What We Know About Learning - SAGE Publications Ltd · What We Know About Learning I magine a situation in which some-thing very dear to you (e.g., your job, ... seeing this picture:

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What We Know About Learning

Imagine a situation in which some-thing very dear to you (e.g., your job,

your family, your health) depends onyour ability to correctly identify what ispictured in Figure 1.1.

Needless to say, in this hypotheticalsituation, you’re highly motivatedto figure out what is being shown inthe picture. However, the picture isonly obvious to approximately 10% ofpeople; the other 90% can figure itout with some instruction. What sort ofinstruction would be most likely toresult in your figuring out the picture?

Here’s what a group of teachers saidwhen they were asked this question afterseeing this picture:

“I learn best by having it explainedto me.”

“Tell me how the picture is con-structed so I can figure it out on myown.”

“Tell me what it’s supposed to be.”

“Show me another one like it.”

“Talking to other people about ithelps me learn.”

“Give me some paper so I can drawaround the black areas.”

“I need to read more informationabout how the picture works.”

“Give me some options to choosefrom.”

“I want to be under my headphones,listening to music, and not listeningto anybody else.”

“Let me make some guesses, and youtell me if I’m close.”

What would you say? Somethingsimilar to what these other teacherssaid, or something entirely different?The point is that although we sharesome processes in common, each per-son approaches a learning task in aunique way. The key component, how-ever, is that in figuring out the picture,each of us is engaged in learning.

Take a moment to look at Figure 1.1again. Now, select from the approachesbelow to figure out what the picture is.

• Take different visual perspectives(i.e., hold it different distances

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from your eyes or look at it outof the corner of your eye) to seewhether you can figure it out.

• Read what other people think it is(turn to Note 1 in the Chapter 1Notes).

• See another picture like it (turn toNote 2 in the Chapter 1 Notes).

• Read information about how thepicture was constructed (turn toNote 3 in the Chapter 1 Notes).

• Try drawing “wholes” aroundpieces of the picture (turn to Note4 in the Chapter 1 Notes foranother copy of the picture youcan draw on).

• Listen to some music while youlook at the picture (you’re on yourown here).

• Read a set of words describingthe picture (turn to Note 5 in theChapter 1 Notes and follow theinstructions for covering the list soyou can read the words one by one).

Once you’ve figured out the picture,reflect for a moment on the learningstrategies you used. We’ll return to thispuzzle picture later, and don’t worry ifyou don’t see the picture; some peoplenever see it (there’s a picture in Note 6to show you what the “answer” is).And, if you’re curious about the secondpicture, Note 7 shows the “answer.”

How Do You Learn Best?

How do you learn best? Take a minuteor two to think about how youapproached the puzzle picture. Whatwas the first strategy you used to figureit out? Did that strategy work? If not,what did you try next? Did that work? Ifnot, how did you feel? Did you want togive up? Were you angry? Did you skipahead? Did you turn to Note 6 to seewhat the “answer” was? Were you reas-sured by our telling you not to worry if

2——LEARNER-CENTERED CLASSROOM PRACTICES AND ASSESSMENTS

Figure 1.1


you didn’t see the picture? Did youreserve judgment, thinking we might beplaying a trick on you? Or are you one ofthe 10% of people who see the “answer”right away? The answers to these ques-tions offer some insight into how youlike to approach learning somethingnew and what you do when the processis not necessarily immediate or easy(unless you’re in that 10% group).

Another way to gain insight intohow you learn best is to consider yourresponses to these questions:

• What do you typically do toreduce stress? Do you like to bealone? Listen to or create music?Read? Walk/sit in a natural setting?Organize your closets/drawers/workshop/files/calendar? Talk tofriends? Look at art? Draw, paint,sculpt, make a piece of furniture?Dance? Watch a sports event?Volunteer in a community organi-zation or agency? Get a massage?Play video games? Surf theInternet?

• How do you play? Do you like toplay by yourself? With animals?With other people? What formdoes your play take? Is it orga-nized and scripted (e.g., an athleticactivity of some sort)? Or is it morespontaneous (e.g., skipping stoneson water, tossing a Frisbee with afriend, going to a movie)? Is yourplay physical? Musical? Does itinvolve language (e.g., Do you liketo play with words)? Do you liketo play with colors, forms, tex-tures? Do you like to play withdifferent ways to organize things(e.g., time, events, objects, ideas)?Do you like to play with numbersor numerical concepts? Do you

enjoy using new technologies andWeb-based tools?

• What sorts of things in your lifedo you like to think about andplan? For instance, do you enjoyplanning social gatherings? If so,which aspects are most enjoyable?Thinking about who will be thereand the dynamics among people?Planning the decorations andfood? Thinking about the clothingeveryone will wear? Which sortsof things do you dread doing?Balancing your checkbook? Talk-ing to a family member aboutsomething difficult? Exercising?Being alone? Being in social situa-tions? Playing party games?

• Do you prefer working onprojects with other people, or doyou prefer working by yourself? Ifyou work with others, is it easyfor you to explain your ideasand thoughts? Which role(s) doyou typically take: leader, orga-nizer, idea generator, explainer,recorder, detail person, emotionalsupport person? If you preferworking alone, how do youapproach a new project? What doyou usually do first? Which part ofworking alone do you most enjoy?

• Do you always approach problemsor new learning in the same way, ordo you like to try new approachesto see how they work? Over yourlifetime, have you changed theway you like to learn and experi-ence new things? Are your learn-ing strengths different from whatthey were when you were ateenager? A young(er) adult?

• Do you like to know why youshould bother to learn new skills,knowledge, or processes? That is,

What We Know About Learning——3


before you commit to learningsomething new, do you analyze itsrelevance, value, cost, and short-term and long-term contributionsto your life?

When thinking about your responsesto these questions, consider how youfeel when you find yourself in learn-ing situations in which your learningpreferences are recognized, valued,supported, and extended. Alternately,think about how you feel when yourlearning preferences are overlooked,dismissed, or worse, denigrated. Ifyou’re like most people, you feelenergized and creative when you’re inlearning environments that supporthow you learn best, and you feel angry,depressed, or even hopeless when youfind yourself in learning contexts thatdo not support how you learn best.

Most of us go into teaching becausewe believe we can make a positivedifference in young people’s lives. Formany of us, we share a belief instudents’ curiosity and desire to learn,we want to support them as lifelonglearners, and we desire to help studentsdevelop into competent and responsi-ble adults. We undertake the job of edu-cating students out of a commitmentto the greater good of our society,knowing that supporting students intheir development as learners leads tocitizens who care about not just them-selves and their own communities, butother people and societies as well.

Today, in many parts of the UnitedStates, schools are no longer organizedto support students’ inherent curios-ity, desire to learn, and motivation todevelop responsibility for their learn-ing. Reflecting on how you tried tosolve the puzzle picture and your

responses to the questions that fol-lowed, imagine how students feel whenthey have few—or no—opportunitiesto explore learning, discover how theylearn best, try out different approachesto solving problems, work indepen-dently and with teammates on projectsthat interest them, determine the rele-vance of what they are learning to theirlives, and analyze the benefits of theirlearning to their short- and long-termgoals for themselves. Imagine how youwould feel if you were in their shoes.Would you feel motivated to learn whatsomeone else thinks is best for you?Would you feel motivated to learn fromsomeone who tells you what you needto know, in spite of the fact that heor she knows little or nothing aboutyou and your life, dreams, hopes, andgoals?

What Does the EvidenceShow About SupportingNatural Learning?

From our research as well as that ofothers who have explored differencesin what learning looks like in and outof school settings, several things havebecome obvious (e.g., McCombs, 2001,2004b; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).Real-life learning from the learner’sperspective is often playful, recursiveand nonlinear, engaging, self-directed,and meaningful. But why are thenatural processes of motivation andlearning seen in real life rarely seenin most school settings? The researchshows that self-motivated learning isonly possible in contexts that providethe learner with choice and control.When students have choice and are



allowed to control major aspects oftheir learning (such as what topics topursue, how and when to study, andoutcomes to achieve) they are morelikely to self-regulate their thinking andlearning processes than when theyhave little or no choice or control.

Recall how you approached “solv-ing” the picture puzzle at the begin-ning of this chapter. Imagine how youwould have approached solving it ifwe had said you needed to learn howto solve puzzles of this type becauseyou’d need to know how to do it laterin your life. Imagine, too, how youwould have approached the problem ifwe had told you that you had no choiceabout learning how to do it.

The research indicates that schoolsneed to offer person-centered models oflearning that incorporate challenginglearning experiences. School learningexperiences should prepare learners tobe knowledge producers, knowledgeusers, and socially responsible citizens.Given the research evidence, a naturalquestion to ask is whether the sociallyvalued academic knowledge and skillsstandards currently in vogue are suffi-cient for educating students for thetwenty-first-century world, where con-tent is so abundant that it makes a poorfoundation for an educational system.The scarce commodities are context,meaning, and successful communica-tion with others. The purposes of edu-cation that prepares learners for theworld outside school are to teach learn-ers how to communicate with others,find relevant and accurate informationfor the task at hand, and become co-learners with teachers and peers indiverse settings beyond school walls.

Moving toward this vision requiresfresh concepts, validated by evidence

from careful research, that define thelearning process and the evolving pur-poses of education. It also requiresrethinking current directions and prac-tices. While maintaining high standardsin the learning of desired content andskills, the learner, learning process, andlearning environment must not beneglected if we are to adequatelyprepare students for productive andhealthy futures. Consequently, stateand national standards must be criti-cally reevaluated in terms of what isnecessary to prepare students to beknowledgeable, responsible, and caringcitizens. Standards must move beyondknowledge conservation to incorporateknowledge creation and production(Hannafin, 1999). The current focus oncontent must be balanced with a focuson individual learners and their holisticlearning needs in an increasingly com-plex and fast-changing world.

Educators have long argued thatcontent alone does not prepare stu-dents to be successful workers in theglobal economy or effective citizens inthe global village (McLuhan, 1989;Tomlinson, 1999). What is needed arelearner-centered models of schoolingthat promote autonomy, personalresponsibility, and trust, as well as thebroader base of knowledge that allowsstudents to be more than low-levelknowledge reproducers. Current mod-els of school that focus on firm controlof students and rote memorizationpromote compliance with directives,inability and unwillingness to questionauthority, and dependence and fragil-ity as a lifelong learner. In contrast,learner-centered models contribute tothe development of students who arethe knowledge producers and criticalthinkers who participate actively and



productively both in their local soci-eties and the global community. Tobecome knowledge producers and crit-ical thinkers, students must experienceschooling practices in which they areactive partners with caring adults ingovernance and learning activities.Through their experiences in school,they must experience and help createsocial justice; they must have opportu-nities to learn ethical decision makingthrough partnering with the adults intheir schools and communities.

The needs of learners—includingteachers as learners—are changingand require our attention in order toaddress problems such as schooldropout and teacher departures fromthe profession, both consequences oflearner alienation. Ryan and Deci (2000)maintain that alienation in any agepopulation is caused by failing toprovide supports for competence,autonomy, and relatedness. Preparingteachers to meet these needs for them-selves and their students is essential tohealthy development and to creatingcontexts that engender individualcommitment, effort, and high-qualityperformance. Unfortunately, there arenumerous examples in the current edu-cational reform agenda of coercive andpunitive consequences for students,teachers, and administrators whenstudents fail to achieve educationalstandards on state and national tests.The time has come for a research-based model that addresses theselearner needs while also addressing high standards of performance for alllearners.

A recent national study of lowsocioeconomic status (SES) and minor-ity elementary students indicated thatthe most powerful school characteris-tics for promoting resiliency (academic

success) included a supportive schoolenvironment model that was safe andorderly and that promoted positivestudent-teacher relationships (Borman& Overman, 2004). Students in theseenvironments displayed greater engage-ment in academic activities, a strongersense of math efficacy, higher self-esteem, and a more positive outlooktoward school. These models are par-ticularly needed in today’s culture,which has fewer and less stable familyand social institutions that promoteresilience. Schools can help meet theseneeds to the extent that they are focusedon learner needs that go beyond acade-mic competence (Phillips, 1997).

A review of alternative educationalmodels examined learner-centered,progressive, and holistic education(Martin, 2002). Growing numbers ofalternative schools fit within this broadcategory and include democratic andfree schools, folk education, Quakerschools, home schooling/unschooling/deschooling, Krishnamurti schools,Montessori education, open schools,and Waldorf schools. This diversity ofalternatives to mainstream or tradi-tional education is in keeping withsocial values that include pluralism anddiversity, a more sustainable world,and just democracy. The alternativemodels tend not to be rooted in anoverly rational or objective way ofknowing; in addition, they acknowl-edge interdependencies and values,and they incorporate the emotional,ecological, spiritual, physical, social,and intellectual aspects of living thatare reflected in schooling (Forbes,1999). These learner-based modelsaddress the needs of the whole child inbalance with the needs of the commu-nity and society. They hold in commona respect for diversity and different



philosophical beliefs about what itmeans to live, learn, love, and grow intoday’s society. They are all “person-centered” approaches expressed in adiversity of ways. What makes “learner-centered” education transformative(holistic) is its recognition that mean-ing is co-constructed and that self-regulation occurs through interde-pendence, with a focus on being andbecoming fully functioning.

Teachers and Students as Co-Learners: An Invitation

Learner-centered teachers not onlyknow the subject matter they are teach-ing; they also understand that they—along with their students—are learners.The most effective teachers know howto flexibly shift their role from teacherto expert learner to beginning learner.As co-learners, they can share the own-ership of learning with their studentsas appropriate. They model effectivelearning processes as they help stu-dents understand how to assumeincreased responsibility for their learn-ing. And, learner-centered teachersknow which knowledge and skills theywant students to acquire and the bestmethods for facilitating the learningprocess for individual learners withdiverse learning interests and needs.

Teaching practices that are “learner-centered” stem from the understandingthat each student needs to feel known,respected, cared about, and supported.Students whose teachers use learner-centered practices are aware that theirunique learning needs, interests, andtalents are being considered and are val-ued and respected. They are partnerswith teachers in the learning process. Asa result, they feel honored, supported,

and have a sense of ownership of theirlearning. In the process, students’ nat-ural motivation to learn emerges.

When an educational paradigm orreform agenda puts something otherthan the learner at the center of instruc-tional decision making, all learners—teachers included—suffer. They knowthat the system is not about them and isnot responsive to their needs. Fromlearners’ perspectives, the system is outof balance if knowledge (content stan-dards) or learning (performance skillsand achievement measures) is at thecenter of instructional decision making.In such a system, learners recognizethey are not important because whothey are and what they need are not atthe heart of the learning process. Atworst, they feel left out, ignored, oralienated; at best, they feel the system isimpersonal and irrelevant. In eithercase, learning and motivation to learnsuffer. Students and teachers alikebegin to disengage from the learningprocess.

If kids feel connected, if they feel part of acommunity where they’re respected andvalued, they’ll be more likely to stay inschool . . . and succeed. (Social studiesteacher we have worked with in a learner-centered high school)

In learner-centered systems, teachersmodel lifelong and continuous learningfor their students. They also assumeleadership roles and serve as key con-stituents in the educational system(students, teachers, other school staff,parents, community members) to supportstudents in a lifelong learning processof continuous growth and improve-ment. Teachers in learner-centeredsystems fundamentally understand the



relational nature of learning. That is,they understand that at its core, learn-ing is relational in two ways: (1) indi-vidual learners attempt to make personalmeaning from information and experi-ences and (2) strong student-teacherrelationships provide a positive climateout of which natural learning and moti-vation emerge.

School cultures based on learners,that is, school cultures focused onpersonalized learning, use collabora-tion between teachers and studentsworking together to develop meaning-ful learning activities (Keefe & Jenkins,2002). In these schools, there is a collec-tive responsibility for student learningand a focus on high morale as well ashigh academic achievement. Learningenvironments in these schools are“thoughtful” in the sense that theysupport conversation, learning bydoing, apprenticeship experiences, andauthentic student achievement. Instruc-tion is organized to focus on a fewimportant topics in integrated andcoherent ways that provide continuityand time for inquiry, interactive dia-logue, and quality of thought ratherthan the need for “right” answers.Teachers and students have input intothe way time is used, with an emphasison performance rather than time sothat students have more opportunitiesto make choices in curriculum andinstruction.

Schools organized around personal-ized instruction focus on renewal, orhow learner growth in knowledge andself-awareness can lead to wisdom andcollective responsibility, how to createcreative and supportive educationalenvironments, and how to engagelearners in critical inquiry and reflection

about educational practice (Keefe &Jenkins, 2002). In these personalizedlearning environments, the school isorganized to take individual learnercharacteristics and needs into accountand to use flexible instructional prac-tices that address individual learningstrengths. The basic premise is thatpersonalized instruction must beginwith a knowledge of the learner acrossa variety of areas, including develop-mental characteristics, learning styles,and learning histories as well as per-sonal interests and other backgroundcharacteristics.

Palmer (1999) argues that we needto acknowledge that teaching andlearning involve not only intellect andemotion, but also the human spirit. Hebelieves that teaching and learningaren’t either intellectual or spiritual. Hecontends that teachers—regardless oftheir subject matter and who theirstudents are—end up teaching whothey are. The biggest challenge is toprovide teachers with adequate timeand support to reflect on questionsworth living and sharing with theirstudents.

You already know that time for self-reflection can renew and transformyour teaching practices and the waysyou relate to yourself and others. Weteachers need opportunities to learnand change our minds. All of us canbenefit from assessing our fundamentalbeliefs and assumptions about learners,learning, and teaching. If you are at thebeginning of your teaching career, youwill be able to incorporate what youlearn from this book into your dailypractice in a way that enriches you andyour students. If you’re an experiencedteacher, you will be able to identify



those learner-centered practices youalready use in your classroom andways to begin using those you haven’tused before.

One of the most powerful aspects ofusing the learner-centered practices wedescribe in this book is the opportunityto experience first hand the impor-tance of your students’ perspectives onwhether your teaching practices aremeeting their academic and nonacade-mic learning needs. We encourage youto reflect on what you learn from yourself-assessment and your students’ per-spectives on your teaching in order todetermine how you can best developpositive relationships and learningclimates that support your students’learning and motivation.

Sharing power and control with yourstudents and viewing yourself as alearner assists your students in under-standing that when learners of any agefeel ownership of their learning, byvirtue of having a voice and choice,they are more willing to learn and beinvolved in their learning (McCombs,2000a). When your learning experi-ences show this to be the case, youwill see the value of providing theseexperiences for your students. Onceyou have experienced the results ofusing the learner-centered principles,you will understand that the mosteffective learning involves providingyour students (and yourself) withopportunities for choice when makingpersonal connections with prior andnew knowledge. In this way, you honorboth yourself and your students.

As a way to chart your thinking asyou read this book, you may wish tostart a personal journal to recordyour ongoing reflections. Throughout

the book, we will ask you to reflect as away to chart your progress as a learneras well as how your learning translatesinto ideas for your classroom. To helpyou begin your journaling, you maywish to read Jane Tompkins’s essay,“Pedagogy of the Distressed,” in whichshe describes her shift from viewingteaching as the process of dispensinginformation and learning as the pro-cess of receiving it to a perspective oflearning as a shared process betweenteacher and students (Tompkins, 1990).Although Tompkins’s experience wasin a university setting, the process shedescribes is that of a teacher becominglearner centered.

Let’s go back to the puzzle picture inFigure 1.1. If you had to teach yourstudents how to “solve” pictures likethis, how would you construct a lesson(or lessons) that incorporates whatyou’ve learned so far about learner-centered practices? How would yourlesson (or lessons) reflect the learningstrategies that you used to figure outthe picture?

What’s Next?

In Chapter 2, we describe in detail whatwe mean by “learner centered,” usingthe perspective of education as a livingsystem, the basic characteristics ofschools as complex living systems,the characteristics of the Learner-Centered Model (LCM) and corre-sponding Learner-Centered Principles(LCPs), what the CPs mean for teachingand learning, what the evidenceshows about characteristics of effectiveteachers, and the major factors affectinglearners and learning.




Note 1

Here’s what other people have said they think the picture shows:

A panda

A lion

A Dalmatian

Trees and islands

A view from space

A cowboy on a horse

Two people walking

An abstract painting

A girl in a bonnet

Note 2

Here’s another picture constructed like the first one you saw.



Note 3

Unlike the usual figure-ground pictures, the information in this picture is in boththe background (white) and the foreground (black). To see what it is, look at boththe black shapes and at the white “spaces.”

Note 4

Here’s another copy of the picture puzzle for you to draw on. Use a light pencil todraw around some of the black and white shapes to see whether you can discoverwhat the picture is.



Note 5

Cover the list of words below so that only the first word shows. See whether thatgives you enough information to figure out the picture. If not, uncover the secondword to see whether you have enough information then. Proceed down the listuntil you see what the picture is. Note: don’t worry if you don’t see it even afteryou read all the words; you’re not alone—roughly 10% of people never see it, evenwith all kinds of clues!

Hat

Legs

Running

Tail

Hooves

Man

Cowboy

Horse

Note 6

Here’s the “answer” to the puzzle picture. Notice how the cowboy and horse in theoriginal picture are depicted by both the black forms and the white “spaces.”



Note 7

Here’s the “answer” to the second picture.


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What We Know About Learning - SAGE Publications Ltd · What We Know About Learning I magine a situation in which some-thing very dear to you (e.g., your job, ... seeing this picture: