestantsandCatholicswereexacerbated.Protestantsburneddown

SaintMary’sCatholicChurchinNewYorkCityin1831.Theviolencecontinuedacrossthe

nation.The1844BibleRiotsinPhiladelphialefttwentydead,twochurchesburnedtothe

30

ground,andhomesdestroyed.59Bythe1850’stherewasafarmorechallenging

demographicmixthananyoneexpected,whichopenedthedoortostronganti-immigrant

andanti-Catholicsentiments.ThesetensionsultimatelyledtothefoundingoftheNativist

AmericanpartyandtheKnow-Nothingparty.

TheKnow-Nothingpartygainedtractioninthe1850’sasananti-immigrant,and

anti-Catholicpartythattargetednon-responsivepoliticians.ThepartydislikedCatholicism

becauseofitsromanhierarchicalstructure,anti-republicanvaluesanditsaimtosubvert

governmentandcurbindividualfreedom.60TheKnow-Nothings,liketheFrench

revolutionaries,feltCatholicvaluesposedathreattothenation.TheKnow-Nothingswere

describedasapartythat“sprangfromthepeople,notprofessionalpoliticians”andasa

creationofapartyof“menoutsidepolitics.”61Thepeople,guidedbybigotryandnotfact,

feltthreatenedbyCatholicism.By1850TheCatholicChurchwasthesinglelargestreligious

bodyinAmerica.Thepresenceofthechurchcoupledwithfactthat40percentofsecond

waveimmigrantshailedfromIrelandincitedangerandresentmentamongnativists.62The

nativistsstressedthedisproportionatepresenceofIrishCatholicswhowerepoorand

criminalsandsoughttolimittheirpoliticalpowerbyspreadinganti-immigrant

propaganda.TheKnow-Nothingswonseveralelectionsonthisnativistplatformandgained

reasonablepopularity.WhentheRepublicanPartyfinallysupersededthemin1856,they

hadalreadyincorporatedsomeoftheKnow-Nothing’santi-immigrantrhetoric.By

absorbingtheanti-immigrantgeneintheRepublicanParty,theRepublicanswere

59"Irish-ReligiousConflictandDiscrimination."Immigration:Irish.LibraryofCongress.LibraryofCongress,n.d.Web.15Jan.2017.60Levine,Bruce.“Conservatism,Nativism,andSlavery:ThomasR.WhitneyandtheOriginsoftheKnow-NothingParty.”TheJournalofAmericanHistory,vol.88,no.2,2001,pp.455.Print.61Levine,Bruce,456.62"WavesofImmigrationinAmerica."WavesOfImmigrationInAmericaTimeline.Preceden,n.d.Web.18Jan.2017.

31

eventuallybrandedasthewhiteProtestantparty,atleastintheSouth.

Tothedetrimentofthenation,theRepublicanshadadoptedtheanti-immigrant

rhetoric.Thediscriminationbegantoextendtoseveralothergroups.In1924theU.S.

governmentimposedapolicythatwouldconstrainimmigrationthroughaquotasystem

andcompletebanofAsianimmigration.TheActsetatwopercentnationaloriginsquota

basedonthe1890U.S.censusdataandincludedaprovisionthatexcludedentryforany

alienbasedonraceornationality.Drivenbythefearthatimmigrantswouldnotassimilate,

politiciansimposedthesediscriminatorylaws.Themajorityoftheimmigrantstargeted

throughthequotawerethosewhopracticedareligionotherthanProtestantChristianity,

suchastheJews,theChinese,andtheIrishCatholic.Religiousdiscriminationwasbrought

totheforefrontintheimmigrationpoliciesofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury,

andwasnotcorrecteduntilitwaschallengedinthecourtsandoutlawedbythe1965

ImmigrationandNationalityAct.63

2.3U.S.ReligiousJurisprudence:SupremeCourtCases

Duringthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcenturytherearoseatensionbetween

officiallegalprinciplesandpopularandpoliticalmanifestationsofbigotryculminatingin

anefforttohavepopularimpulseembodiedinlaw.Simplyput,therighttofreedomof

religiondidnothavethefullweightoftheAmericanpeoplebehindit.InadditiontheBillof

Rightsdidnotyetapplytostatelaw,andasaresultseveralreligiousminoritieslostcases

intheCourts.

63The1965ImmigrationandNationalityActbarreddiscriminationonthebasisofnationaloriginandabolishedthe1924nationaloriginsquota.(source:"USimmigrationlegislationonline."U.S.ImmigrationLegislation:1965ImmigrationandNationalityAct(Hart-CellarAct).TheUniversityofWashington-BothellLibrary,n.d.Web.3Apr.2017.)

32

TheMormonswereonesuchgroup.TheMormonsfaceddisapprovalofbecause

theirvalueswereindirectoppositiontothoseofthefoundingnation.In1862theMorrill

ActmadetheMormonpracticeofpluralmarriageillegal.Thisactwouldprovidethebasis

toconvictReynoldsin1878.InReynoldsv.US,theSupremeCourtruledthatthefree

exerciseclausedidnotguaranteearighttopartakeinanillegalreligiouspractice.64In

sum,thecourtruledthatreligiousdutyisnotasufficientcriminaldefense.Inthecase,

Reynolds,aMormonman,waschargedwithviolatingtheanti-bigamyact.Inthislandmark

decisiontheCourtdistinguishedbetweenbeliefandpractice,holdingthatReynoldshadthe

righttobelievewhathewanted,buthecouldnotpracticeashepleasedifthatpractice

violatedacriminallawcreatedtoprotectthepublicgood.TheSupremeCourtestablished

thatthefederalgovernmentcouldinsomecircumstancesrestrictthereligiouslibertyof

thepeople.TheMormonscameunderattackbecausethecountryfelttheirvalueswere

hostiletothenation,justastheMuslimshavetoday.Thoughtheprohibitionofplural

marriagewasafairlyminorlimitoncivilliberties,itforeshadowedthefuture.Thiswasthe

firstofmanydecisionsthatgavethestategreatercontrolandimposedlimitsonthecivil

libertiesofthepeople.

AnotherindicationofthenewdirectionofU.S.jurisprudencewasthe1875Anti-

CatholicBlaineAmendment.Thoughtheamendmentwasshortafewvotes,itunderscored

thatthemajorityofCongresswasinfavorofstricterseparationofChurchandState.The

Amendment,whichtargetedCatholicparochialschools,statedthatnofederalfundswould

beallocatedtofundreligiousschoolsandthatnostatecouldestablishastatereligion.65

Thecourtscontinuedtoruleinfavorofstatesoftencitingpublicsafetyasabasisfortheir64Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford.2003.Web.14Jan.2017.65"WhatIsaBlaineAmendment?"Findlaw.FindLawLLCN.p.,n.d.Web.19Jan.2017.

33

decision.OnesuchexamplewasJacobsonv.Massachusetts(1905).InJacobson,theCourt

allowedthestatetoenforcetherequirementofthesmallpoxvaccinedespiteclaimsthat

thevaccineviolatedsomepeople’sreligiousbeliefs.66InBradfordv.Roberts(1899)the

DistrictofColombiaenteredintoacontractwithahospitalrunbyCatholicnuns.67The

contractwasupheldbecausethehospitalhadnoreligiouspurposeandservedtoprovide

allpeopleinthecommunitywithmedicalcare.Thecommonthemeinthesecaseswas

deferencetothestate.Congresscontinuedtoenactlawsthatdiscriminatedonthebasisof

religionandthecourtsdeferredtothestates,evadingthepromisesoftheFirstand

FourteenthAmendments.

Howevertheredidbeginamovementtoreconcilethetwofacetsoffreedomof

religion.InJacobsontheargumentmadebytheplaintiffwasdiscriminationonthebasisof

religion,inBradford,preferenceofonereligiontoanother.Toreconciletheseprinciplesthe

courtsbeganevaluatingapolicyofstrictseparation.The1946Eversonv.Boardof

Educationcasecoinedtheterm“strictseparationist”todescribeafavoringofnon-

establishmentofreligion.68Criticsofthetermchargethat“aseparationistperspective

imposesaregimeofsecularism,onethatisnotneutraltowardreligiousmattersbutthat

privatizesandmarginalizesreligion.”69ThemajorityinEversondisagreed.InEversonthe

courtappliedtheEstablishmentClausetostatelawthroughtheDueProcessClauseofthe

FourteenthAmendment.Bynarrowlyapplyingthelaw,thecourtfoundthatthestate’s

66Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.67Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.68Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."StanfordUniversity,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.69Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofAmericanHistory(2014):n.pag.OxfordResearchEncyclopedias.Web.12Jan.2017.)

34

fundingofCatholicschoolbussesdidnotviolatetheFirstAmendment.Thecriticsofstrict

separationwon,andsotheurgencyforanexplicitpolicyofstrictseparationdiminished.

Strictseparationsoughttoestablishsecularism.Butsecularismdidnotandhasnot

prevailedinournation.OnereasonforthiswastheColdWar.Inthewaragainstthe

communistsoviets,theAmericanpeoplebannedtogetherregardlessofindividualreligion

tofightatheisticcommunism.DianeKirbystatedthattheColdWarwas“aglobalconflict

betweenthegod-fearingandthegodless.”70ThethreattoAmericannationalsecuritywas

nolongerdomestic,andconsequentlythefocusshiftedfromimmigrantsandinternal

religiousminoritiestoforeignthreats.Theneedtodestroytheenemyandallthatitstood

forenhancedreligiouspluralismandmulticulturalismwithintheUnitedStates.

Themovetowardsreligioustolerancewasfurtheremphasizedbytheresponseto

theholocaust.AsareactiontotheNazigenocideandtheAmericans’guiltforintervening

toolate,therebeganadeclineinanti-Semitisminthe1940’s.Thiscombinedwith

invocationsof“Judeo-Christian”partnershipminimizedthedifferencesbetweenthetwo

religionsandhelpedtoincludeJudaismaspartofthecommonfaithofAmericans.71In

1963theSupremeCourtruledinfavoraJewishwomanwhohadarguedthatherplaceof

workhadviolatedtheFirstAmendmentbydenyingherunemploymentbenefitsfor

refusingtoworkontheSabbath.Inthiscase,Sherbertv.Vernerthecourtruledforthe

individualandforreligiousliberty.72Thisperiodofreligiouspluralismcultivatedanew

Americanspiritmoreinclusiveofreligion,atleastonthesurface.

70Kirby,Dianne.ReligionandtheColdWar.London:PalgraveMacmillan,2003.Print.(1).71“Religion-Thecoldwarandthefifthgreatawakening”EncyclopediaoftheNewAmerica.Web6Feb.2017.72Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."StanfordUniversity,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.

35

Theinclusivespiritdidnotlastlong.The1980’sand1990’ssawaneruptionof

conflictbetweentheU.S.andIslammarkedbyU.S.involvementintheIran-Iraqwar,the

riseoftheNationofIslamandactsofterrorcommittedbyMuslimradicals.Theseevents

ledtheU.S.tobecautiousofIslamandthosewhoidentifiedasMuslim.Thisperiodfrom

1980to2010willbeexploredatlengthinchapterfourandwillanalyzehowtheU.S.dealt

withthethreatofIslamandtheneedtoprotecttherighttoreligiousfreedom.

TheUnitedStatesandFrance,asdetailedinthefirsttwochapters,placedifferent

emphasisonfreedomofreligionandreligiousexpression.Theparadoxbeingwhileboth

countrieshaveestablishedfreedomofreligionasafoundingprinciple,theoutcomehas

beendissimilarateveryturn.TheUnitedStatesdidnotencounterthesamedifficultyasthe

Frenchdidofclashingwithonealreadyestablishedreligiousinstitution,insteadreligious

groupswithinthecountryclashed,exacerbatedbyhighratesofimmigration.Franceon

theotherhandwentthroughananti-clericalrevolutionand,strugglingtoemancipate

governmentandreligion,developedaregimeofsecularism.Whatbothcountriesdoshare,

though,isthisthreattotheirnationalidentityandpublicorderthatcausesthemtotighten

lawsagainstreligiousfreedom.TheFrenchmanifestationofthisfearismorepronounced

todaythoughithasonlybeenrealizedinthepolicyofthelastfiftyyears,whereasanti-

religiouspolicyhaspervadedAmericansocietysinceitsfounding,butwasthoughttohave

beenreconciledaftertheissueswiththeCatholics.

ThenextchapterwillexploretheFrenchconceptoflaïcitéandhowithasbeenused

tomanipulateFrenchpolicyandlimitreligiouspracticesthatthenon-MuslimFrench

identifyasathreat.

36

CHAPTER3:FREEDOMOFRELGIONV.LAICITÉINMODERNDAYFRANCE Aswehavenowseen,theFrenchandtheAmericansviewfreedomofreligionin

differentifnotopposingways.WhiletheFrenchsetouttocreateasecularnation,America

wasintheprocessofcreatingamulti-religiousone.Thischapterwillattempttoreconcile

lawsenactedandactionstakenbytheFrenchgovernmentthatappeartoprivilege

ChristianityoverIslam,andtargetthereligiousfreedomofthegrowingMuslim

population.73

3.1TheStartofUnfairApplicationofLaïcité

Thereisawidespreadbelief,ontheleft,amongMuslimsandamongadvocatesof

civillibertiesthatthelawsoflaïcitéhavebeenunfairlyappliedtotheMuslimpopulation.

Thisnotionisnotunsupported.Severaleventsinrecenthistoryprovideevidenceofunfair

application.In1996PopeJohnPaulIIvisitedthecityofTourstocommemoratethe

baptismofthefounderofFrance,theFrankishKingClovis.74Thestatefinancedhistrip

despitethedirectorderofthe1905lawthatthegovernmentshallnotfundreligious

events.PresidentChiracjustifiedtheactionarguingthatthePopewastheleaderofthe

VaticanstateandthespiritualleaderoftheFrenchpeople.Thegovernment’snonchalance

inmakingexemptionsforCatholicleaderscontradictstheprincipleoflaïcité,andisoneof

manygovernmentactionsthatshoweddeferencetoChristianreligions.

ThefrenzieddebateoverIslamandreligioussymbolsbeganaround1990.

Between1950and1989manyofFrance’scoloniesgainedindependence,whichdrovea

flowofMuslimimmigrationtoFrance.By1989,theMuslimpopulationofFrancehad

73RefertotheAppendix(pg102)fordataontheMuslimpopulationofFrance.74Bohlen,Celestine."PopeIsShowingStaminaonHisFrenchVisit."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,22Sept.1996.Web.06Mar.2017.

37

grownconsiderably,producingstrongeranti-Muslimsentiments.In1950therewasa

Muslimpopulationof230,000andby1980thenumberhadgrownto2.5million.75In

additiontothesignificantgrowth,MuslimshadsettleddisproportionatelyaroundParis

makingtheirpresencefarmoreapparentandstimulatingadebateabouttheirplacein

Frenchsociety.76

Itwasduringthistimethatperhapsthebest-knownexampletodateofunfair

applicationoftheprinciplesoflaïcitéoccurred.InwhatbecameknownasL’Affairedu

foulard,alsooftenreferredtoasthe1989headscarfcase,theprincipalofamiddleschoolin

Creil,asuburbofParis,expelledthreeteenagegirlsforrefusingtotakeofftheir

headscarves.Thoughhejustifiedtheactionbystatingtheexpulsionwasdone“inthename

ofrespectforlaïcité,”77hiscommentsafterthefactarefarmoretellingofhismotivations.

Theprincipalsaid,“theveilsareastrategytoIslamifytheyoungArabsofCreil.”78His

remarksarticulatedthestrongIslamophobiabeginningtospreadacrossFrance.Left-wing

opponentspointedout“itiscuriousindeedtoexpelgirlsfrompublicschoolsinthenameof

“integrating”themmorefullyintoFrenchsociety,”79highlightingtheduplicityofthe

expulsion.

Thecasegarnerednationalmediaattentionandsplitthecountrybetweenthe

supportersof“openlaïcité”andthefierceguardiansof“French”identity.Supportersofthe

expulsionarguedthattheveilsviolatedtherulesofsecularismandimposedreligiousideas

75Kettani,Houssain."MuslimPopulationinEurope:1950–2020."InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalScienceandDevelopment(2010):157.Web.76Taylor,Adam."Map:France’sgrowingMuslimpopulation."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,09Jan.2015.Web.14Apr.2017.77Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,03Feb.2017.Web.01Mar.2017.78Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."79Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."

38

onthestudentsattheschool.Theyalsomadetheargumentthatfromafeministperceptive

thebanwasbeneficialpolicythatwouldprotectgirlsfrombeingforcedtoweartheveilsby

thepatriarchalreligionofIslam.Thisargumentwasinvalidatedwhenthefatheroftwo

expelledsistersassuredthepressthathedidnotrequirethegirlstobeveiled,andwhen

thegirlsthemselvesreiteratedthattheyhadmadethedecisiontobeveiledontheirown.

Then,afterweeksofmediafrenzy,agovernmentofficialfinallyspokeup.Lionel

Jospin,thenMinisterofEducation,statedthatwhilestudentsmust“respectlaïcitébynot

wearingostentatiousreligioussymbols,”educationcomesfirst,and“schoolsexistto

welcomestudentsnottoexcludethem.”80Hiscommentsgeneratedafirestormofcriticism

fromhisownparty,theright,andthemedia,allofwhichaccusedhimoffavoringthe

Muslimcommunity.ThroughouttheaffairePresidentMitterrandremainedsilent,passing

thedecisionontotheConseild’État,thehighestadministrativejurisdictioninFrancethat

advisesandjudgestheexecutive.Threemonthslater,onNovember27,theConseild’État

presenteditsopinion:Studentswhowearreligioussymbolsarenotautomaticallyviolating

theprincipleoflaïcité,andthereforethedirectorsofschoolscanmakedecisionsonacase

bycasebasis.Therulingseemedtofavorthegirls,butbecausethecaselefttheultimate

interpretationandimplementationtoprincipalsandlocalschoolsboards,itleftroomfor

individualprejudice.ThemostimportantoutcomeofthecasewasthattheCourthad

determinedthepolicyitselfwasvalid.Itsconstitutionalitywoulddependonthesituation.

Intheyearsafterthedecision,theConseilConstitutionel(SupremeCourt)heard

manysimilarcases,oftenrulinginfavorofstudents’righttowearthereligiousgarb.In

fact,between1992and1999thecourtupheldstudents’rightstowearheadscarvesin84

80Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."

39

percentofcases.81Thecaseswereaboutmorethanreligiousrights,theybroughtfourmain

issuestotheforefront:“theroleofsecularisminthepublicschoolsystem;women’srights;

thespectreofafundamentalist,aggressiveIslamproselytisingFrance;andtheintegration

ofNorthAfricansandothernon-Europeanimmigrants.”82DanielleMitterrand,wifeof

PresidentMitterrand,reprimandedthecountryforbeingunwillingtoacceptreligions

otherthanChristianity200yearsaftertheRevolution.83ThepoliticalclimateofFrancedid

playasignificantroleintheFrenchreluctancetoaccepttheMuslimimmigrantcommunity.

SeveraleventscausedtheFrenchpeopletobewaryofMuslims.Awaveofterrorist

bombingshitParisinSeptemberof1986;threeFrenchhostagesweretakeninBeirut,

Lebanonin1986,andrelationswithIranwerefarfromamiable.84Theheadscarfcameto

beasymbolofIslamicdangertotheFrenchRepublic.Thesetensionsthoughtemporarily

resolvedwiththejudgmentoftheConseild’État,werefarfromlaidtorest.

3.2The2004ActonReligiousSymbolsa.k.a.TheHeadscarfBan

ThedebateonheadscarvesandIslamhasremainedasalienttopicinFrenchpolitics,

complicatedbyagrowingawarenessoftheMuslimpopulation.Inthenameoflaïcitéand

neutralityFrancedoesnotgatherreligiousdataonitspopulation.Howevermanyestimates

havebeenmadethat7to8percentoftheFrenchpopulationisMuslim,makingFrance

hometothelargestMuslimpopulationinEurope.85ThesizeoftheMuslimpopulationhas

notgoneunnoticed;in1999asurveyfoundthat51percentoftheFrenchpopulationfelt

81Bellar,ElisaT.,584.82Bellar,ElisaT.,586.83Bellar,ElisaT.,583.84"FrenchHostagesFreedinBeirut;BoonforChirac."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,04May1988.Web.03Mar.2017.85Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateandPublicSpace"."Review-A-Day.Powells.com,8Mar.2007.Web.01Mar.2017.

40

thereweretoomanyArabsinthecountry.Thissentimentnotonlycontinuedinto2003,

butgrewandre-emergedmoreopenlytowardsIslam,with73percentsupportingthe

headscarfban.86Inresponsetorisinganti-Muslimsentiment,PresidentChiracappointed

theStasiCommissiontoinvestigatehowtoadaptlaïcitétothemodernanddrastically

differentFrenchnation,andaddressbestpracticesconcerningtheheadscarfinschools.

In2003theStasiCommissionrecommendedaheadscarfbaninschools;thiswas

passedbyparliamentin2004byavoteof593-36with31abstentions.87Thelawprohibits

thewearingof“ostentatious”religioussymbolsinschoolsandifviolatedleaves

disciplinarydecisionsuptolocalschoolboards.Thevaguenessoftheterm“ostentatious”

wasnotaccidental.TheFrenchParliamentknewthattheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights

wouldrulethatacompletebanonreligioussymbolswasrestrictivetoreligiousfreedom.

TheFrenchParliamentthereforemadeacalculateddecisionwhenchoosingthelanguage

(particularlytheword“ostentatious”)ofthebanthatwouldenablethemtotargetwearers

oftheIslamicveil.

Anotherproblem,amongmany,wastheeasewithwhichParliamentwasableto

enactalawthatonitsfaceappeareddiscriminatory.Theproblemwasinstitutional.Prior

to2008theonlypartiesabletorequestaconstitutionalreviewofalawwerehigh-ranking

partymemberssuchasthepresidentoftherepublic,theprimeminister,thepresidentof

thenationalassemblyortheoneofthesixtysenators.Thepeoplehadnooutlettoprotest

nortocallintoquestionwhattheyfeltwasunjustlegislation,andnogovernmentofficial

feltinclinedtorefertheActof2004totheConseild’Étattohaveitsconstitutionality

determined.TheduplicityisunsurprisingconsideringthattherewasnotasingleMuslim86Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateandPublicSpace"."87BrittonD.Davis,124.

41

governmentofficialin2004,andthatthemajorityofparliamentconsistedofwhite

Christianmales.88Thegovernmentseemstoforgetthatlaïcitéwasdevelopedtoprotectthe

statefromreligiousconflict,yetthebanhasinsteadentrenchedthedivisionbetweenthe

Muslimsandthe“French.”

TheheadscarfaffairwasformanyFrenchMuslimsaconfirmationoftheirstatusas

outsiders,“pushingthemtowardsamoreradicalIslamthatislessaccommodatingwithlife

inthelatetwentiethcentury.”89AfterthelawpassedmanyMuslimgirlsbeganwearing

blackheadscarvesinplaceofthemorecommoncolorfulscarves,andjournalistsfacetiously

askedwhetherschoolswouldsoonbansilkscarvesfromHermès.

Alesswell-knownoutcomeofthelawwastheeffectithadonturbanwearingSikh

boysandthegovernment’sresponse.ThesmallSikhminorityofFrancehadneverbeen

viewedasathreattolaïcitéandasaresultthegovernmentdidnotconsiderimplicationsof

thelawonnon-threateningSikhs.WhentheMinistryofEducationeventuallyrealizedthat

thewearingofSikhturbansalsoviolatedthelaw,itquietlyofferedtopayfulltuitionforthe

Sikhsatprivateschools.TheMinistryofEducation’sdeviousactionstoaidonlytheSikhs

madetheultimatepurposeofthebanblatantlyobvious:thebanwascreatedtoassuagethe

publicandsendthesymbolicmessagethatFrancewouldfightagainstthedangersofIslam.

Inconclusion,theheadscarvesformanyofthenon-MuslimFrenchrepresentthe

generalrefusalofMuslimimmigrantstointegrateintosociety,aswellastheirparticipation

ininternationalterrorism,urbanviolence,andtheoppressionofwomen.Ultimately,the

FrenchpublicsawthebanasaprotectionagainstthegrowinginfluenceofIslam.

88"MuslimsinEuropeanPolitics."EuroIslamNewsandAnalysisonIslaminEuropeandNorthAmerica.N.p.,n.d.Web.03Mar.2017.89Malik,IftikharHaider.“IslamandModernity:MuslimsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.”London:PlutoPress,2004.

42

Unfortunately,thegovernmentfailedtoacknowledgethecasualtiesoftheban.The

majorityofthegirlsaffectedwereFrenchbornandrelativelynon-religious.Oneexampleis

Schérazade,ayoungMuslimgirlwhodidnotregularlyweartheveil,butdecidedtorisk

expulsionanddontheveilhersenioryearofhighschool.Forherthiswasanactofprotest

againsttherestrictive,discriminatory,andracistFrenchgovernmentwhowaslimitingher

righttoreligiousfreedom.Thisisonegirlbutthelargerpicturepaintsthesamestory.The

banhascausedover60,000studentstodropoutofpublicschoolseachyear.90Ittells

MuslimgirlswhohavegrownupinFranceandconsiderthemselvesFrenchthattheir

religionconflictswiththeirabilitytoeverbefullyFrench.IttellsthemFrenchsociety

rejectsthem.Andyet,thegovernmenthasattemptedtorationalizethebaninthenameof

neutralityandrespectforallreligions.

3.3RationalizingtheBan

DespiteworldwideagreementthattheheadscarfbanunjustlyaffectsMuslims,the

Frenchgovernmenthastriedtoarguethatitsimplementationwasdoneinthenameof

respectforallreligions.NicolasSarkozy,Frenchpresidentfrom2007to2012,addressed

thedisputeonlaïcitéina2009speech,assertingthat,“theproblemoftheburkaisnot

religiousproblem,it’saproblemofliberty.Itisnotareligioussymbol,it’sasymbolof

enslavement,it’sasymbolofhumiliation.”Hethencontinued,“Iwanttosaysolemnly,it

willnotbewelcomeonFrenchsoil.”91Sarkozybelievesthatalaïcbanisthesolution,

claimingthatlaïcité“istherespectofall[religious]opinionsandallbeliefs.”92His

commentswhenanalyzedinconjunctionarealmostcomical.Sarkozy’sstatementsare

90Malik,IftikharHaider.“IslamandModernity:MuslimsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.”91“UneLaïcitéSansVoile.”EspritÉditorialno.295.EspritPresse,Juin2003.Web.27Apr.2017.92“UneLaïcitéSansVoile.”EspritÉditorialno.295.EspritPresse,Juin2003.Web.27Apr.2017.

43

contradictory:thebandoesnottargetonereligionbutalsotheburkaisnotwelcomeon

Frenchsoil.Thoughtheburka,thefullbodyveilwithameshcoverfortheeyesandthe

niqabthefull-faceveilwhichleavesaslitfortheeyes,doformuchoftheworldsymbolize

theoppressionofwomen,itishardtounderstandhowabanofitisnotreligious

discrimination.Nevertheless,themajorityoftheFrenchagreedwithSarkozy’sstatements,

foroneoftworeasons.AteacherinaMuslimbanlieueofParisdiscussedthearguments

madeinthelawsthateliminatedreligiousteachinginschoolsin1881withherclass.The

classfoundthesameargumentsweremaderegardingthe2004debateontheveil.Shesaid

herstudentsweremovedwhentheyrealizedit“wasn’tjustsomethingagainstIslam,thatit

comesoutofatradition.”93ManyFrenchpeoplebelievethattheheadscarfbanisnecessary

topromotelaïcitéandequality.TheothergroupagreeswithSarkozyforalessnoble

reason:becausetheyseeheadscarvesasbeingjustastepremovedfromsuicidebombs,

especiallyafterSeptember11andthebombingsinMadridandLondon.Thedangerof

violentradicalIslammayexist,butitisnotclearhowtheheadscarfbaninschoolsandthe

limitonreligiouslibertywillhaveanyeffectinreducinganylegitimatethreat.Nonetheless,

theFrenchcontinuedtoexpandtheban,in2011banningfull-faceveilsinpublicspaces

placingarestrictiononattirethatmanyMuslimsconsiderareligiousobligation.

3.4S.A.S.V.FRANCE Theheadscarfcasescametoepitomizethenationaldebateonimmigration,security

andreligiousidentity.AstheMuslimpopulationgrew,especiallyaroundthecountry’s

capitalwherethepercentofMuslimshadreachedfifteencomparedtothenationalaverage

ofsevenpercent,theFrenchfeltincreasinglythreatened.Theperceivedchangecausedby

93Packer,George."TheOtherParis."TheNewYorker.TheNewYorker,31Aug.2015.Web.28Mar.2017.

44

thenewandgrowingMuslimpopulationcausedtheFrenchtofeelasthoughtheywere

losingapartoftheirnationalidentityandthattheirnationalsecuritywasatrisk.94

PresidentSarkozy’s2009remarksreflectedthisfearandsparkedParliamenttodive

deeperintotheburkadilemma.

In2010,aparliamentarycommissioncomprisedofthirty-twomembersreachedthe

conclusionthattheburkawasincompatiblewithsecularism,andaskedparliamentto

adoptaresolutionthatwouldrequirewomentokeeptheirfacesuncoveredwhenreceiving

publicservices.Withinayearparliamentpassedalawthatbannedthecoveringoftheface

(outlawingthewearingoftheniqabandburka)inallpublicplaces,withsupportfromthe

FrenchgovernmentandmanymainstreamMuslimorganizations.Francewasthefirst

Europeancountrytooutlawfull-faceveils.Onegroupthatstoodinstrongoppositiontothe

lawwasFrenchpolice.Policeunionsdidnotsupportthebanarguingitwouldbevery

difficulttoenforceandcouldcreateriots.95Othercriticssoughttopointoutthelaw’s

unproductiveness.Whenthelawwentintoeffectitwasestimatedtherewereaboutfive

millionMuslimsinFranceandthatabout2,000worethefull-faceveil.OliverRoy,anexpert

onpoliticalIslam,questioned,“Whytargetsomethingwhichinfactisanexceptionandonly

concernshundredsofwomen-mostofthemconvertsinFrance?It'snotamovementof

supportfortheburka,butafeelingofdiscrimination."96Thediscriminatoryaspectishard

toignore.Furthermore,thepenaltiesofthelawseektopunishthemenwhotheFrench

Governmentsaysforcewomentobeveiled.Ingeneraltermsthelawstatesthataperson

94Taylor,Adam."Map:France’sgrowingMuslimpopulation."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,09Jan.2015.Web.14Apr.2017.95Erlanger,Steven."FranceEnforcesBanonFull-FaceVeilsinPublic."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,11Apr.2011.Web.05Feb.2017.96Cigainero,Jake."FiveYearsintoBan,BurqaDivideWidensinFrance."DW.com.DeutscheWelle,4Oct.2016.Web.12Apr.2017.

45

maynotwearaveilinpublicspace,andthatifwornshemaybeaskedtoremoveit.Ifthe

weareroftheveildoesnotcomplyshewillbefinedapproximately130eurosorjailed,and

evenifshecompliesandremovestheveilshewillbesubjecttoapublichearing.For

anyonewhoforcesanotherpersontowearaveilthepenaltyisfarharsher,resultinginone

yearofjailtimeanda30,000eurofine.97Thedifferenceintheseverityofpunishment

betweenmenandwomenwhoviolatethelawreflectstheopinionoftheFrench

policymakerswhobelievetheyaresavingMuslimwomenfromoppression.However,not

everyoneagreedwiththisviewortheconstitutionalityofthelaw,whichledtothefamous

2011S.A.S.v.Francecase.

Thelawoutlawingfull-facecoveringswasquicklycalledintoquestionforviolating

therighttofreedomofreligionandfreeexpression.Muslimsandsupportersofreligious

freedomresistedthepolicy.ThesamedaythelawwentintoforceinAprilof2011,a24-

year-olddevoutMuslimFrenchwomanfiledanapplicationwiththeEuropeanCourtof

HumanRights(ECtHR)declaringthatthelawwasaviolationofherrights.Thewoman

whoallowedthecourttodiscloseonlyherinitialsisknownasS.A.S..Inherapplication

S.A.S.emphasizedthatfreefrompressureshehadchosentoweartheveilandthatshedid

notweartheveilatalltimes,onlywhenshefeltitwasnecessarytoexpressherreligion

andherpersonalandculturalfaith,forexampleduringRamadan.Plainlyput,thebanon

veilsinpublicplacesconstrainsthefreedomofwomenwhowearveilsorwhomaywantto

wearveilsinthefuture.WiththosedetailsinmindS.A.S.arguedthatthelawviolated:

article9(freedomofreligion),article10(freedomofexpression),article8(privacy),article

97Guepratte,Étienne."LaRépubliqueSeVitàVisageDécouvert."LaRépubliqueSeVitÃVisageDécouvert.LeServiceD’informationDuGouvernement.Web.02Feb.2016.

46

14(freedomfromdiscrimination),article3(non-subjectiontodegradingtreatment)and

article11(freedomofassembly)oftheEuropeanDeclarationofHumanRights.

Thecourtfoundseveraloftheclaimsinadmissibleanddecidedtoinvestigatesolely

onthebasisoftherighttofreedomofreligionandtherighttoprivacy.Thelawwasupheld

withfifteenofseventeenjudgesfindingtheburkabannecessaryinademocraticsocietyto

protecttherightsandfreedomofothers.TheFrenchattributegreatimportancetothe

decidingprincipleof“vivreensemble”(livingtogether).Thisargumentof“livingtogether”is

inherentlybiased.Itfavorsassimilationinthetugofwarbetweenassimilationand

multiculturalism.Thetwodissentingjudgesinthecasefoundtheconceptof“living

together”problematic,statingthatthebanmakesa“mockeryoffreedomofexpression…

andtherighttoidentityorpersonality.”98Theiropinionsechothoseofadvocatesofcivil

libertieswhoagreethatthebanleadsFranceandtheECtHRdownaslipperyslopewhere

themajorityhastheabilitytorejectformsofexpressionitdoesnotidentifywith.The

courtitselfsaidtherewasa“resultingriskofabuse.”99Thedangersseemdifficultto

reconcile,butasJoshA.Bowenexplains,“TheRepublicisbasednotonasharedfaith,but

onafaithinthepossibilitiesofsharingalifetogether,despitevastdifferencesin

appearance,history,andreligiousideas.”100Evenifthisistrue,therecomesapointwhen

theFrenchmustevaluateiftheyhavetippedthebalancebetweenthevaluesofliving

togetherandthoseofademocraticsocietysuchaspluralism,individualismand

98Marshall,J."S.A.S.vFrance:BurqaBansandtheControlorEmpowermentofIdentities."HumanRightsLawReview15.2(2015):378.Print.99Marshall,J,378.100Bowen,JohnRichard.WhytheFrenchDon'tlikeHeadscarves:Islam,theState,andPublicSpace.Princeton:PrincetonUP,2007.Print.

47

multiculturalism.TheS.A.S.decisiontippedthescaleagaininthewrongdirection

threateningthereligiouslibertiesoftheFrenchpeople,primarilythoseofMuslims.

ThedecisionalsohighlightedthedifferencesbetweentheFrenchandU.S.legal

frameworks.InS.A.S.v.FrancethecourtsaiditwasunabletofindaEuropeanconsensusas

towhetherthereshouldbeablanketbanofthefull-faceveilinFrance.Thiswasdespitethe

factthatonlytwooutof47countrieshavechosentoimposeaban,suggestingthereisin

factconsensus.ThisledthecourttoadoptawidemarginofappreciationtoFrench

authoritiesandthereforefindanon-violationofArticle9[righttoreligiousfreedom].

WhendeterminingifthebanviolatedArticle9’s,theECtHRconsideredfourquestions:

1)Wastherealimitationofthefreedomtomanifestreligion?

2)Wasthelimitationprescribedbylaw?

3)Wasitnecessaryinademocraticsocietytoprotectthepublic?

4)Wasthelimitproportionaltothegoal?

Thesequestionsfavorthegovernmentandputanemphasisontheburdentosociety.In

theU.S.claimsofviolationofreligiousfreedomareweightedagainstthreequestions:

1)Isthereasubstantialburdenimposedontheplaintiff?

2)Wastheburdeninthegovernment’scompellinginterest?

3)Wastheburdentheleastrestrictivemeans?101

Thesethreequestions,thoughsimilartotheFrenchstandard,projectastricterviewofa

reasonableburdenandfavortheindividualmakingtheclaim.Thedifferenceinlegal

frameworkbetweentheU.S.andtheECtHR,whichdeferstopolicyofthecountryagainst

101Cismas,IonaandCammarano,Stacy.“WhoseRightandWho’sRight?TheU.S.SupremeCourtv.TheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsonCorporateExerciseofReligion.”TheBostonUniversityInternationalLawJournal.Vol.34,No.1.2016.Print.

48

whoaclaimismade,explainswhyFrancehaspassedalawthatwouldbyU.S.standardsbe

consideredaformofreligiousdiscrimination.

LuckilyfortheMuslimpopulationandforthemoreopen-mindedFrenchpeople,the

reversalofthe2016burkinibanmarkedawelcomeshift,tippingthebalanceinfavorof

religiousrightsfortheindividual.Italsomarkedthenewfoundpolicyofthecourtthat

acknowledgedanddecidedthatanxietiesoverterrorismshouldnotmotivate

policymaking.Thosecaseswillbeexaminedindetailinchapter5toprovideacomparative

analysis.ThenextchapterwillexaminehowtheUnitedStateshashandleddiscrepanciesof

therighttoreligiousfreedominthelastfiftyyears.

49

CHAPTER4:COMBATINGISLAMINTHEUNITEDSTATESANDDISPUTESOVERTHERIGHTTORELIGIOUSFREEDOM InFrancethechallengeofbalancingIslamandreligiousfreedomhasbeen

manifestedprimarilythroughthedebateonlegislationoutlawingheadscarves.Inthe

UnitedStatestheapproachtoregulatingIslamanddisplaysofIslamhasbeenfarmore

varied.ThesecondchaptersetuptheparadigmofreligiousfreedomfromEnglish

settlementtothe1980’s.ThischapterwillcovertheperiodintheU.S.(1980to2009)that

sawariseofIslamophobia.Thisperiodwascharacterizedbyhostagecrises,terrorist

bombings,andconflictintheMiddleEast,whichresultedinthedemandbyAmericansfor

policiesthatrestrictcivillibertiesandtreattheMuslimpopulationasathreat.Next,the

chapterwillexaminetheperiodfrom2010to2015,duringwhichtherewasashiftinthe

AmericanpoliticalregimeofopenhostilitytowardsMuslimsandexaminetheensuing

limitsonreligiousfreedom.Finally,thischapterwillanalyzehowtheU.S.hasdealtwiththe

challengeofmaintainingpublicsafetyornationalsecuritywhilebalancingtherightto

religiousliberty.102

4.1InstillingFear:TerrorandConflictintheMiddleEast

AnAmericanin1979turnsontheradioandhearsabouttheanti-westernIslamic

revolutioninIranandthecaptureinIranof52Americanhostages.Theviolencecontinues

into1983whenU.S.embassyinKuwait,andMarinebarracksinBeirut,arebombed,allof

theseactscarriedoutbyIslamicmilitantgroups.Throughoutthecountrythisraisedanti-

IslamicsentimentsandfearofMuslimsthathadlaindormantforyears.103Closertohome,

102RefertotheAppendix(pg102)fordataontheMuslimpopulationoftheU.S.103Islamophobiahasbeenpresentsincethecountry’sfounding.TheOttomanWarscreatedfearofMuslimsbackthen.Thoughthefearhaslaindormant,feelingsofislamophobiahaveremainedintheculturalbackground.SowhentheIranianrevolutionbrokeout,Americans,whoknewnothingaboutIranbutdid

50

theNationofIslamwascrumblingasresultofitsreputationasaviolentBlackNationalist

organization.ThoughmostMuslimsdonotconsidertheNationofIslamtobe

representativeoftrueIslam,andinsteadconsidertheNation’sbeliefscontrarytothoseof

Islam,theAmericanpublicfoundanotherreasontodisapproveofthereligion.Adecade

laterin1993agroupofIslamicextremistsattemptedtobombtheWorldTradeCenter.

Theseeventsstirredanti-Muslimsentiments.

4.2Effectsof9/11:AnattackonCivilLiberties

Iftheanti-Muslimsentimentofthe1980’sand90’sseemedstrong,after2001it

grewexponentiallyinpublicopinion.TheSeptember11,2001,terrorattackswerethe

eventthatmostdrasticallychangedthecourseforMuslimsinAmerica.Thebombings,

carriedoutbyextremistsinthenameofIslam,createdafierceanti-Muslimcampaign

acrossAmerica.Thiscampaignofanti-Muslimsentiment,unlikeafter2010,wasnot

evidencedinreligiouspolicybutinprivacypolicy.ItcausedmanyAmericansthroughout

thenationtoquestion,hateandfearMuslims.Onemeasurablemanifestationofthefear

wasthe1600percentincrease(28to481)inanti-Muslimhatecrimesfollowingthe

September11,attacksasreportedbytheFBI.104MuslimAmericanassociationsdenounced

theattacksandtriedtoreassuretheirAmericanfriendsandneighborsthatthe

perpetratorsofthehorrificattackwerenottrueMuslimsbutwereradicalextremistswho

hadpervertedtheirreligion.TheyflewAmericanflagsasasignofsupportandinvited

AmericatolearnmoreaboutIslam.SomeMuslimsandAmericanstooktheopportunityto

knowabouttheviolenthistoryoftheMuslims,onceagainbecameIslamophobic.(Source:PeterGottschalk-ProfessorofReligionatWesleyanUniversity.LectureatTrinityApr.112017.)104"Data:HatecrimesagainstMuslimsincreasedafter9/11."PublicRadioInternational.PRI,12Sept.2016.Web.07Feb.2017.

51

learnandwriteaboutIslam,butunfortunatelymanymoreanti-Muslimindividuals

distortedthetruthandspreadmythsandbigotryvilifyingallMuslims.

Theculminationoftheanxietybroughtonby9/11wasthe2001PatriotAct.Passed

just45daysaftertheSeptember11thattacks,thePatriotActmadechangestosurveillance

lawsallowingthegovernmenttospyonAmericans,listentophonecalls,monitoremail,

collectbankinformation,andtrackinternetmovement.Itspassagebeggedanimportant

policyquestion:wereAmericanswillingtogiveuptheircivillibertiesinthenameof

nationalsecurity?Theanswerwasyes,64percentpolledapprovedofthelaw.105In

Washington,politiciansagreed.ThePatriotActpassedbyavoteof98to1intheSenate

and357to66intheHouse.106The67constitutionaldefendershadlostout.Many

Americanssawthislegislationasanappropriatereactiontotheworstterrorattackto

happenonU.S.soil.Otherssawthisasadangerousrestrictionofcivillibertiesthatwould

allowthegovernmenttoencroachonthelivesofmillionsofinnocentAmericans.One

purposeoftheActwastoallowtheFBItograntNationalSecurityLettersinplaceof

traditionalsearchwarrantsissuedbyjudges.TheseNSL’swerefareasiertoobtainwith

lessevidencethanneededforatraditionalwarrant,promptingmiscarriagesofjustice.The

FBIissued192,499NSL’sbetween2003and2005withonlyoneleadingtoaterrorrelated

conviction.107

Anotheraspectofthelawwasthe“sneakandsearch”componentthatenabled

federallawenforcementagenciestosearchpropertywithoutgivingnoticetotheowner

untilweekslater.Ofthesesearcheslessthanonepercentendedupbeingterrorrelated.It105Saad,Lydia."AmericansGenerallyComfortableWithPatriotAct."Gallup.com.Gallup,02Mar.2004.Web.07Apr.2017.106"WhoStoodforConstitutionalLibertiesandVotedAgainsttheUSAPATRIOTActin2001?"DailyKos.N.p.,7June2013.Web.07Apr.2017.107"SurveillanceUnderthePatriotAct."AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.ACLU..n.d.Web.07Feb.2017.

52

alsohappenedthatalargeportionofAmericansmonitoredwereofMuslimfaithorhadties

toMuslimmajorityArabcountries.TakeforexampleBenKahla,anAmericanwith

aspirationsofbeingadiplomatwhowasstudyingatUniversityinSaudiArabiawhenthe

FBIarrestedhim.TheFBIhadKahla“shackled,blindfoldedanddressedinaGuantanamo-

orangejumpsuitbeforebeingdriventojailinWashingtonunderfullpoliceescort”where

theyheldhimforamonth,accusedofhavinglinkstothe“Virginiajihad”andindictedhim

onthreeseparateoccasionsevenafterreceivingthefirstnot-guiltyverdict.108The

GovernmentandFBImadetheargumentthatinordertoprotectAmericancitizensthey

neededtobeabletomonitorthemmoreclosely.Theyalsoarguedthatthistemporary

infringementontherightsofAmericancitizenswouldhelpfederallawenforcementto

catchterrorists.Thedatashowsthiswasuntrue.InsteadtheUnitedStatescompromisedits

corevaluesandunfairlyappliedthelawonitsMuslimpopulation.ThetacticsofthePatriot

ActandthetortureofMuslimprisonersatAbuGhraibandGuantanamoincluding

intentionalmishandlingsoftheQuran,notonlytarnishedthereputationofAmericaabroad

butinflamedanti-Americansentimentscreatingthepotentialformoreterrorattackson

U.S.soil.

TheactionsbroughtbythePatriotAct,thoughinvasiveandcontrarytoAmerican

valuesandpromisesofindividualfreedom,werenotillegal.TheactionstakenbytheNYPD

tosurveyMuslimcommunities,includingstudentassociations,mosques,businesses,

communityleadersandindividuals,were.TheintelligencedivisionoftheNYPDillegally

monitoredandwatchedMuslimcommunitiesintheNewYorkAreaandevencommunities

morethan100milesawayinPennsylvania,ConnecticutandNewJersey.Justreadingthe

108Cuffe,Jenny."USMuslims'alienatedbyPatriotAct'"BBCNews.BBC,04July2006.Web.3Jan.2017.

53

nameofthereport,“RadicalizationintheWest:TheHomegrownThreat,”109itbecomes

clearthattheinvestigationwascreatedunderthepretensethatMuslimsposearisktoU.S.

nationalsecurity.ThereporttreatsanyonewithtiestoIslamassuspiciousandmonitors

peopleinMuslimcommunitiesregardlessofanywrongdoingorprobablecause.Thisillegal

investigationbeganin2002butcontinuedinto2006and2007whenofficersevenwentto

collegeanduniversitycampuseswheretheyinfiltratedMuslimStudentAssociations

hopingtofindstudentswithtiestoterrorcells.110Theycameupemptyhanded.Thisillegal

practicehasbeengoingonsincethe1980’s.Thoughthis2006breachofcivillibertiesdid

notconstitutearestrictionofreligiousfreedom,thestudentsandcommunitiesmonitored

felttheeffectsintheirabilitytopracticefreelyandfreefromworry.Thewitch-huntfor

terroristsinMuslimcommunitiesbasedontheunfoundedrelationshipbetweenthosewho

practicedIslamandthosewhowerepotentialterroristshadsignificantconsequencesfor

AmericanMuslims.Manynolongerfeltsafeorwelcomedintheirowncountry.Thespiral

ofIslamophobiadidnotendthere.

4.3LimitsonReligiousFreedom

TheSeptember11thattackshadanothereffectonMuslimsinAmerica;itbeganthe

short-liveddebateonheadscarves.SeveralofthehijackershadobtainedFloridadriver’s

licensespromptingtheFloridaDepartmentofHighwaySafetytoreviewitsdriver’slicense

system.TheMiamiHeraldreportedontheissueinanarticleentitled“TighterSecurityMay

109"Factsheet:TheNYPDMuslimSurveillanceProgram."AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.ACLU.,n.d.Web.21Jan.2017.110Hawley,Chris."NYPDMonitoredStudentMuslimStudentsalloverNortheast.”AssociatedPress.AP,18Feb.2016.Web.2Mar.2017.

54

MeanMoreStrictDriver’sLicenseRules.”111Therequirementtoremoveheadscarvesfor

photoidentificationappearedtohavebeenimplementedingoodfaith.Therewasa

legitimatesecuritythreatandthemostpracticalsolutionwastoimplementapolicythat

wouldallowformorecarefulandpreciseidentification.However,SultaanaFreemandid

notagree,andwiththehelpoftheACLUshefiledaclaiminJanuaryof2002expressing

thatFloridahadviolatedherrighttoreligiousfreeexercise.Thesuitwasheardbefore

JudgeThorpeinFlorida’scircuitcourt.JudgeThorperuledthatthedemandtolifttheveil

didnotposeasubstantialburdentoFreeman’sreligiousliberty,andfurthermorethatthe

State’sneedtoidentifydriversoutweighedherneedtoweartheveil.Themediawerenot

shyinvoicingsupportfortheState.JournalistsinsultedFreemanlabelingherasan

extremistwhowasactingfoolishly.Themediaignoredthefactthatseveralsimilarcases

hadbeendecidedinfavoroftheplaintiffandhisorherrighttoreligiousexercise.Thislimit

onthecivillibertiesofoneMuslimwomanwasonecaseofmanythathighlightedthe

newfoundsenseofanxietytowardsMuslimswhowerethoughttothreatennational

security.However,unlikeinFrancetheheadscarfissuedidnotsurpassthequestionof

drivers’licensesandidentificationphotos.

Thiscaseisfascinatingforanotherreason:itisoneofthefewdecidedinasimilar

veintotheFrenchheadscarfcases.JudgeThorpefoundthatFlorida’sdemandthat

Freemanremovetheveildidnotposeasignificantburdentoherrightreligiousexercise.

Furthermore,JayVailaFloridaAssistantAttorneyGeneral,inastatementthatcouldhave

beentakenrightoutoftheFrenchheadscarfdecisions,said,“Whenthereisamatterof

commoninterestthatpromotespublicsafety,thenwemustyieldonourrighttofree

111Rothstein,Adam."JihadforJournalists."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Spring2003.Web.3Jan.2017.

55

exercisetotheextentthatit’snecessarytosecurethatpublicsafetyinterest.”112This

decisionpicksupontheFrenchidealsof“livingtogether”whichwereusedtojustifythe

headscarfbaninSASv.France.ThisrhetoricdidnotgaintractionintheU.S.buthasgained

tractionEurope.InaMarch2017articlepublishedintheUKSpectator,aEuropeanMuslim

woman,QantaAhmed,advocatedforabanonveils.Shebelievesthatthebanisactually

goodforeveryone,includingMuslims.Shepointedoutthat“There’snothingfromtheearly

Islamicperiodaboutwhatthekhimar—orveil—shouldcover,whetherface,bodyorhair.

TheQuran,inSura24:31,remindsMuslimwomensimplyoftheneedto‘draw…[it]over

theirbosoms’.”113Whilethisinformationisimportant,shemissesthepoint.Itdoesnot

matterwhethertheQuranexplicitlyrequireswearingoftheveil,whatmattersisthatifa

personfeelsastrongcommitmenttoadoptacertainreligiouspracticetheyfeeliscentralto

theirreligion,theyshouldhavetherighttodoso.Howeverthishasnotalwaysbeenthe

case.

TheU.S.hasnotalwayssupportedreligiousexemptionandaccommodation.Infact

inthe1990SmithdecisiontheSupremeCourtheldthatalthoughthegovernmenthasthe

powertoaccommodatereligiouspracticeandbeliefs,itisnotrequiredtowhenthe

practiceorbeliefisinbreachofthelaw.Inthe1990landmarkSupremeCourtdecision,the

CourtheardtheargumentsoftheEmploymentDivisionofOregon,whoargueditdidnot

havetopaytheunemploymentbenefitsofSmithwhohadbeenfiredforsmokingpeyote

duringareligiousceremony.114Thecourtruledthatbecausepeyotewasillegalevenfor

112Rothstein,Adam."JihadforJournalists."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Spring2003.Web.3Jan.2017.113Ahmed,Qanta."AsaMuslim,Istronglysupporttherighttobantheveil."TheSpectator.TheSpectator,16Mar.2017.Web.18Mar.2017.114"EmploymentDivisionv.Smith."LII/LegalInformationInstitute.CornellUniversityLawSchool,n.d.Web.22Mar.2017.

56

sacramentaluseunderstatelaw,theUnemploymentDivisionwasjustifiedindenyingthe

benefits.TheCourtexplainedthatithasneverheldthatanindividuals’religiousbeliefs

excusehim/herfromcomplyingwithanotherwisevalidlaw.Thecourtexplainedthata

rulinglikethatcouldleadtoaprivaterighttoignoregenerallyapplicablelawscreatinga

constitutionalanomalythatwouldbehardtouphold.Bygrantingdeferencetothestate

thisdecisionmarkedamoveawayfromapolicyofmoreopenreligiousfreedomtoamore

restrictivepolicyofreligiousfreedom.Nevertheless,theprecedentestablishedinSmithdid

notlastverylong.

4.4AnEraofReligiousBasedLegislation

InresponsetotheSmithdecision,Congressnearlyunanimouslypassedthe

ReligiousFreedomRestorationAct,whichPresidentClintonsignedintolawin1993.RFRA

statesthat“governmentshallnotsubstantiallyburdenaperson’sexerciseofreligioneven

iftheburdenresultsfromaruleofgeneralapplicability,”unlesstherestrictionis“in

furtheranceofacompellinggovernmentalinterest”andis“theleastrestrictivemeansof

furtheringthatcompellinginterest.”115Thecreatorofthelawfeltthat“thecompelling

interesttestassetforthinpriorFederalcourtrulingsisaworkabletestforstriking

sensiblebalancesbetweenreligiouslibertyandcompetingpriorgovernmental

interests.”116ThecompellinginteresttestcomesfromSherbertv.Verner(1963).Thetest

wasdescribedas:“ifapersonclaimedasincerereligiousbelief,andagovernmentaction

placedasubstantialburdenonthatbelief,thegovernmentneededtoproveacompelling

115Cismas,Ioana,andStacyN.Cammarano.116Bomboy,Scott."WhatisRFRAandwhydowecare?"ConstitutionDaily.NationalConstitutionCenter,30June2013.Web.18Mar.2017.

57

stateinterest,andthatitpursuedthatactionintheleastburdensomeway.”117WithRFRA

inplaceCongresshopedtheAmericanpeoplewouldbesecureintheirrighttoreligious

freedomandpractice.

ThevictorygrantedbythepassageofRFRAwasinsomewaysshortlived.InBoerne

v.Flores(1997)theSupremeCourtstruckdownRFRAasunconstitutionalarguingthat

congresshadoversteppeditsbounds.ArchbishopFloreshadbroughtsuitagainstthecity

ofBoerne,Texasforrefusingtogivehimapermittobuildachurch.Thefactsofthecase

areinsignificant;thebasisforrulingwastheconstitutionalityofRFRA,andtheCourtstated

CongressdidnothavethepowerundertheFourteenthAmendmenttoapplyRFRAtothe

statesandtheirlocalordinances.118Thisledin2000tothecreationofyetanotherlaw:The

ReligiousLandUseandIncarceratedPersonsAct(RLUIPA).LikeRFRA,RLUIPAwaspassed

unanimouslyandwiththefullsupportofPresidentClinton.In2000,thecountrywas

committedtoprotectingreligiousfreedomforeveryone.TheActwasdesignedtoprotect

religiousorganizationsfromdiscriminatoryzoningandlanduselaws.Itbars

discriminationbasedonreligion,requiresallreligiousgroupstobetreatedequaltonon-

religiousplacesofassembly,andobligesthestatetoprovideproofofcompellinginterestif

anyzoningorlandmarkactionsimpartasubstantialburdenonareligiousgroup.119

Overthelast14yearsRLUIPAhashelpedmanyMuslimssafeguardtheirrightto

religiousfreedom,howeverwhentheactwaswrittenitwasnotespeciallyintendedtoaid

Muslims;mosqueswerehardlymentioned.Priorto9/11levelsofdiscriminationtowards

Muslimsremainedfairlylow.Therewasnopressingneedtocreatelegislationthatwould

protectMuslims.Post9/11therewasastarkcontrastastensionsrose.In2001the117Bomboy,Scott."WhatisRFRAandwhydowecare?"118"CityofBoernev.Flores."Oyez.Oyez,n.d.Web.22Mar.2017119Cismas,Ioana,andStacyN.Cammarano.

58

DepartmentofJusticeinvestigated421hatecrimesagainstMuslimsascomparedto28the

yearbefore.120FormanyAmericanMuslimsRLUIPAcameatacrucialtime.

AfterthepassageofRFRAandRLUIPA,religiouszoningissuesappearedtobefor

themostpartreconciledbetweencitiesandreligiousgroups.InBoston,theBoston

RedevelopmentAuthoritywithsupportfromMayorMeninoandotherCityofBoston

officialssoldtheIslamicSocietyaparceloflandtobeusedtobuildamosque.Thoughthe

salewasmetwithhostilityduetothewellunder-marketpricethecityhadgiventhe

IslamicSociety,thesalewentthrough.121However,resentmentgrewprovokingone

RoxburyresidenttofileasuitagainsttheCityandtheIslamicSocietyforviolatingthe

constitutionalprincipleofseparationofChurchandState.Toaddtothefire,theownership

ofthemosquewastransferredfromanAfrican-AmericanMuslimgrouptoasuburban-

basedMuslimgroupwithtiestoSaudiArabiaandotherMiddleEasterncountries.Thisnew

group,theIslamicSocietyofBoston,wasknownforitsbaseofconservativeMiddleEastern

MuslimsandwassuspectedofhavingtiestoIslamicextremists.Infactmultiplemembers,

includingISB’sfounderAbdulrahmanAlamoudiwhowasconvictedforbeinganAlQaeda

financier,andtheTsarnaevbrotherswhocarriedouttheBostonMarathonBombing,had

beenfoundtohavetieswithAlQaedaandotherIslamicextremistOrganizations.122

Nonetheless,theCity,perhapsoutoffearofappearingIslamophobicorviolatingRLUIPA,

allowedthemosquetobebuilt.TheresultofthecontroversyoverthemosqueofBoston

120Treene,EricW."UnderstandingtheImpactoftheReligiousLandUseandInstitutionalizedPersonsAct."ZoningandMosques-AmericanBarAssociation.ThePublicLawyer,Winter2015.Web.23Mar.2017.121Estes,Andrea."Councilorsurgeprobeoflandsaleformosque."Boston.com.TheBostonGlobe,06Oct.2004.Web.13Feb.2017.122"TheIslamicSocietyofBoston'sBuildingControversy."CounterJihad.Counterjihad.,11Aug.2015.Web.03Mar.2017.

59

pointstothegrowingdeferencetoreligiousorganizationsafterthepassageoftheRFRA

andRLUIPA.

Asidefromtheresidualeffectsof9/11,the2000’ssawfewattacksonthereligious

freedomofMuslimsinlargepartbecausePresidentBushkepttheMuslimdilemmafrom

becomingapartisanissue.Tothecontrary,in2007theUnitedStateselecteditsfirst

MuslimCongressman,DemocratKeithEllisonofMichigan.Ayearlaterin2008Andre

CarsonaDemocratfromIndianawassworninonJefferson’sQuran.123Unfortunately,this

periodofreligiousacceptancecametoahaltwhenPresidentBushlefttheWhiteHousein

2009.BushhadmadeaconsciousefforttokeepIslamophobiaatbay,butwithhis

departureandtheelectionofaDemocraticPresident,theRepublicanPartywasfreedofthe

responsibilitytomaintainawelcomingandopenfronttowardsIslam.Instead,the

RepublicanPartyexplicitlyexpressedhostilitytowardsIslamandframeditasapartisan

issue.Theyear2010markedasadruptureintheAmericanpoliticalregime:nolonger

wouldbothpartiesbeunitedinprotectingreligiouslibertyforallcitizens.

4.5The2010PolicyShift:OpenHostilityTowardsMuslims

After2010itbecameclearthatitwasnotjusttheRepublicanswhofeltastrong

needtocontrolandlimitthepoweroftheMuslimpopulation,butsodidmuchofthe

generalpopulation.Thelatentanti-Muslimsentimentthathadsurgedinthemonthsafter

9/11hadre-merged.TheshiftinpoliticswasreflectedintheattitudesoftheAmerican

peoplewhobroughtsuitsagainstMuslims,burnedQuransandattemptedtobanSharia

law.Andthere’ssignificantempiricaldatatosupporttheclaimthatanideologicaland

123Karim,TalibI."SecondMuslimTakesHisSeatintheHouseofRepresentatives."TheMuslimLink.TheMuslimLink,01Apr.2008.Web.20Mar.2017.

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attitudinalshiftoccurred.PewreportsthatMuslimshadahigherapprovalratingshortly

after9/11thanin2010.124DataonhatecrimesandRLUIPAcasesshowadramaticincrease

inhostilitytowardsMuslimsafter2010.OfthefortyRLUIPAcasesinvolvingmosquesor

Islamicschoolstwenty-onewereopenedafter2010.TheEqualEmploymentOpportunity

Commissionreceivedarecord803complaintsfromMuslimworkersin2009,afigurethat

isuptwentypercentfromthepreviousyear.125Inadditiontotheincreaseinsheer

number,areportbytheInstituteforSocialPolicyandUnderstandingfoundthatthe

mannerofprotesthadchanged.126NolongerwasoppositiontoMuslimsbeingvoicedinthe

controlledenvironmentsofpublicsessionsandtownhallmeetings,anti-Islamicgroups

tooktheirprotesttothestreets.

ThehostilitytowardsMuslimswasmanifestedinthestreetsofNewYork.The

displayofanti-Muslimsentimentsexpressedinlandusecontroversyoverthebuildingof

mosquesdrewnationalattention,mostnotablyfortheso-calledGroundZeroMosquein

LowerManhattanandtheMurfreesboroIslamicCenterinTennessee.Inbothofthesecases

theoppositionresortedtodrasticmeasures.Whenplanswereannouncedtobuilda

MuslimCommunitycenterfourblocksfromtheGroundZerositetenyearsafter9/11there

begananemotionallychargeddebate.Attheoutsetthecommunityboardoflower

ManhattanapprovedtheconstructionofthePark51centeragreeingwithDaisyKhan,the

PresidentoftheAmericanSocietyforMuslimAdvancement,thattheIslamiccentercould

providetheopportunitytocelebratepluralismandcountertheextremistmovement.But,

astheprojectattractedmediaattention,itsproponentswereaccusedofbeinginsensitive,124Rashid,Qasim."TheWarOverMuslimsinAmerica."TheHuffingtonPost.TheHuffingtonPost.com,31Dec.2010.Web.20Mar.2017.125Greenhouse,Steven."MuslimsReportRisingDiscriminationatWork."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,23Sept.2010.Web.23Mar.2017.126Treene,EricW.

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disrespectfulandintoleranttowardsMuslims.PresidentObamawadedintothe

controversydeclaring,“ThisisAmerica.Andourcommitmenttoreligiousfreedommustbe

unshakeable.Theprinciplethatpeopleofallfaithsarewelcomeinthiscountryandthat

theywillnotbetreateddifferentlybytheirgovernmentisessentialtowhoweare.”127

Ultimately,hiswordsmadeatributetothepoliticiansandpreachersofourcountrywho

forcenturieshavesoughttocreateanAmericathatisreligiouslytolerant.Hiscomments

werenotenoughtoconvinceNewYorkerstoallowtheprojecttomoveforwardinthe

nameofreligioustolerance,andtheprojectwasdefeated.

AsimilarsituationensuedinMurfreesboro,Tennessee,butinsteadresultedin

triumph.Proposalstobuildthemosqueweremetwithvehementdisapprovalandviolence.

TheMuslimcommunityofMurfreesboropurchasedlandinanareaofRutherfordCounty

zonedforchurchandmosquebuilding,andplacedasignonthenewlandthatread“Future

SiteoftheIslamicCenterofMurfreesboro.”Thesignwasvandalizedwiththewords“Not

Welcome.”128Afewmonthslatersizableoppositionhadassembledandagroupofseveral

hundredopponentsralliedintheMurfreesboroSquaretoprotesttheconstruction.Two

monthslateroneoftheirconstructiontruckswassetonfireinwhatremainsanunsolved

arsoncase.TheoppositionarguedthattheIslamicCenterhadtiestoterrorismandthat

Islamwasnotareligionbutapoliticalideology.TheirmostvalidclaimwasthattheCenter

hadfailedtoprovidesufficientnoticeundertheTennesseeOpenMeetingsAct.The

ChanceryCourtruledinfavoroftheoppositionandorderedthecountynottoissuea

certificateofoccupancy.TheU.S.thenfiledaclaimunderRLUIPAthatthedenialofthe

certificateofoccupancyviolatedtheIslamicCenter’srighttopracticetheirreligionand

127"Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."128Treene,EricW.

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thusposedasubstantialburden.ThefederalcourtruledinfavoroftheIslamicCenterand

theopposition’ssubsequentattemptstoappealandreversethedecisionwere

unsuccessful.129ThecaserepresentedavictorybothfortheIslamiccenterandforRLUIPA,

whichhadsuccessfullyprotectedaminorityreligiousgroupfromdiscriminatoryzoning

laws.

Thissmallvictoryforreligiousfreedomwassetbackbyanewdebate:thebanning

ofShariaLawinU.S.courts.ThecommentsmadeintheMurfreesborocaseaboutIslam

beinganideologyorcultandnotareligioninspiredseveralpoliticianstoclaimthat

MuslimshadnoprotectionsundertheFirstAmendment.LieutenantGovernorof

TennesseeRonRamseysaid,"It'stimeforAmericanMuslimswholovethiscountryto

publiclyrenounceviolentjihadismandtodrumthosewhoseektodoAmericaharmoutof

theirfaithcommunity.”130HiscommentacknowledgesthatthereareAmericanMuslims

wholovetheUS,andyethisproposaltreatsallMuslimsasunpatrioticthreatstonational

security.RamseywasnotaloneinthequesttobanSharialaw.Over32statelegislatures

havesinceproposedbillsthatwouldlimitconsiderationofreligiouslawincourtcases,

essentiallybanningShariaLaw.131From2010to2012sixstates,Arizona,Kansas,

Louisiana,Oklahoma,SouthDakotaandTennessee,passedsuchlaws,andanotherfivehad

restrictionsonconsideringreligiouslawincourt.Oklahomaattractedthemostattention

foritslaw,whichspecificallymentionedoutlawingShariaLawinareferendumtoamend

thestateconstitution.Afederaljudgestruckdowntheamendmentasunconstitutionalon

severalgrounds,fordiscriminatingamongreligionswithoutcompellingstateinterest,and129Treene,EricW.130McMorris-Santoro,Evan."TennesseeLt.Gov:ReligiousFreedomMayNotCountForMuslims(VIDEO)."TPM(TalkingPointsMemo).N.p.,26July2010.Web.24Mar.2017.131Kirckland,Michael."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamiclawinU.S.courts."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamicLaw,ShariainU.S.CourtsUPI.com.UPI,19May2013.Web.20Feb.2017.

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becausetheamendmentdidnotremedyanyidentifiableproblem.Furthermore,supporters

ofthelawadmittedatapublichearingthat,“theydidnotknowofevenasingleinstance

whereanOklahomacourthadappliedSharialaworusedthelegalpreceptsofother

nationsorcultures,letalonethatsuchapplicationsoruseshadresultedinconcrete

problemsinOklahoma.”132Thelackofknowledgeandevidencesuggeststheobvious;the

lawwasgeneratedbyprejudiceandfear,andnotfact.Despitethevictoryincourt,itwas

clearthatopenIslamophobiahadbeeninstitutionalized.

Publichostilityonlygrewinproceedingyears.Ontheanniversaryof9/11in2013

anevangelicalpastorinFloridasetplansinmotiontoburn2,998Quransinapublicpark.

ThiswasnotPastorTerryJones’firstQuranburning.In2010hehadmadeplanstoburn

QuransbutwasstoppedbyaphonecallfromtheDepartmentofJustice.In2011he

watchedwhilehiscongregationsetfiretoQurans,andin2012hehimselfpartookinthe

burning.133UndertheFirstAmendmentJoneshastherighttosymbolicfreespeech,

meaningthatthoughreminiscentofahatecrime,hecanburnaQuran.But,Joneswas

arrestedonfelonychargesforbreakingstatelawsthatprohibittheopentransportationof

fuel.Jones’sactionsweredetrimentalfortheirroleinperpetuatinganti-Muslimviolence

andforthethreathisactionsposedtoU.S.foreignpolicyandnationalsecurity.

ThecountryisstillstrugglingtodeterminewhetherAmericanscontinuetouse

nationalsecurityasaguisefordiscriminatingagainstMuslims.RFRAandRLUIPAsoughtto

surmounttheseproblemsbysecuringreligiousfreedomforminoritygroups,andtoan

extenttheyhave.TheyhaveprotectedtherightsofMuslims.StillnegativeviewsofMuslims

continuetorise.In2001only39percentofAmericanshadunfavorableviewsofIslam,in132Kirckland,Michael."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamicLawinU.S.Courts."133Peralta,Eyder."PastorTerryJonesArrestedBeforePlannedQuranBurning."NPR.NPR,11Sept.2013.Web.20Mar.2017.

64

2011and2015thisnumberwas61percent.Thisincreaseinnegativeperceptionssuggests

itisimperativeforthegovernmentandthecourtstoprotecttherighttoreligiousfreedom

andfightreligiousdiscrimination.134

ChaptersixwillexplorewhetherTrumpiscommittedtodoingsoandwillexplore

whathispolicyonIslamandNationalSecuritymaymeanforthefuture.Butfirst,thenext

chapterwillexaminetheBurkinidebateinFranceanddrawoutthetensionbetween

religiousfreedom,nationalidentityandnationalsecurity.

134Bailey,Brian."Section1:ADemographicPortraitofMuslimAmericans."PewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress.N.p.,29Aug.2011.Web.13Apr.2017.

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CHAPTER5:THECLASHOFFRENCHVALUESANDISLAM

(MissRayyan.Digitalimage.BurkiniBanDefiesHumanRights.TheHill,17Aug.2016.Web.)

Aboveisapictureofaburkini,thegarmentthatcreatedanoutpourofcommotionand

reproachthesummerof2016incoastalFrance.Butwhatisaburkiniandwheredidit

comefrom?AhedaZanetti,a48-year-oldAustraliandesignercreatedtheburkiniin2004in

thenameofintegrationandasawaytomakeMuslimwomenfeelmorecomfortableonthe

beach.Sinceitscreationishasbecomesynonymouswithanyfullbodybeachwearwornby

MuslimwomenincitinganimpassioneddebateinFranceonreligiousfreedom.

5.1TheBurkiniDebateBegins:August2016

WhenayoungMuslimgirlsteppedontothebeachinCannes,Franceinahijabona

warmAugustdaysheexpectedtohavearelaxeddayenjoyinghervacationwithherfamily

inherhomecountryofFrance.Apoliceofficerapproachedherandtoldherthatshehadto

removeherhijabbecauseperlawitwasrequiredallpeoplewear“properdress”atthe

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beach.135ThisconfrontationbetweenaMuslimwomanandFrenchpolicewasoneofmany

thatoccurredduringthesummerof2016.Canneswasthefirstofover30Frenchcostal

townstooutlawtheburkiniinaspanofthreemonths.

Themadeupwordburkiniquicklybecamecommonplaceallovertheworldasnews

stationafternewsstationbeganreportingonthebanofthefullbodyswimsuitworn

primarilybyMuslimwomeninFrance.Theburkinibanattractedthepublics’attentionsfor

severalreasons;itwasaboutfeminismandthepresenceofIslam;itwasfarreachingand

invasive,andbecauseofthetiming.Theburkinidebatecameaboutatwoweeksafterthe

BastilleDayterrorattackinNiceduringwhichamanclaimingallegiancetotheIslamic

Statedroveatruckdownthemainboulevardkillingandinjuringover80men,womenand

children,andcameaboutthreeweeksafterthemurderofapriestbytwoarmedMuslim

menSt.-Étienne-du-Rouvray,Normandy.

Supportfortheban,unlikewiththeearlierheadscarfcases,wasnotuniversalin

France.FormerPresidentNicolasSarkozycalledtheburkinia“’provocation,”asymbolof

radicalIslaminacountrystillreelingfromtheterroristattacksinParislastfallandinNice

thisJuly.”136PrimeMinsterManuelVallssupportedtheban,justashehadsupported

previouslegislationrestrictingreligiousattire.However,Valls’clashedwithfellowsocialist

educationminsterNajatVallaud-Belkacem,avocalsupporterofwomen’srightsandcritic

oftheburkinibanwhosaidtheban“letlooseverbalracism.”137Comparedtothe2011law

135“Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."LeMonde.LeMonde,23Aug.2016.Web.23Oct.2016.136McAuley,James."France'sBurkiniDebate:AboutaBathingSuitandaCountry'sPeculiarSecularism."TheWashingtonPost.26Aug.2016.Web.5Sept.2016.137Chrisafis,Angelique."France'sBurkiniBanRowDividesGovernmentasCourtMullsLegality."TheGuardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,25Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.

67

banningveils,which82percentoftheFrenchsupported,supportfortheburkinibanwas

farlowerwithonly60percentinsupportoftheban.138

ThedramabeganwhenCannesoutlawedtheburkini.Canneswasthefirstcityto

implementanordinance.DavidLisnard,MayorofCannes,helpedwritethebanonthe

burkinienactedJuly28th.Theordinancestated,“Accesstobeachesandswimmingis

prohibitedfromthesigningofthisdecreeuntil31August2016toanypersonwhoisnotin

properdress,respectfulofgoodmoralsandlaïcité,Hygieneandbathingsafetyadaptedto

themaritimepublicdomain.”139Thephrase“respectfulofgoodmoralsandlaïcité”takesa

legalprincipleandnarrowsitsapplicationsothatreligiousattirebecomesimproperdress.

Lisnardtriedtopersuadethepressthatthelawwasnotcreatedwiththeintentionof

discriminatingagainstMuslims,butfewbelievedhismeekattempttodefendthe

ordinance.Lisnardsaid,“"WhetherawomanisMuslim,Catholic,JewishorBuddhist,she

canofcoursecomeandbathe!(...)TherearealsomanyMuslimwomenonthebeachesof

Cannes.Buttheycannotwearostentatiousattire."140Weseeherethatjustaswiththe

headscarfcasesthetermostentatiousbecomesproblematic,anditiseasytoquestionthe

trueintentofthelaw.

Lisnardthenattemptedanotherrouteofdefense,feminism.Heclaimed,“Itis

preciselytoprotectthesewomenthatItookthisdecision.Theburkiniistheuniformof

extremistIslamism,notoftheMuslimreligion.”141EntrenchedinFrenchsocietyistheneed

138Heimlich,Russell."FrenchSupportforBanonFullIslamicVeil."PewResearchCenter.PewResearchCenter,13July2010.Web.27Mar.2017.139“Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."140«Qu’unefemmesoitmusulmane,catholique,juiveoubouddhiste,ellepeutbiensûrvenirsebaigner!(...)Ilyad’ailleursbeaucoupdefemmesmusulmanessurlesplagesdeCannes.Maisellesnepeuventpasporterdetenueostentatoire.”….Directquotationfrom:"Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,23Aug.2016.Web.23Oct.2016.141Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body'Burkinis'FromItsBeaches."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,12Aug.2016.Web.25Sept.2016.

68

tocontrolwoman’s’dressandthenecessitytophysicallydemonstratethedifference

betweenmenandwomenwhiledeclaringtheirequality.Theevidenceofthisdatesbackto

theFrenchRevolution.EugèneDelacroix’sfamouspainting“LibertyLeadingthePeople”

showsabarebreastedMarianneleadingtheFrenchpeople.142Thepaintingdemonstrates

thetensioninFrenchrepublicanismbetweenthepromiseofequalityandthenatural

differentiationbetweenthesexes.Frenchsociety’sdemandthatwomenundressresults

fromitscivilreligionofsecularism.Muslimsocietyessentiallyrejectsthisideabyrequiring

womentobecovered,andtheFrenchfindthatintolerable.

Anotherfacetofthedebatederivedfromsecurityconcerns.Lisnardmakesmention

oftheneedtomaintainpublicorder“whileFranceandplacesofworshiparethetargetof

terroristacts.”143BecausethelawparticularlytargetsMuslimwomen,Lisnardwas

paradoxicallycaughtclaimingthatthelawbothprotectswomenandtreatsthemas

securitythreats.

Severalanti-Islamophobicorganizationstriedtodrawoutthisparadox.The

politiciansinsupportofthebanleftoutafewessentialfacts.TheCollectiveAgainst

Islamophobiaaskedinastatement,“Mustweremindthismayorthatabout30ofthe

victimsoftheattackinNicewereMuslims,becauseterrorismtargetsusall

indiscriminately?”144Theburkiniban,likethebansbeforeit,waswhatFeizaBen

Mohamed,aspokeswomanforaMuslimassociationinthesouthofFrance,calleda

haphazardwayfor“politicianstohidetheirinabilitytohandlesecurityinthefaceof

142Rubin,AlissaJ."FromBikinistoBurkinis,RegulatingWhatWomenWear."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,27Aug.2016.Web.30Sept.2017.143Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body.”144Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body.”

69

terrorism.”145AnotherperceptiveyoungMuslimwomanarticulatedthedangerofthe

burkiniandframedthebanasaquestionofindividualfreedombeggingthequestionhow

farwilltheFrenchgotocheckwhetheranoutfitconformsto“goodmanners”.She

expressedthatthebanshadunleashedawaveofverbalracism.Whilesheacknowledged

increasedtensionasaconsequenceoftherecentterrorattacksclaimedbytheIslamic

State,shebelieves“weshouldn’taddoiltothefire’bybanningburkinis”.146TheFrench

Courtsagreed.

5.2France’sHighestCourtRulesAgainsttheBurkiniBan

OnAugust25,2016France’shighestadministrativecourtheardthecaseofthe

burkiniban.ThiscameafteranappealbytheHumanRightsLeaguechallengingthecourts

decisioninthetownofVilleneuve-LoubetlocatedjustWestofNicetoupholdtheban.The

lowercourtjudgehadagreedthatthebanwas“necessary,appropriateandproportionate”

toprotectpreventpublicdisorderbecausetheburkiniwas“liabletooffendthereligious

convictionsor(religious)non-convictionsofotherusersofthebeach.”147Apparentlymany

oftheFrenchagreed.BBCreportedthatrecentpollsindicatethat64percentoftheFrench

publicsupportedthebanandthatanother30percenthadnoopinion.148Sowhatledthe

highercourttoreachadifferentconclusion?Andwasitadeparturefrompreviousrulings?

TheConseild’Étatfoundthat"Thecontesteddecreehas...inflictedaseriousandmanifestly

unlawfulinterferencewiththefundamentalfreedomsoffreedomofmovement,freedomof

145Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body."146Chrisafis,Angelique."France'sBurkiniBanRowDividesGovernmentasCourtMullsLegality."TheGuardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,25Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.147Quinn,Ben."FrenchPoliceMakeWomanRemoveClothingonNiceBeachFollowingBurkiniBan."TheGuardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,23Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.148Micallef,JosephV."IsFranceRighttoBantheBurkini?"TheHuffingtonPost.TheHuffingtonPost,03Sept.2016.Web.16Feb.2017.

70

conscienceandpersonalliberty"andfurthermorethat"theemotionandthefearsresulting

fromtheterroristattacks,andinparticularthosecommittedinNiceonlastJuly14,cannot

sufficetolegallyjustifythecontestedprohibitionmeasure."149Itisinterestingand

surprisingthatthecourtfoundthislawtointerferewithindividualfreedomwhilethe

headscarfbansdidnot.Perhapsitisbecausetheburkinireassemblesafullbodyswimsuit

andisnotclearlyassociatedwithIslam.Anotherexplanation:inlightoftherecentterror

attackthecourtwasabletodistinguishbetweenaperceivedthreattopublicorderandan

actualsecuritythreat.

5.3TheNeedforIntegration:BalancingIslamandlaïcité

Theoutburstsurroundingtheburkinihighlightsthebiggerissueofbalancing

religiousfreedominalaïccountry.ThefactisFrenchrepublicanvaluesclashwiththoseof

Muslimimmigrants,exacerbatingrelationsbetweenthemajoritywhite,nominallyCatholic

FrenchmenandtheMuslimimmigrantcommunity.TodaytheFrenchfindtheyhave

createdaviciouscycle:thelackofintegrationandperceivedthreatoftheMuslim

communitybroughtonbyterrorismleadstheFrenchgovernmenttorestrictthereligious

libertyofMuslimresidentsofFrance,andinturncausesthemtoturnawayandisolate

themselves.Further,thispatternledMuslimimmigrantstosettleinhomogenous

communitiesoftenassociatedwithhigherratesofpovertyandviolence.

149Originalquotes:«l’arrêtélitigieuxa(…)portéuneatteintegraveetmanifestementillégaleauxlibertésfondamentalesquesontlalibertéd’alleretvenir,lalibertédeconscienceetlalibertépersonnelle».«l’émotionetlesinquiétudesrésultantdesattentatsterroristes,etnotammentdeceluicommisàNicele14juilletdernier,nesauraientsuffireàjustifierlégalementlamesured’interdictioncontestée». Source:"LeConseild'Etatmetuntermeauxarrêtés«anti-burkini»."LeMonde.LeMonde,26Aug.2016.Web.25Feb.2017.

71

ThelackofintegrationofMuslimimmigrantcommunitiesisadirectresponsetothe

hostilitytheyencounterfromthenativeFrench.Thehostilityisevidentnotonlyinthe

legislationaimedatrestrictingthereligiousexpressionofMuslims,butitisalsoevidenton

amicroorindividuallevel.The1990’sshowedmuchhigherunemploymentratesamong

youngArabsthantherestofthepopulation.TheNationalAcademyofSciencesfoundthata

candidatewithaMuslim-soundinglastnameis2.5timeslesslikelytobeofferedan

interviewthanacandidatewithaChristian-soundingfamilyname.150Thisdiscrimination

preventsMuslimsfromearninganincomeequaltothatoftheirnativeFrench

counterparts,andforcesMuslimstoliveinpoorerneighborhoodswherecrimeismore

prevalent.ThereissolidevidenceoftheincomedisparityinFrance,withonestudyfinding

thataChristianhouseholdmakes400eurosmorepermonththanaMuslimone.151These

socio-economicfactorspavethewayforaseparationbetweenthetwogroups.TheFrench

majorityhasfarmoreaccesstojobs,educationandsafeneighborhoods.

Thebuildupofinjusticefinallyledtoaseriesofriotsin2005.TwoyoungArab

youthswereontheirwayhomefromasoccergamewhentheyspottedpolicepatrollingthe

areaforaroutineinspection.Inanattempttofleethepoliceandavoidthelengthy

questioningandaccusationscommonintherundownsuburbofClichy-Sous-Bois,thetwo

boysjumpedintoabushanddiedofaccidentalelectrocution.152Theincidentpromptedan

outburstofriotsacrossFranceinmorethan300communitiesresultinginatleastthree

deathsanddozensofinjuries.Injustthefirstthreeweekstheriotscausedaquarterofa

150Adida,ClaireL.,DavidD.Laitin,andMarie-AnneValfort."IdentifyingbarrierstoMuslimintegrationinFrance."ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.NationalAcademyofSciences,28Dec.2010.Web.02Feb.2017.151Adida,ClaireL.,DavidD.Laitin,andMarie-AnneValfort.152Crampton,Thomas."BehindtheFuror,theLastMomentsofTwoYouths."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,07Nov.2005.Web.02Mar.2017.

72

billiondollarsindamageasaresultoftorchedcars,buildingsandbusinesses,andcostsof

increasedpolicepatrols.Bytheendofthosethreeweeks,over2,900arrestsweremade

andtheNationalAssemblyvotedtodeclareathree-monthstateofemergency.Theriots

hadmadeitclear:theMuslimsofFrancehadreachedtheirboilingpoint.

IslamalreadyhadabadimagewithinFrance,andtheseriotsdidnothingbut

inflamethestereotypethatmostMuslimsrejectedFrenchvaluesandhadtiesto

fundamentalism.Apollconductedayearaftertheriots“foundthattwothirdsoftheFrench

associateIslamwithreligiousfanaticism.”153Thoughitisaminorityratherthanamajority

thatendsupjoiningextremistmovements,theMuslimyoutharecertainlynotfreefromthe

influenceofextremistmilitantgroups.Sincethe1980’sgroupsofIslamichardlinerssuch

asthesalafists,wahabisandtheMuslimrenewalassociationknownasTablighihave

recruitednewmembersinthebanlieueofParis,oftenatriots.154Oneexampleistheman

behindtheJune2016killingoftwopoliceofficersduringwhichhesworeallegiancetoISIS.

LaroussiAbballa,25,hadpreviouslystated“Ineededrecognition,”and“alocalgroupof

jihadistsofferedasenseofpurposeinanotherwisedirectionlesslifethatincludedboutsof

unemployment.”155TheserecruitersusetheunfortunatesocialconditionsoftheMuslim

youth(theirpositionasoutsiders,thestigmabystateinstitutionsandthemedia)as

leverageandpersuadeyoungMuslimmentojointheirradicalmovements,whichcan

sometimesleadtoinvolvementinterrorism.Thisisagrowingproblem.In2014therewere

fourcrimesofjihadterrorism.In2015thisnumberjumpedsignificantlyto17,indicating

153Viorst,Milton."TheMuslimsofFrance:IslamAbroad."ForeignAffairs.ForeignAffairs,Sept.1996.Web.02Feb.2017.154Khedimellah,Moussa."Liberté,Egalité,Islam."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Vol.8,No.3.,Winter2006,Web.02Mar.2017.155Malsin,Jared."NiceAttack:WhyFranceisaMajorTargetforISIS."Time.Time,15July2016.Web.28Mar.2017.

73

Islaminspiredterrorismisifanythingontherise.156Thiscannotbeblamedonlackof

integrationalonebuttreatingMuslimsasasecuritythreatdoessendthemessagethat

MuslimswillneverbetrulyFrench,incitinginthemfeelingsofanimositythatcanleadto

higherratesofhomegrownterrorism.

Thebarrierstointegrationpersistentinthebanlieuehaveremainedlargely

unsolved.HuguesLagrange,aFrenchsociologistanddirectorofresearchattheCentre

NationaldelaRechercheScientifique(CNRS),blamestheboththeleftandtherightfor

ignoringthekeyculturalfactors.Theright,ratherthanrecognizetheculturaldifferencesin

familystructure,blamesthefamiliesofyoungMuslimdelinquentsfortheiractionsand

thereunchangingstatus.Theleft,hesays,makesthemistakeoffocusingonlyon

unemploymentandignoringfamilyconflictandstructure.157LagrangebelievesthatFrance

mustundertakeanideologicalchange.Theymuststoptryingtobalancethexenophobic

securitydiscourseandthemistakenanalysisbythepoliticallycorrectandinsteadputan

endtoformalegalitarianismandstoptreatingeveryoneequally.TheFrenchmust

recognizethatthereexistirreconcilableculturaldifferencesthatcanonlybealleviatedby

embracingmulticulturalismandaccommodation.

SeveraltheoristshavecontendedthattherigidFrenchidentityshapedby

republicanismandlaïcitéistoblameforFrance’sculturalclash.RobertBrubacker,an

Americansociologistwhowritesaboutnationalism,observed,“TheFrenchunderstanding

156"EuropeanUnionTerrorismSituationandTrendReport2015."EuropolEuropeanLawEnforcementAgencyTE-SAT2015.EuropeanPoliceAgency,2015.Web.19Apr.2017.157Méritens,PatriceDe."Lagrange:«Ledénidesculturesestuneerreurpartagéeparlesdeuxcamps»."LeFigaro.LeFiagro,16Oct.2010.Web.24Mar.2017.

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ofnationhoodhasbeenstate-centeredandassimilationist.”158Theresultisanattackon

thosewhodonotfitthemold,whotodayareMuslims.

TheFrenchshouldsoonrealizethatthisapproachmighthurtthecountrymorethan

helpcreateamutualrespectandunity.Theconnectionbetweentheburkiniandthreatsto

nationalsecurityislackinginproof.Butithasbeenproventhatalackofintegration,high

ratesofdiscriminationandariseinanti-FrenchsentimentsamongtheMuslimpopulation,

canleadtohomegrownterrorism.ForthisreasontheFrenchneedtoembrace

multiculturalismandcompromise.Thiscouldmeankeepingthe2004lawbanningveilsin

schoolsbutrepealingthe2011lawthatbansveilsinpublicplaces.ThoughFrench

politiciansinsistthoselawshavebeencreatedinthenameofrespectforlaïcité,their

commentssuggestsotherwise.Thoselawshavehadnegativeconsequences.

TheNationalObservatoryAgainstIslamophobiafoundthatfrom2013to2015,80

percentofviolentanti-Muslimactsweredirectedatwomen,mostofthemveiled.159When

theU.S.JudgesruledonPresidentTrump’sMuslimsbantheystatedthattheytookhisanti-

Muslimrhetoricintoconsiderationwhendeterminingthetrueintentbehindtheban.Ifthe

courtsinFrancehaddonethisin2004and2011theoutcomemighthavebeendifferent.

FranceneedstoloosenitsdefinitionofwhatitmeanstobeFrenchandinvite

diversity.TheU.S.ontheotherhandalreadyembracesdiversityandhasstronganti-

discriminationlawsbutmustprotectitinthefaceofanewpresidentwhodoesnotsee

thesevaluesasstrengthsofthecountry.ThelastchapterwillcritiqueDonaldTrump’s

policies,evaluatethetruethreatoftheMuslimpopulationoftheU.S.,andmakepredictions

forthefuture.158Schain,Martin,60.159Daley,Suzanne,andAlissaJ.Rubin."FrenchMuslimsSayVeilBansGiveCovertoBias."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,26May2015.Web.10Apr.2017.

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CHAPTER6:OURFUTURE:RELIGIOUSFREEDOMUNDERTHETRUMPADMINISTRATION

TheelectionofDonaldTrumpappearstohaveusheredinaneweraofnativism.

Thisneweraduringwhichimmigrationandnationalsecuritypolicyareafocalpoint,has

demonstratedthetensionbetweentheneedtocombatforeignthreatsandsafeguardthe

rightsofAmericancitizens.PresidentTrumpthinksthatthebiggestthreattonational

securityis“radicalIslam”.Duetothegovernment’sinabilitytoadequatelydistinguishthe

“badguys”fromordinaryMuslimrefugeesandimmigrants,Trumphaslauncheda

campaignagainstradicalIslam,advocatingforapolicythatdiscriminatesonthebasisof

religionandthreatenstorestrictreligiousliberty.ThepoliciesTrumpdevelopsand

implementsinthenextfouryearshavethepotentialtochangethecourseofAmerican

policybyredefiningtheappropriatebalancebetweenreligiousfreedom,nationalidentity

andnationalsecurity.

PresidentTrump’scampaignandelectionhave,inadditiontoawakeningalatent

nativism,augmentedpopularfearsofIslam.Someprominentpoliticians,mostlyonthefar

rightoftheRepublicanParty,andconservativetalkshowhostsandjournalistshavebeen

railingagainstthethreatofIslamforyears,claimingwithoutevidencethatMuslimsinthe

U.SwanttoimposeSharialawandIslamonAmerica.Inlightofarecentsurgeofterrorism

perpetratedbyMuslims,thesegroupsandTrumphavebeenabletoattractconsiderable

supportforpoliciesthatthreatentherightsandlibertiesofMuslimsbyframingthepolicies

asnecessarytoprotectingAmericans.Trumphasdaredtoimplementhispolicyof“a

completeandtotalban”ofMuslimimmigrationanddeclarethattheU.S.mustcombat

radicalIslambecausemillionsofAmericans,thoughperhapsnotamajority,agreed.

SincethenmillionsofAmericanswithnotiestoIslamhavesharplycriticizedhis

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rhetoriconIslam,includingtopGovernmentOfficialssuchasPresidentBush,andSenate

MinorityLeaderCharlesSchumer.ManyAmericanshadhopedTrumpwouldretreatfrom

hispromiseofa“totalandcompleteban”ofMuslimsandmaintainAmerica’sreputation

andtraditionasacountrythathasalwayspromotedfreedomofreligionanddiversity.

Unfortunately,thisdidnothappen.SincetheofficialstartoftheU.S.presidentialcampaign

inJune2015therehasbeenariseinbothIslamophobiaandlegislationaimedtocurbIslam

inAmerica,forinstancetheattemptbyseveralstatestobansharialaw.

TheriseinterrorattackscoincidedwiththebeginningoftheU.S.presidential

campaignbringinganti-Muslimsentimentstotheforefrontonceagain.InDecember2015

duringtheSanBernardinoattackaradicalizedIslamiccouplekilled14co-workersata

officeholidayparty.TheninJune2016aMuslimmanopenedfireonagaynightclubin

Orlando,Floridathatleft49peopledead.InJuly,justdaysafterTrumpgainedhis

nominationattheRepublicanConvention,theworldfeltthepainoftheNiceterrorattack,in

whichaFrenchTunisianmanplowedhistruckthroughcrowdsofFrenchandforeigners

celebratingBastilleDayintheMediterraneanresortcity.Justweekslater,millionsof

AmericanwatchedwithwideeyesthenewsoftheslayingofaFrenchpriestbyaman

claimingallegiancetoISIS.160Theseattacks,localandforeign,leftanimprintonthenation,

reinforcingfearanddistrustofMuslimsthatwasreflectedinattitudesandmore

importantlyinpolicy.

The2015attackinSanBernardinowasthemostdecisiveeventofTrump’s

campaign;itwasinthedaysafterthatTrumpcementedhispolicyofexclusionandhostility

towardsMuslims.FivedaysaftertheterrorattackonDecember7,2015,Trumpannounced

160Barrett,James."ACompleteListofRadicalIslamicTerrorAttacksonU.S.SoilUnderObama."DailyWire.N.p.,07Dec.2016.Web.01Apr.2017.

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hisplanfora“totalandcomplete”Muslimban.161Hehassincestatednumeroustimesthat

Islammustnotbe“allowedtoresideorspreadwithinourowncommunities.”162Atarallyin

Raleigh,NorthCarolina,Trumpwasaskedhowhewouldhandleterrorattacks.He

responded,“Iwouldgetmyselfinsomuchtroublewiththem,wearegoingtohandleitso

tough."163Trumpthenfollowedupwithastatementcriticalofpoliticalcorrectness,hesaid,

"Howaboutthepersonwhoknewwhatwasgoingonsaidtheydidn'twanttoreportthem

becausetheythinkitmightberacialprofiling,didyouseethat?Wehavebecomeso

politicallycorrectthatwedon'tknowwhatthehellwe'redoing."164Trumppickedupon

thefrustrationofmanyAmericanswhofeltthathispredecessorignoredtheseissues.

Consequently,severalmillionAmericansapplaudedhimfortakingastrongapproachto

fightingterrorism.

MeanwhileanothergroupofAmericanswasdisappointedbywhattheycalled

Trump’sbigotedresponse.PresidentObamaandadvocatesofcivillibertieswarnedthat

creatingdiscriminatorylawsthatblameallMuslims(worldwide)fortheactionsofafew

(letsnotforget-U.S.Citizens)violatestheFirstAmendment,andhasthepotentialto

alienatemanyMuslimAmericans.EvensomeofthevictimsoftheSanBernardinoterror

attacksdisagreedwithTrump’sapproach.JohnRamos,whowasinjuredintheattack,was

abletoseethefaultinTrump’sban,hesaid,“Thepersonwhocarriedout[theDec.2]attack

wasbornintheU.S.andonlywentoverseastogetawife,it’sill-conceived.”165Afamily

161Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse:'Iwouldbesotough'"CNN.CableNewsNetwork,05Dec.2015.Web.31Mar.2017.162Shane,Scott,MatthewRosenberg,andEricLipton."TrumpPushesDarkViewofIslamtoCenterofU.S.Policy-Making."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,01Feb.2017.Web.12Feb.2017.163Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse…”164Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse...”165Branson-Potts,Hayley,SarahParvini,andPalomaEsquivel."ForvictimsofSanBernardinoterroristattack,conflictingviewsaboutTrumppolicyintheirname."LosAngelesTimes.LosAngelesTimes,1Feb.2017.Web.31Mar.2017.

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friendofanothervictimvoicedsupportforU.S.policiesthatwillkeepAmericaand

Americanssafebutadded,“WehopeAmericaandPresidentTrumpcandothiswithout

violatingourcorevalues.”166Fornow,Trumphasletthesepeopledown.

SeveralstatesandVicePresidentMikePenceappeartohaveletfearandprejudice

influencetheirpolicy-making.Theirperceptionofathreatmaybecoloredbytheirincorrect

assumptionsaboutMuslims.Asof2010,55percentknowlittleornothingaboutIslam

accordingtoPewResearchCenter.Another35percentsaytheyknowsomethingandonly

ninepercentsaytheyknowagreatdeal.167Thelackofinformationandthewidecirculation

ofmisinformationhaveledmillionsofAmericanstobemisinformedaboutIslam.When

policymakersaretaskedwithassessingrisk,theirlimitedknowledgeandmuddledviewof

Islampresentsasignificantproblem.

ConvincedthatIslamisahegemonicreligionpreachingviolence,severalstateshave

attemptedtoshuttheirdoorstoMuslimrefugees.InordertoreachPresidentObama’s

statedgoalofwelcoming10,000refugeesintothecountryallstateshavehadtosharethe

burden.Indianaadmitted174Syrianrefugeesduringthefiscalyearof2016,thoughnot

withopenarms.168GovernorMikePence,nowVicePresidentoftheU.S.,declaredtheSyrian

refugeesasecuritythreatandannouncedthatthestatewouldsuspendtheSyrianrefugee

programandwouldnotreimbursethenon-profitExodus,whichhelpssettlenewrefugees,

forcostsincurredonbehalfoftherefugees.Exodussuedandthecasewasheardbeforethe

SeventhCircuitU.S.CourtofAppealsinSeptemberof2016.Thejudgeswonderedwhether

barringrefugeeswasaneffectiveanti-terrorismstrategy.Awareofthediscriminatory166Branson-Potts,Hayley,SarahParvini,andPalomaEsquivel."ForvictimsofSanBernardino...”167Liu,Joseph."PublicRemainsConflictedOverIslam."PewResearchCenter'sReligion&PublicLifeProject.N.p.,23Aug.2010.Web.3Apr.2017.168Sanneh,Kelefa."UntanglingtheImmigrationDebate."TheNewYorker.TheNewYorker,31Oct.2016.Web.02Apr.2017.

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undertonesandfear-basedmotivation,thecourtaskedthestate:“AreSyrianstheonly

MuslimsIndianafears?”169SeveralotherGovernorsfollowedPence’sleadandresponded

withpoliciesthatbarredrefugeesfromenteringtheirstates.170Thecourtestablishedthat

statescouldn’tdiscriminateagainstimmigrantsbecauseonlytheFederalgovernmenthas

therighttodecidewhocanandcannotcomeintothecountry.Assumingthatthemost

powerfulmembersofthegovernmentwillexecutethelawswithgreatcareandintegrity,

thisshouldhavebeenavictory,butsuchwasnotthecase.

6.1The“Muslim”Ban

JustweeksafterhisinaugurationPresidentTrumpsignedanExecutiveOrder

stickingtohispromiseofbanningMuslimsfromthecountry.OnJanuary27,2017he

revealedhispolicywhichdeclaredasuspensionofallimmigrationfor90daysandofnew

refugeeentriesfor120daysfromsevenMuslim-majoritycountries:Iraq,Syria,Iran,

Somalia,Yemen,SudanandLibya.Ironically,thecouplebehindtheSanBernardinoterror

attack,theeventthatinitiallypromptedTrump’sproposalforaMuslimban(orgavehiman

excusetoexecuteit),hadtiestotwoMuslim-majoritycountries,SaudiArabiaandPakistan--

yetthosecountrieswereleftoffthelist.Wecanspeculateastowhy:perhapsitwasdueto

U.S.oilinterests,ortheneedtomaintainsomealliesintheMiddleEast,ormaybeitwas

becauseofTrump’spersonalbusinessinterests.Butregardlessofthereason,SaudiArabia,

thelargestbreederofradicalextremistIslamintheworld,wasnotonthelist.171The

169Sanneh,Kelefa."UntanglingtheImmigrationDebate."170TheGovernorsofMichigan,Alabama,Texas,Arkansas,andLouisianaalsoissuedexecutiveordersbarringtheentryofSyrianrefugeestotheirstates. Shen,Aviva."FearmongeringAgainstRefugeesInTheU.S.Begins–ThinkProgress."ThinkProgress.ThinkProgress,16Nov.2015.Web.03Apr.2017.171Severalsourcesaffirmtheclaim:1."IraqiVPNourial-Maliki:SaudiArabiaIstheBreedingGroundforTerrorismintheMiddleEast."AmericanHeraldTribune.AHTribuneN.p.,23Jan.2017.Web.02Apr.2017.2.

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methodologybehindtheselectionofcountriesisnotclear,leadingmuchofthepopulation

toquestiontheabilityofthebantoaidincounter-terrorism.TheCourtfoundthat,“the

Governmenthasnotofferedanyevidenceorevenanexplanationofhowthenational

securityconcernsthatjustifiedthosedesignations.”172PoliticiansinTrump’sownparty

haveexpressedtheirshockanddisappointmentaswell.

Reactiontothetravelbanhashighlightedadivideonbothpolicyandprinciple.

SenateMinorityLeaderChuckSchumereloquentlyarticulatedthesentimentsofmany

Americans.Hesaid,“TearsarerunningdownthecheeksoftheStatueofLibertytonightasa

grandtraditionofAmerica,welcomingimmigrants,thathasexistedsinceAmericawas

foundedhasbeenstompedupon."173PresidentBushwentoutofhiswaytourgetolerance

afterbeingaskedaboutTrump’sMuslimban.BushemphasizedAmerica’sstrengthasa

countryinwhichpeoplearefreetoworshipastheyplease.174TheAmericanpublicwassplit

ontheissue.ApollconductedforReutersattheendofJanuaryfoundthat48percentof

AmericansagreedwithTrump’sexecutiveorder,while41percentdisagreed.Whenaskedif

theOrdersetagoodexampleofhowtobestconfrontterrorismthenumberdeclinedto38

percent.175OftheAmericanspolled,34percentsaidtheyhadheardofitbutdidnotknow

anydetailsorwereunfamiliar,reducingthevalidityofthepoll’ssuggestionthatamajority

ofAmericanssupporttheban.NonethelessafairlysignificantpercentofAmericanswere

foundtobeinfavoroftheban.Connolly,Amanda."SaudiArabiaa‘BreedingGround’forTerrorism,ImamTellsCommittee."IPolitics.N.p.,02Feb.2015.Web.02Apr.2017.3.VanderGalien,Michael."SaudiArabiaIstheMainCulpritofJihadism:2.000SaudisJoinedTerroristGroupsAbroad."Trending.N.p.,27Dec.2016.Web.02Apr.2017.172"TheStateofWashingtonV.DonaldJ.Trump."ForPublicationinUnitedStatesCourtofAppeals…”173Merica,Dan."TrumpSignsExecutiveOrdertoKeepout'RadicalIslamicTerrorists'"CNN.CableNewsNetwork,28Jan.2017.Web.28Jan.2017.174Baker,Peter."FormerPresidentGeorgeW.BushLevelsTacitCriticismatTrump."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,27Feb.2017.Web.30Mar.2017.175"IpsosPollConductedforReuters–ImmigrationBan1.31.17."Ispsos/ReutersThomson,31Jan.2017.Web.1Apr.2017.

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Severalstatesfeltdifferentlyandwerepropelledtoactionbythebeliefthatthebanwas

morallyandconstitutionallywrong.Anumberofstatesfiledsuitschallengingthe

constitutionalityofPresidentTrump’stravelban.OnFebruary3,U.S.FederaldistrictJudge

JamesRobartoftheNinthCircuitCourtissuedarestrainingordertohaltTrump’sorder

nationwide.Inthecase,theStateofWashingtonandMinnesotasuedthePresidentandThe

DepartmentofJusticeallegingthat“theExecutiveOrderwasnottrulymeanttoprotect

againstterrorattacksbyforeignnationalsbutratherwasintendedtoenacta“Muslimban”

asthePresidenthadstatedduringhispresidentialcampaign…”176TheDOJfiledanappeal,

butthecourtaffirmedtheearlierrulinganddeniedtherequest.ThethreeJudgeCourtdid

notruleontheconstitutionalityofthebandecidingitwastooearlytomakeadecisionon

claimsofreligiousdiscrimination,butfoundthegovernmenthadnotshownalikelihoodof

successorthatfailuretoenterastaywouldcauseirreparableharm.Trumprespondedby

revisingthetravelbantosixcountries,andallowingthosewithpermanentresidence,such

asstudents,engineers,tourists,andrelativestoenterthecountry.Followingthesecond

revisedorder,ajudgeinHawaiiarguedthatbecauseTrumphadassertedthathewanteda

“Muslimban”andhadsaidtoformerNewYorkMayorRudyGiuliani“showmetherightway

todoitlegally,”theorderestablishedreligiouspreferenceviolatingtheEstablishment

Clause.177FederaljudgeTheodoreD.ChuangofMarylandagreedinanarrowerrulingand

calledforanindefiniteinjunctionarguingthatthebancontinuedtodiscriminateagainst

MuslimseventhoughthePresidenthadtakenoutstipulationonpreferencefor“minority

religions.”JudgeChuangwaswillingtoestablishtheobvious.InthecontextofTrump’s

176"TheStateofWashingtonV.DonaldJ.Trump."ForPublicationinUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthe...U.S.Courts,n.d.Web.02Apr.2017.177Wang,AmyB."Trumpaskedfora‘Muslimban,’Giulianisays-andorderedacommissiontodoit‘legally’."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,29Jan.2017.Web.04Apr.2017.

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statementtheMuslimbanwasclearlyaformofreligiousdiscrimination.Hestated,“The

historyofpublicstatementscontinuestoprovideaconvincingcasethatthepurposeofthe

SecondExecutiveOrderremainstherealizationofthelong-envisionedMuslimban.”178 The directoroftheACLUDavidColebelievedChuangstatementstobetrueandsaidtherevised

orderisstill“religiousdiscriminationinthepre-textualguiseofnationalsecurity.Andit’s

stillunconstitutional.”179FornowthecourtshavespokenandruledTrump’sorderis

unconstitutional.

TheMuslimbanorExecutiveOrdercaseisalsonoteworthyforitsfuture

implications.Inlightofreasonablepublicsupportfortheban,thejudges’rulingwasa

reminderofthecountry’scommitmenttoupholditsconstitutionalvalues.Itisalsolikelyto

endupintheSupremeCourtandwithanewlyappointedconservativejudgethereisa

possibilitythatthecasemaybedecidedinTrump’sfavor.Therulingwillbealandmarkcase

establishingthelimitsofreligiouspolicyforthefuture.Itwillsetprecedentforfuture

immigrationbansandwilldefinethescopeoftheCourtsabilitytolimitthepresident’s

power.Onlytimewilltellwhowillprevail,Trumpandthosewhofeelthereiscausefor

limitingreligiousfreedom,orchampionsofU.S.multiculturalismwhowanttopromote

religiousfreedom.

6.2IslaminU.S.politics:IstheU.S.Obsessed?

ManyAmericans,politiciansandciviliansalike,havebeenscratchingtheirheads

tryingtofigureoutwhysince2016thereisanewfoundandprominentfocusonIslamand

MuslimsinAmericanmainstreampolitics.Thereareseveralsoundexplanationsforthis.178Zapotosky,Matt."SecondfederaljudgeblocksrevisedTrumptravelban."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,16Mar.2017.Web.13Apr.2017.179Savage,David."Trump'snewtravelbanwillbehardertochallengeincourt,butcriticssayitstilltargetsMuslims."LosAngelesTimes.LosAngelesTimes,6Mar.2017.Web.02Apr.2017.

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Thefirstisthatmultiplesectorsofgovernmenthavebecomeinvolvedinmaintaining

nationalsecurity.TheU.S.haslongconsideredradicalextremistIslamtobeathreattoU.S.

nationalsecurity,evenpriortothepresidentialcampaignandPresidentTrump’selection.In

thepast,theneedtocreatepolicytocombatthethreatof“radicalIslam”waslefttonational

securityexperts,thedepartmentofhomelandsecurity,themilitaryandsoon.Morerecently

securitypolicyhaspermeatedmultiplepolicyareas.Americanimmigration,religiousand

discriminationpolicyalsoseektoplayaroleincombattingthethreat,bringingtheseissues

tothemainstreamandintothemindsofmillionsofAmericans.

Theotherexplanationsareconditionalratherthaninstitutional.TheAmericanpublic

hasonceagaingrownconcernedbecauseofacombinationoffactors.Theformationofa

newMuslimterroristgroupISIS,whichstandsfortheIslamicStateofIraqandSyria,as

opposedtoAlQaeda.AlQaeda,whichisalsoaradicalIslamicterroristgroupdoesnothave

thekeypiercingword‘Islamic’init,nordoesitrefertoaspecificcountry.Asecondfactoris

theriseinIslamicinspiredterrorismandariseinthereportingofthatterrorism.Nextisthe

impactoftheSyrianrefugeecrisis,whichhascausedmajordebateinEuropeafteritwas

discoveredthatoneoftheNovember13ParisattackershadenteredthecountryasaSyrian

refugee.AmericancitizensareinformedbytheactionsofouralliesinEuropewhoare

dealingwiththeseissues.Trump’sproposaltobantravelfromsixMuslimMajority

countriesresemblesFrance’sreactiontocloseitsdoorstorefugeesafterwhattheycalledan

intelligencefailure.Bothactionsstemfromthesamerationale;thedifferenceisthatFrance

claimedresponsibilityforitsintelligencefailure,whileTrumphasputtheonusonMuslims.

6.3HowAreMuslimsFaringintheU.S.?

FromapolicyperspectiveitisinterestingtorecognizethatAmericanshavedifferent

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attitudestowards“Islam”and“Muslims.”Americanshavedistinguishedbetweentheir

viewsonIslam(thereligioninabstractform)andtheirviewsofMuslims(apeople)leading

themtoacceptapolicythattargetsIslambutlesssopolicythatblocksMuslims.ABrookings

pollfoundthatin2011,39percentofAmericanshadfavorableviewsofIslam.When

AmericanswereaskedabouttheirviewsonMuslims,alargerpercentage(50percent)

expressedfavorableviews.180ThepollresultsshowthatAmericanshavemorefavorable

viewsofMuslimsthantheydoofIslam.TheresearchersuggestedthatAmericansassociate

MuslimwiththeMuslimpopulationinthecountry,andIslamwiththeforeignthreatofthe

religion.ThedifferingpollresultsareunsurprisingbecauseAmericanshavebeenprimedto

differentiatebetweenMuslimsandIslam.Stronganti-discriminationlawshavemadeit

harderforAmericanstoexpressprejudicetowardsapeople.Islamhoweverismore

abstractmakingitmoreacceptabletoreject.Furthermore,favorableviewsofMuslimshave

increasedfrom50percentexpressingfavorableviewsin2011to53percentin2015.181

PrejudicetowardsMuslims,orminoritiesofanykindhadnotbeenacceptableinthe

country’spoliticallandscapefordecades,untilnow,untilTrump.UnfavorableviewsofIslam

haveincreasedsignificantlyfrom2001(37percent)to2015(61percent).Thismeansthe

countryhasaproblemwithIslamthatstandstogetworseunderTrump’sadministration.

ItisinterestingthatAmericanshaveamorenegativeviewandaheightenedconcern

aboutforeignthreatsofIslam,whenthegreatestrecentthreatstotheU.S.havebeen

homegrownterrorists.Basedonriskassessment,theU.S.shouldbemoreconcernedwith

potentialattacksfromdomesticterroriststhanforeignones.OftheU.S.attacksbyMuslims

180Telhami,Shibley."WhatAmericansreallythinkaboutMuslimsandIslam."Brookings.Brookings,16Aug.2016.Web.3Apr.2017.181Telhami,Shibley."WhatAmericansreallythinkaboutMuslimsandIslam."

85

inthelast15years,Americanresidentsorcitizenshaveperpetratedthemajority.182That

beingsaidthepercentageofAmericanMuslimswhoparticipateinterrorattacksisvery

small.OverallMuslimsinAmericahaveproventhemselvesloyaltotheU.S..

Dearborn,Michigan,hometothreetimesthepercentofMuslimsasthenational

average,isoneexampleofproofofloyaltyandpatriotism.Sometimescalledthe“Arab

capitalofNorthAmerica”DearbornishometothelargestmosqueintheU.S.,theArab

Museum,halalMcDonald’sandnumerousMiddleEasterncafes,andhasneverposeda

threattothecountryorcommunity.Residentsofthetowninteractwithoneanother

unafraidoftheirneighbors.ThisisbecausetheDearbornPoliceDepartmenthas

implementedsmartpoliciesthatbuildtrustbetweentheMuslimcommunityandthe

officers.Inthepastseveralyearsfathershaveturnedinsonstheysuspectedofsuccumbing

toradicalonlinepropaganda,studentshaveturnedinpeersandMuslimshavereportedFBI

informantssentintoinfiltratecommunitiesforbeingsuspicious.

ThehighlevelsofcooperationbetweenpoliceandAmericanMuslimsarenotunique

toDearborn.AmemberofamosqueinVirginiaturnedinafellowPakistaniAmericanwhen

helearnedofhisplanstoblowupaMetrorailin2010.AnotherinformantalertedtheFBIof

theplansofthreeMuslimteenstomovetoSyriatojoinISISin2014.183Furthermore,Pew

reportsthat76percentofMuslimAmericansareveryorsomewhatconcernedwiththerise

ofIslamicextremismaroundtheworld,comparedwithaclose81percentofthegeneralU.S.

population.ContrarytostatementsmadebyGOPleadersthattheU.S.cannottrustand

thereforemustbanallMuslims,theDearbornMuslimcommunityhasbeenhighly182Barrett,James."ACompleteListofRadicalIslamicTerrorAttacksonU.S.SoilUnderObama."DailyWire.DailyWire,07Dec.2016.Web.01Apr.2017.183Hirsh,Michael,MalcolmNance,DanielBenjamin,MikeRoss,AndrésMiguelRondón,AronLund,andVirginiaHeffernan."InsidetheFBI’sSecretMuslimNetwork."POLITICOMagazine.PolitcoLLC,24Mar.2016.Web.06Apr.2017.

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cooperativeandpatriotic.184Thosestatementsarewrong,butworsetheydiminishtrust,

offsetpriorsuccessofprogramsandpromoteexclusion.AymanTaleb,a31-year-oldborn

andraisedinDallas,Texas,said,"InAmerica,ifyou'reanythingotherthanaWASP,then

you'redefinedasthe'other,'andwheneverafewselectindividualsdosomethingoutside

thelaw,theentirecommunityisassociated.Nocommunityshouldhavetobearthe

responsibility,nocommunityshouldhavetoapologizeorbeaskedtoapologize."185

DearbornChiefofPoliceRonaldHaddadaddsthat,“statementsthattendtoignitefear,

adversityinourcommunity,justdivertsusfromwhatwenormallydotokeepour

communitysafe.”186Americahasnotyetsolveditsproblem,butDearbornshouldserveas

anexampleofsoundprocedureandpolicy-making,notjustfortheU.S.butforFranceas

well.

Thisone-thirdArabcityhasoftenbeencomparedtomanyofthebanlieueofParis,

buttheyaredifferentinseveralveryimportantways.UnlikeFrance,theMuslimArab

communityofDearbornisnotisolatedfromtherestofthecity.Theyareconnectedtothe

community,theyparticipateinpolitics,andtheymakeupamajorityofthecitycouncil.187

ThesameistrueoftheAmericanMuslimpopulationasawhole.Themajorityformpartof

themiddle-classand71percentbelieveintheAmericandream.FurthermoreAmerican

Muslimssharethesameanxietiesoverterrorism.Pewfoundthat51percentarevery

184Hirsh,Michael,MalcolmNance,DanielBenjamin,MikeRoss,AndrésMiguelRondón,AronLund,andVirginiaHeffernan."InsidetheFBI’sSecretMuslimNetwork."185O'Connor,Tom."DonaldTrumpMuslimPlan:WhatSanBernardinoTerrorAttackSurvivorsSayAboutHisRegistry,TravelBanProposal."InternationalBusinessTimes.InternationalBusinessTimes,03Dec.2016.Web.31Mar.2017.186Raj,Roop."DearborncommunityrespondstoTrump'sproposedMuslimban."WJBK.FoxNews,8Dec.2015.Web.02Apr.2017.187Warikoo,Niraj."ArabAmericansbecomemajorityonDearborncouncil."USAToday.GannettSatelliteInformationNetwork,06Nov.2013.Web.01Apr.2017.

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concernedaboutIslamicextremism,comparedtojust35percentoftheMuslimpopulation

inFrance.188

TheFrenchcouldlearnafewlessonsfromU.S.policyandstrategyregardingIslam

andMuslims.Forone,theOutreach-and-InformantProgramworksfarbetterthanthe

policepatrollinginFrance.Additionally,U.S.Discriminationandfreedomofreligionlaws

protectMuslimsbysendingthemessagethattheyarejustasmuchmembersofthecountry

asanyoneelse.ProofofthisisthatAmericanMuslimsarefarmoreassimilatedand

patrioticthantheMuslimsinthebanlieue.Theaddedaspectofwhatmaybeinterpretedby

manyFrenchMuslimsasreligiouspersecutionleadstheresidentsofthebanlieuetofeela

strongersenseofexclusionandnon-acceptance.Therearehoweversomeinstancesof

attemptstoenactexclusionarypolicyintheU.S.,buttherearefarfewerexamplesofthis

thaninFrance.

UnbeknownsttomanyAmericans,severalstateshavelawssimilartothe2004

FrenchLawthatbarsreligiousgarbatschools.Pennsylvania,OregonandNebraskaare

threesuchstates.InPennsylvaniaandOregonthecourtshaveupheldchallengesbrought

undertheFirstAmendmentandTitleVIItothereligiousgarblawthatforbidsteachers

fromwearingreligiouscostumeatschool.ThecourtruledinthecaseinPennsylvania,U.S.

V.BoardofEducation(1990)thattheschoolhadactedpursuanttoits“GarbStatute”when

itinformedafemaleMuslimteachershecouldnotworkifsheworeaherveil.When

reviewedafteranappeal,thecourtuphelditsinitialrulingdeterminingthat“the

188Bailey,Brian."Section3:TerrorismandNationalSecurity."PewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress.PewResearchCenter,14Jan.2010.Web.01Apr.2017.

88

preservationofreligiousneutralityisacompellingstateinterest.”189Inthesimilar1986

Oregoncasethecourtruledonparallelgroundsinfavorofthestate.

Morerecentlyhoweverthestateshaveattemptedtocorrectdiscriminatory

legislationofitspastandcourtshaveruledinfavorofreligiousrights.ThisMarch,

Nebraskalawmakerspassedabilltoliftthestate’sbanonpublicschoolteacherswearing

religiousgarbsuchashijabs,yarmulkesandhabits.Thenewlegislationsoughttocorrect

thediscriminatorybanpassedin1919underpressurefromtheKuKluxKlan.Pennsylvania

hasalsopassedlegislationrepealingtheirsimilarban.Therehasalsobeenarisein

individualclaimstoreligiousfreedom.Muslims,whomakeupaminorityreligiousgroupin

theU.S.,havebroughtmoresuitsastheytrytogainacceptancefortheirreligion.In2015a

youngMuslimwomansuedAbercrombieandFitchfordiscriminatingagainstherand

denyingherajobforwearingahijab.ItwasthesecondcasethattermthattheSupreme

CourtruledinfavorofaMuslimandreligiousfreedom.190Thesecasesareevidenceofthe

factthattheUnitedStatesandFrancegrapplewiththesameissues,butsolvethemin

differentways.

Eachcountry’ssenseofnationalidentityandnationalvalueshasledtoadifferent

outcomeandpolicyresponse.TheU.S.prioritizestheindividualwhileFranceprioritizes

thestate.Inaddition,state-levelreligiousmotivatedlegislationandregulationintheU.S.

hasnotcreatedthesameoutcrythatthenationallawshavegeneratedinFrance.

RepressionofthereligiouslibertiesoftheMuslimsinFranceaccountsforlowerlevelsof

integration.Contrarily,higherlevelsofassimilationandemploymentamongtheU.S.189"CanaTeacherWearReligiousGarbtoSchool,ProvidedtheTeacherDoesNotProselytizetotheStudents?"NewseumInstitute.NewseumInstitute,2017.Web.01Apr.2017.190Hurley,Lawrence."U.S.topcourtbacksMuslimwomandeniedjoboverheadscarf."Reuters.ThomsonReuters,01June2015.Web.02Apr.2017.

89

MuslimminoritysuggesttheyarebetteroffthantheirFrenchcounterparts.Trump’s

rhetorichasalreadythreatenedthis,buthispolicieshavethepotentialtocreatelastingand

disastrouschange.

6.4TheMedia:TheCulpritofMisplacedFears

PresidentTrumpcannotbeblamedalone.HemayperpetuatetheideathatMuslims

aredangerousbutthemediahasskewedAmericanopinionfordecades.Onlyahandfulof

Muslimshavecommittedterroristattacks,yetitseemsasthoughithasbecomecommon

practice,why?Becausethemediahasdisproportionatelyspentmoretimereportingonthe

attacksperpetratedbyMuslims.ResearchersattheGeorgiaStateUniversitydidastudyon

terrorismandtheeffectsofmediaskewfrom2011to2015.Theyfoundthatforthosefive

yearsMuslimscarriedout11ofthe89attacksintheU.S.,yettheattacksbyMuslims

received44percentofthemediacoverage.TheexaggeratedmediafocusonIslaminspired

terrorismhasskewedAmerican’sandTrump’sperceptionofthetruedangerofforeign

Muslimterrorists.Theresearchersfoundthattheriskofbeingkilledinajihadistterror

attackintheU.S.inthelast15yearsamountedtoroughly1in2,640,000.191Animportant

stepinmitigatingthetensionbetweenAmericaandIslamiseliminatingthisbias.The

mediashouldmakeagreaterefforttoexpendthesameamountofresourcescoveringnon-

MuslimterrorattacksasitdoesfortheIslamic-motivatedattacks.ThiswillgiveAmericansa

clearerandmorefact-basedperspective.

TheUnitedStatesisfarfromsolvingitsreligiouslibertyissuesandwilllikelynever

comeupwithasolutionthatleaveseveryonecompletelycontent.Withthecreationof

191Bailey,Ronald."DoMuslimsCommitMostU.S.TerroristAttacks?"Reason.com.ReasonFoundation,24Mar.2017.Web.01Apr.2017.

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RFRAandRLUIPAtheU.S.addedthenecessarylegislationneededtosafeguardtherightsof

religiousminorities.Today,thebattleforMuslimsintheU.S.isfarmoreideologicalthanfact

based.Asaresultupholdingthelawsandthevaluesthatinspiredthemisevermore

important.MulticulturalismiscommonpracticeintheUnitedStates,thelandofliberty,

equalityandjustice,butthechallengewillbecontinuingthistradition.TheMuslim

populationispredictedtodoubleby2050dueinlargeparttoimmigrationaccordingto

Pew.TheclashbetweenMuslimsandAmericanswillnotdissipate.Altogether,thenew

administrationbringswithitavastlydifferentsetofvalues,fardifferentfromanyprevious

RepublicanAdministrations.TheUnitedStatesmustcontinuetoholditsvaluescloseand

embracediversity,especiallyreligiousdiversitynotonlyforthesakeofreligiousfreedom

andcivilrightsbutalsoforthesakeofnationalsecurity.FightingIslamwithbigotrywillnot

reduceitsthreat.FightingIslaminsteadwithacceptance,trust-buildingprogramsandfair

religiouspolicywill.

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CONCLUSION

AmericaandFrancearetwodemocraticnationsfoundedinthesameperiodwith

constitutionsthatguaranteeitspeopleverysimilarfundamentalrights.YettheAmerican

definitionofreligiousfreedomandunderstandingofreligioustolerancediffersimmensely

fromFrance’s.Forthemostpart,theAmericanethosofliveandletliveoraccommodation

haskeptthepeacebyupholdingreligiousfreedom.Tokeepthepeaceintheirnation,the

Frenchinstalledapolicyoflaïcité.

Todayweseetheresultsofthesedifferentpolicyapproaches.TheFrenchhavemade

itillegalforMuslimwomentowearheadscarves,andtheAmericanshavemadeitillegalto

discriminateagainstwomenwearingthem.EvenwhendatahasproventhatsomeMuslims

doposeathreattonationalsecurity,theU.S.CourtshaveupheldAmericanlawsandvalues

andagreedthatthethreatofasmallpercentageofMuslimsisnotenoughtojustifyspying

onMuslimcommunities,banningallMuslimsfromenteringthecountryandpassing

legislationthatlimitsreligiousexpressionintheguiseofnationalsecurityconcerns.This

hasnotalwaysbeenthecase,buttheU.S.hastriedtoenforceitspolicyoftolerance,non-

discriminationandinclusiontowardsMuslims,andhasinsteadfocusedoncombatting

foreignthreatsofIslam.Franceontheotherhandhasimposedaregimeoflaïcitéandcalled

forapublicspacefreefromreligion,leadingtolawsthattheMuslimcommunityoften

considersdiscriminatory.

Inrecentyearstherehasbeenanincreaseinlegislationandpolicythat

discriminates,restrictsandexcludesreligiousgroups,andthosepolicieshave

predominantlyandnegativelyaffectedMuslimsinbothcountries.Thesepolicieshavesent

themessagetoMuslimsthatIslamisnotconsistentwithAmericanorFrenchvalues,and

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thatMuslimpopulationsposeadangertonationalsecurity.Thispolicyalsohastheeffectof

creatingbarrierstointegrationandexacerbatingrelationsbetweentheWesternand

Muslimworlds.Inspiteoftheirdifferences,bothcountriessharestrengthsandweaknesses

intheirapproachestopublicpolicy.

AprinciplestrengthoftheAmericanapproachisthevalueitplacesonreligious

tolerance.Thisemphasisonreligioustoleranceandfreedomhasbeeneffective.Therehave

beenfewerchallengesbyAmericanMuslimsovertherighttoreligiousfreedomthanthe

French,inlargepartbecausetheU.S.governmenthasnotpassedlegislationlimitingthe

religiousfreedomofMuslimsthewayFrancehas.Whentherehavebeendisputesof

religiousfreedomintheU.S.,manyhaveoccurredatthestatelevel.Somestateshavepassed

orattemptedtopasslegislationregulatingtheconstructionofmosques,stemmingfromthe

factthatafewmosqueshavebeenfoundtopreachradicalIslam.Otherproposedpolicies

haveattemptedtobanSharialaw,religiouswear,andMuslimimmigration,allofwhich

imposelimitsonreligiousfreedomanddiscriminateonthebasisofreligion.Nonetheless

thelackofnationalreligiouslegislationofthisnaturehaskepttensionsbetweenMuslims

andAmericarelativelylow,comparedtoFrance.

Thisisoneofthekeydifferencesbetweenthetwocountriesthatindicatesthatthe

U.S.willlikelycontinuetoprotectthereligiouslibertiesofitscitizensinthenextfouryears

despiteTrump’spresidency,whileFrance,ifLePeniselectedinthesecondroundofthe

presidentialelection,maynot.American’sattitudestowardsMuslimpeoplehavebecome

increasinglymorefavorablefrom53percentinNovember2015to70percentinOctober

93

2016,despitethemountinganti-Muslimrhetoric.192Oneexplanationforthisis,themore

Trumpemphasizedtheissue,themoretheDemocrats,whoarelargelyresponsibleforthe

hugeincreaseinfavorability,adoptedtheoppositeposition;thatMuslimsarenotinfacta

threattothecountry’sidentityorsecurity.ThisshouldprovidetheAmericanpeoplewith

hopeandoptimismforthefuture.Thesilverliningofapolarizingpresident,Trumpmay

opentheeyesoftheAmericanpeopletoapreviouslyunimaginedfutureandmobilizehis

opposition.HopefullythesameistrueofFrance,shouldLePenwin.

Trump’sapproachtoIslamisnotnew,butithasbeenthemostshockingofpast

presidents.TheU.S.tendstoreacttonationalsecuritythreatswithanoutwardapproach.

After9/11theU.S.respondedwithanoffenseandinvadedtwoMuslimmajoritycountries.

AfewyearslatertheU.S.soughttoreduceAlQaeda’sinfluencebymobilizinggroupsin

AfghanistantoaidtheU.S.initsoperationtoneutralizeBinLaden.Furthermore,theU.S.

hascontinuedtodefendmoderateleadersandgovernmentsabroadagainstradicalIslamic

governments.MeanwhileFrancetendstolookforpotentialdangerswithinthenation.Past

legislationinFrance,suchasthe2011headscarfban,hastargetedtheMuslimpopulation

withinthecountry.Morerecentlyafterastringofterrorattacksfrom2015to2017,the

FrenchgovernmenthasimposedlegislationthatlimitsthereligiousexpressionofMuslims

suchastheburkiniban,andhasimplementedpoliciesliketheDeclarationofStateof

EmergencypolicyfollowingtheNovemberattacks,thathasconstrainedthecivillibertiesof

thepopulation.Trump’sbanexemplifiesthecompletelydifferentAmericanpolicypattern.

Accordingtohim,hisExecutiveOrderseekstocontaintheforeignthreats.Itisdifficultto

determineifonepolicyresponsehasworkedbetterthananotherconsideringallofthe

192Telhami,Shibley."HowTrumpchangedAmericans’viewofIslam–forthebetter."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,25Jan.2017.Web.15Apr.2017.

94

geopoliticalfactorsthatinfluenceeachnation.Howeveronaverybasiclevel,itmaybe

possiblethattheU.S.strategyofeliminatingforeignthreatshasworkedbetterthan

France’sstrategyofpolicingitsMuslimpopulation.

BycomparingthenumberofIslaminspiredterrorattacksandchallengesto

religiousfreedomineachcountrywecandeducetheeffectivenessofeachstrategy.TheU.S.

hassufferedfewerterrorattacksbyMuslimsoradherentsoftheIslamicStatethanFrance

inthelastfewyears.193TherehavealsobeenfewerchallengesbyMuslimsovertherightto

religiousfreedom.AreasonableconclusionthenmaybethattheUnitedStates’strategyof

focusingonexternalthreatshasworked.But,uponcloserexaminationthistheoryseems

incorrect.ItisnotthatthefocusonoutsidethreatshasthwartedterrorattacksintheU.S.,

butratherthelackofstringentlawsthattargetandtreatallMuslimsasasecuritythreat

hasnotcreatedthesenseofexclusionofMuslimsthatFrenchpolicyhas.

TheFrenchhaveaproblemwithhomegrownterrorismthattheU.S.,atleastuntil2015,

didnothave.AresidentoftheFrenchbanlieueexplainedthathebelievedLarossiAbballa,

theFrenchjihadistterroristwhostabbedaFrenchpoliceofficerinDecemberof2016,had

committedanactofterrorbecauseofrevenge.HesaidtheFrenchgovernmentkeeps

pressuringthemtoconformandputthestatefirst,“butwewillnotgiveupourreligion.And

ifitleadstoaclash…”194ItthereforeseemslikelythattherootofFrance’sMuslimdilemma

stemsfromitsresponseofrestrictingreligion,whichhasdisproportionatelyaffected

Muslims.Thisbringsustoanotherpointofcomparison:integrationofeachcountry’s

Muslimpopulation.

193Therehavebeen17IslaminspireterrorattacksinFranceinthelastyearand11intheU.S.from2011-2015.194Worth,RobertF."TheProfessorandtheJihadi."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,05Apr.2017.Web.14Apr.2017.

95

IntegrationhasfailedinFranceforseveralreasons.Itsrigidsenseofwhatitmeansto

beFrenchanditsone-waymodelofintegrationhavecreatedanenvironmentwhere

discriminationcanflourishbehindtheveiloftheFrenchtraditionofunity.Thelawsthat

attempttomakeeveryonethesamebyinstillingaregimeofsecularismcertainlyhavenot

helpedtheMuslimcommunityintegrate.OneissueisthattherigidFrenchidentitydoesnot

supportintegration.Forintegrationtobesuccessfulboththereceivingcountryandthe

immigrantpopulationmustmakeculturalsacrificesandcompromise.InsteadFrancehasa

modelofassimilation,whichclearlyhasnotbeensufficient.TheoppositiontoIslamin

Francehasbeenmanifestedinlegislationbanningveilsandburkinis.IndoingsoFrancehas

developedareputationespeciallyamongitsMuslimpopulationofbeingasanti-Islam.

FranceisunwillingtoacceptsomeoneasFrenchandMuslim.Thishascreatedanattitudinal

andsocialproblemcausingMuslimsinFrancetofeelunwelcome,isolatedandexcluded,

whichinturnhasledthemtowithdrawfromsocietyandhashurttheiroddsofsocio-

economicintegration.

Stillitisnotjusttherestrictivelawsaffectingreligion,butalsothelackofeconomic

progressamongMuslimimmigrantsthathasstifledintegration.Thetwoareveryclosely

related.Religiousdiscriminationhaspreventedimmigrantsfromeconomicintegration,just

aseconomicintegrationandthesettlementofMuslimsinthebanlieuehasledtheFrenchto

viewtheminanegativelight,as“other.”Muslimshavesettledinthebanlieueweretheyare

separatedfromtheFrenchandlackaccesstogoodeducationandschools.Theoutcomeis

lowerlevelsofincomeandeducationamongMuslimsinFrance.Muslimshavelessaccessto

education,facesocialdiscriminationinhiring,liveindefactoghettos,andlackgovernment

programstoincludeMuslimimmigrantsintotheworkforce.Thede-factodiscriminationis

96

linkedtoFrance’scolonialhegemonypriorto1960.However,therecenttensionshave

exacerbateddiscrimination.Lackofintegrationandsocio-economicinequalityisfarmoreof

anissueinFrance,thanitisinU.S.anditislikelybecausetheFrenchgovernmenthas

createdlegislationthatdisproportionatelyandobviouslydiscriminatesagainstMuslims.

Thegovernments’warinesstowardsMuslimsandfailureofintegrationhascreateda

greaterpotentialfordomesticterrorismtothrive.TheterroristoftheApril20,shootingin

ParisontheChamps-Eylsees,forwhichISISclaimedresponsibility,wasaMuslimFrench

nationallivinginabanlieueEastofPariswhohadaffirmedhishatredforpoliceandFrench

authorityonmultipleoccasions.195Theideologyusedtojustifytheterrorattackshas

nothingtodowithprotectingjobsorlegislationonreligion:itseesallofFrenchsocietyas

theenemy.Asaresult,France’santi-Muslimpolicieshavenotsucceededinintegratingtheir

Muslimcommunities,whichhascreatedasharpdivideinthenationthatincreasinglyposes

anationalsecuritythreat.

TheU.S.ontheotherhandhassucceedinginbalancingreligiouspolicyandnational

identityandsecurity.OneindicationofthisistheextentofintegrationamongMuslim

Americans.Apolicyofmulticulturalismandreligioustolerancehasencouragedintegration

intheU.S..Thispolicyhasledtoconsistentratesofeducationandsocio-economicand

culturalintegration.AhighpercentageofMuslimAmericans(30percent),foreignand

nativeborn,arecollegesgraduates,comparedto18percentofthegeneralAmerican

population.196Intermsofincome,MuslimsseemtobeonequalgroundwithAmericans,at

195Chazan,BarneyHenderson;David."Parisattack:policeofficerandsuspectshotdeadonChampsElysees."TheTelegraph.TelegraphMediaGroup,20Apr.2017.Web.20Apr.2017.196Bailey,Brian."Section1:ADemographicPortraitofMuslimAmericans."PewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress.PewResearchCenter,29Aug.2011.Web.13Apr.2017.

97

leastforthosewhomakeover$100,000ayear.197Amonglowerincomebracketsthegap

widens.TherehasalsobeenaslightdeclineinMuslims’incomesrecentyears,whichcould

betheresultofhigherratesofIslamophobiaandtheeconomicrecessionof2007to2009.

Furthermore,amajorityofMuslimAmericans(56percent)haveadesiretointegrateand

adoptAmericancustoms,astrongindicatorthatthecountryappearswelcoming.Another

markerofsuccessfulintegrationistheanswertothequestionof“howdoyouthinkof

yourselffirst?”OfU.S.Muslimspolled,49percentsaidMuslimsfirst,comparedto46

percentofChristianswhorespondedthattheyidentifyasChristianbeforeAmerican.These

areallsignsthatAmericanpolicyhassucceededinwelcomingandintegratingMuslims.

However,thiscouldallchangeinthenextfouryearsundertheTrump

Administration.ThebriefperiodsintheU.S.duringwhichanti-Catholicsandanti-alien

sentimentprevailedwerelimited,butTrumphasawokenanAmericanspiritthatfearsthe

foreignalienandcouldhaveaprofounddomesticimpact.Theleadersofanycountry,the

president,hisadministrationandanyofhisappointees,havethepowertochangelaws,

createnewlawsthroughexecutiveorders,andinterprettheminnewways.Iftheyhave

differentvaluesthanpastadministrations,theycaninfluenceachangeinestablished

precedentandattempttoredefinethemeaningofthelaws.Trumpandhisappointeeshave

thepotentialtodothis.Throughouthiscampaignandinthefirstfewmonthsofhis

presidencyPresidentTrumphasshownthathisvaluesandpolicysuggestionsare

strikinglydifferentthanourlastfewpresidents.Hispolicieswillaffecttheentirecountry,

butwillhavethestrongestimpactonMuslimswhohebelievesthreatentochangethe

Americanfabric.

197Bailey,Brian.

98

InFrancethefuturetoo,isshaky.Theideologicalgapbetweenthetwopresidential

candidates,thecentristMacron,andthefarrightLePen,resemblesthepolarizingU.S.

campaignbetweenClintonandTrump.Macronwonthefirstroundbyaslimmarginofthree

points.Whoeveriselectedwillimposehisorherviewsandpoliciesonthecountry,as

Trumphadbeguntodo.Thecandidatesstandmilesapartintermsofideologyandpolicy

agendas.TheworldisawaitingtoseewhowillcapturethevotesofFrenchcitizens.If

MarineLePenwinstheelection,FrancecouldshiftinthesamedirectiontheU.S.has.

PresidentialhopefulMarineLePenhassimilarpoliticstoTrump.Shehasrunonthe

sameplatformofclampingdownonIslamandkeepingMuslimsoutandoftenrefersto

radicalIslamandglobalismastwoevilforcesthathavethepotentialtodestroyFrance.Asof

now,noproposalforaMuslimimmigrationbanhasreachedtheFrenchsenate.But

accordingtoNationalFrontmayorSteeveBriois,aleadingmemberofLePen’scampaign,

thereisthepossibilityofaMuslimbanifLePenwins.Whenaskedwhetherhispartywould

consideremployingthesamebanasTrumphereplied,“Whynot…sometimeswemaytake

authoritarianmeasures,eveniftheyshock.”198ThisisapolicytheNationalfronthas

supportedsincethe1990’s,butonlyinthelastfewmonthshasitseemedlikely.

ThecurrentFrenchgovernmenthashowevercondemnedtheban,whichissurprising

consideringFrancedoeshaveseveralreligiouslawsthatwouldbyAmericanstandardsbe

considereddiscriminatoryandunconstitutional.

TheelectionofLePencouldradicallychangethefutureofreligiousfreedomand

discriminationpolicyinFrance,justasTrump’sbanandfuturepolicieshavethepotentialto

dismantlethecountry’sidentityasanationthatvaluesfreedom,rightsanddiversity.The

198“France’sFarRightNationalfrontsaysitcouldcopyTrump’stravelban.”TheLocal.TheLocal,Jan30.2017.02Apr.2017.

99

policytensionhereisthatAmerica,forthemoment,stillupholdsitsidentityasacountryof

immigrants,a“meltingpot”whereimmigrantscanbecomeAmericansandprosper,but

Trump’sactionsthreatentochangethis.InFrancetheelectionofMacroncouldshiftFrench

policytoamoreopenmodelthatembracesitsdiversepopulation,ortheelectionofLePen

couldreinforcerigidFrenchnationalidentity.Thefutureremainstobeseen.

Thereismuchatstakeinbothcountries.However,thereisalsomuchthatcanbe

drawnfromeachcountry’svaluesandlegalsystemthatcanbeusedtoimplementpositive

policychange.TheFrenchshouldtakeapagefromtheAmericansandadoptamore

inclusivespirit.IntermsofpolicyFranceshouldmoveawayfrommodelofstatefirst,by

changingthestandardforreligiousfreedomdisputestotheAmericanmodelwhichjudges

claimsthrougha“leastrestrictivemeans”test.Inaddition,citiesinFranceshouldcreate

trustbuildingandinformantprogramsamongpoliceandresidentsoftheMuslimmajority

banlieuetoreducetensionbetweenmarginalizedMuslimcitizensandthestate.IntheU.S.,

thegovernmentshouldcontinuetosupportreligiousfreedomandfurthermoredistance

itselffromreligion.ItshouldgetridofthereferencestoGodinthepledgeoftheallegiance,

onmoney,andinpublicschoolsespeciallyasthepercentageofChristianAmericans

declines.199Balancingreligiousfreedomandnationalidentityhasbecomeincreasingly

difficultasthemajorityineachcountryhasshrunkwiththearrivalofnewimmigrants

fromdiversereligiousandethnicbackgrounds.Withnewpresidentsineachcountrythe

futureisunpredictable.Butultimately,findingacomfortablebalancebetweenreligious

199ThepercentofChristiansintheU.S.hasdeclinedfrom74%in2007to63%in2014.InadditionProtestantismisnolongerthemajorityreligionofthecountry.Itispredictedby2050thatthenumberofMuslimswillbenearlyequaltothenumberofChristians.“Nones”ontheRise:One-in-FiveAdultsHaveNoReligiousAffiliation.”PewForumonReligion&PublicLife.

100

freedomandnationalidentitywillincreaseeachnation’ssecuritymaketheoddsof

harmonyandunityfarmorelikely.

101

APPENDIX:TheMuslimPopulationoftheU.S.

3.3 Million Muslims in the U.S.

1% of the U.S. population

69% 70% U.S. MUSLIMS U.S.CHRISTIANS Say religion is very important to them

102

APPENDIX:TheMuslimPopulationofFrance

7.5 % of the population is Muslim

15% of Paris is Muslim

Only 2,000 46% of Muslims French Women wear veils accept laïcité and French values of secularism Attend religious services… 5.1% 16.6% 31.3% FRENCH MUSLIMS FRENCH MUSLIMS FRENCH MUSLIMS Everyday Once a week Never

Veils…. 57% of French Muslim women do not wear a veil

23% always wear a veil 7% wear a veil except at their place of work or

school Percent Foreign born…

50% of French Muslims were born French 24% of French Muslims acquired French citizenship

26% remain foreigners

(Source: “Un Islam Francais Est Possible.” Institute Montaigne, Sept 2016.)

103

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