What YOU Need to Know about Communication, Writing, & Science Tom Lang Tom Lang Communications and Training

What YOU Needto Know about

Communication, Writing, & Science

Tom LangTom Lang Communications and Training

The Importance of Writing and Publishing in Science

Science cannot exist without writing!

Writing is the only form of communication that allows science to be distinct from authority, intuition, and tradition as a way of establishing truth.

Science, to be science, must be public, objective, predictive, reproducible, systematic, and cumulative.

The published article is the only medium that allows these characteristics to exist.

If the purpose of science is to discover, the final stage of research is to publish the discovery.

If the results are not published, from a scientific standpoint, the research never took place.

The awful truth . . .

If you have chosen to become a scientist, you have chosen to

become a writer!

Why You May Not Like to Write: Practice vs. Applied Writing

"The original source [of false assumptions about writing] is the artificial communication a student is required to perform in college.

In writing only for professors, a student learns to write for audiences of one, audiences who know more than the writer knows, and audiences who have no instrumental interest in what the report contains."

J. Mathes and D. Stevensen

Differences in the Direction of the Flow of Information

Practice writing: information usually goes from a student learning the topic to a teacher already knowledgeable about the topic. Applied writing: information must go from an author knowledgeable about the topic to a reader who needs to learn about it.

Differences in How Writing is Evaluated

Practice writing: is graded on grammar or "quality of thought." The text itself is evaluated.Applied writing: is evaluated by how it helps others in the organization to function. The text is by evaluated by assessing readers’ understanding of it.

Differences in the Intrinsic and Instrumental Aspects of Writing

Practice writing: the intrinsic value of writing is emphasized; the words themselves are the art. Applied writing: the instrumental or functional value of writing is paramount: "transparent" text is always preferred to "style."

Differences in Expression vs. Functional Communication

Practice writing: writing is often taught as personal expression (writer-based texts) to foster students' maturation. Applied writing: writing must be a part of social communication (reader-based texts) to make possible prolonged and complex scientific activities.

An Emphasis of Words vs. Words, Images, Numbers, and Design

Practice writing: usually emphasizes only wordsApplied writing: requires tables, diagrams, graphs, maps, illustrations, photographs, equations, and sometimes even graphic design

In other words, what we learn about writing in school does not prepare us for writing in our jobs or professions.

Writing the Technical Report

"The technical report is an act of communication by a professional in an

organizational system to transfer information necessary for the system

to continue to function."

Organizational Communication System

You

Inputs Outputs

Others in the Organization

An Important Distinction

• Your technical tasks as a problem-solver differ from your report-writing tasks as a communicator!

• These two roles require different

perspectives and different skills


YouTechnical

Inputs Tasks OutputsWriting

Tasks


Design the Report around the Organization System

Introduce it to the system

Fit it into the system


Assignment YouBackground TechnicalInformation Tasks

Problem Writing Statement Tasks


The 4-part Introduction

1. Background statement

2. Problem statement

3. Task statement

4. Summary statement

Original Introduction

The symmetrically spiraled curve program was designed and written to compute the basic characteristics of a symmetrically spiraled circular curve. In addition to those characteristics, the program will also compute the deflection angles required to set stakes at quarter stations (every 25 feet) along the curve.

Data SetsTwo data sets are required by the symmetrically

spiraled curve program for every curve that is to be computed . . .

Revised Introduction

Symmetrically spiraled curves accommodate the natural driving path of the motorist. Properly designed, these curves produce a more comfortable ride. However, engineers have hesitated to use these curves because of the difficulty in calculating them. The symmetrically spiraled curve program was written to compute the basic characteristics of the curve more easily. This memo explains how to arrange the necessary data sets on computer cards so that highway engineers can use the symmetrically spiraled curve program to design a curve.

Revised Introduction

Symmetrically spiraled curves accommodate the natural driving path of the motorist. Properly designed, these curves produce a more comfortable ride. However, engineers have hesitated to use these curves because of the difficulty in calculating them. The symmetrically spiraled curve program was written to compute the basic characteristics of the curve more easily. This memo explains how to arrange the necessary data sets on computer cards so that highway engineers can use the symmetrically spiraled curve program to design a curve.

1. Background statement: provides the context for understanding the problem and approach

2. Problem statement: describes the nature, scope, severity, or importance of the problem that stimulated the research

3. Task statement: indicates the research question, hypothesis, approach, or activities undertaken to investigate the problem

4. Summary statement: tells readers what they will find if they continue to read

Part 1: Background Statement

“In patients with atherosclerotic vascular disease, aspirin is recommended to prevent myocardial infarction and graft occlusion.”

Part 2: Problem Statement

“However, aspirin is also associated with bleeding. Patients are often asked to stop taking aspirin before bronchoscopy, to reduce the risk of bleeding. The effectiveness of this practice has never been tested.”’

Part 3: Task Statement

“Thus, we sought to determine whether aspirin really does increase the risk of bleeding after bronchoscopy.”

Part 4: Summary Statement

“. . . in which we compared the number and severity of bleeding events in those taking aspirin with those who were not and determined that aspirin does not increase the risk of bleeding.”

Problems with Introductions

• Weak background and problem statements

• Many authors assume readers will know 1) what problem was studied 2) why the problem is important

General Organization of Reports

• Most reports have multiple, complex audiences

• Magazine publishers segment their market by printing different editions for each market segment

• Segment the report so that different audiences can read selectively

General Organization

Write two components: 1) a summary component that

summarizes the problem and solution for all readers

2) a complete component that presents the details and implications for specific readers

• Make each self-sufficient and capable of standing alone

General Organization

1. Write the complete component first

2. Create the summary component by editing the full component until it is suitable for the primary audience

The Summary Component

A Heading Segment

A Task Segment

A Summary Segment

Heading Segment

Identifies the author(s), recipient(s) or distribution list, topic, date, related communications

This information should allow readers to place the report in time and context.

Task Segment

Describes your understanding of the task; identifies the data, files, or materials you were given to work with; and details what you did to complete the task

(This is the four-part introduction)

Summary Segment

Briefly presents the results (including figures and tables, if necessary) and conclusions of the report

The Complete Component

The segments will vary, depending on the circumstance

However, reports will usually have a beginning, a middle, and an ending segment

Beginning segment: usually the full form of the task segment that appears in abbreviated form in the summary component

Middle segment: quite variable

May present arguments for fact, value (desired ends), or policy (desired means to an end)

Divide the segments into coherent parts with informative headings

Order the segments and make the order known to readers

Ending segment: includes the conclusions, recommendations, and appendices of supporting data

SUMMARY COMPONENTHeading Segment

Title, Author, Distribution list, Date, Related Documents Task Segment (4-part introduction)

Summary Segment

COMPLETE COMPONENTBeginning Segment (4-part introduction)

Middle SegmentEnding Segment

Conclusions Recommendations

Appendices

The P.A.S.T of a Technical Report

Every Document has a P.A.S.T. PurposeAudienceSettingTopic

Determining the PURPOSE of Your Report

Before you begin to write, ask:• What result do you want to achieve? • How should the world to be different? • What decisions or behaviors do you

want from your readers?

First, describe (to yourself) the way things are now.

Then, describe (to yourself) the way you want things to be, for example:

• You want your boss to accept your proposal for a new project.

• You want the employees in three departments to be able to use a new software program

Concern About

How Readers Feel Now, before Your

Report

How You Want Them to Feel after Reading Your

Report

You The CEO has no opinion about you because you are new; she is open-minded.

The CEO now believes that you are a talented, competent researcher

The Topic The lab manager is using an outdated process but is happy with it.

The manager now feels that it may be time to upgrade the process

Themselves The client is hesitant to buy your product.

The client now feels confident that buying your product is the right thing to do.

Characterizing the AUDIENCE of Your Report

Determine who will (and who should) read your report.

Classify each reader by his or her role in the organization: • Decision-makers• Advisors to decision-makers• Implementers of the decisions


Classify each reader by his or her role in relationship to you: • Primary audience• Secondary audiences• Immediate audiences• External• Remote in time and place


• Ask your readers what they want, especially the primary audience.

• Ask about purpose, audience, setting, and topic; coverage; length; amount of time you should devote to writing; who you should coordinate with in writing the report, and so on.

Know the Communication Needs of Your Audience

• What do they want to know? • What do they already know?• What do they need to know?• What do they think they know that

isn’t so?

False Assumptions about Audiences of Technical Reports

• That the person addressed is the audience (the obvious audience may not be the true primary audience)

• That the audience consists of specialists in your field

• That the report has a finite period of use; it may be filed and kept for years

False Assumptions about Audiences of Technical Reports

• That the author will be available to answer questions about the

report• That the audience is familiar with

your job and why you wrote the report

• That the audience wants to read the report and has time to read it

Understanding the SETTING in which Your Report Will be Read

Will your readers:• Study the report in an office? • Skim the text on a plane or subway? • Scan the headings and figures during a

meeting? • Read the report closely at a lab bench to

follow directions?• Read different parts of the report in

different settings

Organizing the TOPIC of Your Report

To Report Research Activities• Why did you start? (Introduction)• What did you do? (Methods)• What did you find? (Results)• What does it mean? (Discussion)

To Help Readers Accept Your Ideas, Services, or Products

Stress the following characteristics:• High relative advantage• High compatibility with values • High visibility of its usefulness • Easy “triability” before adoption • Low complexity

To Compare Two or More Alternatives

Divided Pattern Alternating PatternFurnace A Cost EfficiencyFurnace B Cost Efficiency

Cost Furnace A Furnace BEfficiency Furnace A Furnace B

To Negotiate Agreement: Steps in Principled Negotiation

• Separate the people from the problem

• Focus on issues, not positions• Look for areas of mutual benefit• Decide on the basis of objective

criteria

The secret to good writing

Have something to say.

Say it.

Stop!