What is Waste that We Should Account for it? A Look Inside Queensland's Ecological Rucksack

What is Waste that We Should Account for it ALook Inside Queenslandrsquos Ecological Rucksack

LAURENCE KNIGHTHumanities Program Queensland University of Technology GPO Box 2434 Brisbane Qld 4001Australia Email lknightquteduau

Received 3 October 2008 Revised 25 February 2009 Accepted 6 May 2009

AbstractWhile most Australians are conscious of the amount of waste that they place ingarbage bins relatively few would be aware of the waste that is generated in thecourse of producing the goods and services that they consume This lsquoembodiedwastersquo makes up a large part of the lsquoecological rucksackrsquo of those goods andservices

This study develops a waste account for Queensland using the ecologicalrucksack framework to illustrate patterns of waste production in the Australianeconomy It classifies wastes both by type and broad sector of production

The study finds that the Queensland economy generated more than four billiontonnes of waste during the 2006ndash2007 financial year The largest waste streamsare produced at the resource extraction and distribution stages and are predomi-nantly materials that are disposed of without being used or are lost throughinefficient use The majority of the waste is produced upstream of the point ofconsumption and a large part is associated with materials produced for export

KEY WORDS waste generation pollution resource management Queensland

Introductiongeor_595 422433

While we seem to be in an age of prosperity it isclear that humanity is headed for a resource man-agement crunch On the one hand the worldrsquospopulation is growing steadily and is consumingresources at an accelerating rate On the otherhand stocks of many of the worldrsquos resources ndashsuch as oil other minerals fresh water arablesoils fisheries and biodiversity ndash are decliningEmissions of carbon dioxide and other gases arecontributing to global climate change risingsea levels and ocean acidification exacerbatingmany of these resource problems (UNEP 2007)The key to managing the fallout from thisresource crunch lies in maximising resource useefficiency and minimising waste production

How serious is the issue of waste generationin Australia In the Human Settlements themecommentary for the 2006 Australian State of the

Environment Committee Newton (2006 18)noted that lsquothe volume of solid waste disposedto landfill across Australia remains high ataround one tonne per person per yearrsquo Twentymillion tonnes per year seems a lot of wastebut this figure is dwarfed by the 21 billiontonnes of solid wastes 20 billion tonnes ofliquid wastes and 500 million tonnes of gaseouswastes identified in a study of the Australianeconomy during the year 1990ndash1991 by Connoret al (1995)

Clearly the amount of waste material depositedin licensed landfills is a very small tip of theoverall waste lsquoicebergrsquo This discrepancy betweentotal waste generated and the amount disposed ofin landfills is significant given that the main focusof waste management policy in Australia is on thediversion of waste from landfills So what is wastethat we should account for it

422 Geographical Research bull December 2009 bull 47(4)422ndash433doi 101111j1745-5871200900595x

The nature of wasteThere is a plethora of physical social and legaldefinitions of waste Wastes may be identifiedby their physical properties the way they werecreated where they were created their impact onthe environment or their lack of purpose

At the simplest level waste is unwantedmaterial (matter or energy) that is discarded TheNobel Prize wining physicist Erwin Schroumldinger(1967) noted that waste was a part of life Organ-isms maintain low internal entropy by consumingfree energy and excreting high-entropy waste

Thermodynamic inevitabilities mean thatwastes are produced in the process of materialconversion In this sense wastes are produced asby-products of material production The thermo-dynamic minimum is the smallest amount ofwaste that might be produced under conditions of100 efficiency In practice excessive waste isproduced due to process inefficiencies and theuse of material fuels (Baumgartner and de SwaanArons 2003)

Wastes are also produced when a productreaches the end of its useful life or no longerfunctions acceptably This may be due to it beingcontaminated worn out or improperly designedor constructed It is also produced when productswith short life spans or limited purposes (such asproduct packaging) have fulfilled their purpose

In addition wastes are produced when func-tional materials are discarded Products may beno longer wanted become obsolete or consumedinefficiently They may be surplus to require-ments past their lsquouse-byrsquo dates or have simplybecome unfashionable

Pongraacutecz (2002) noted that purpose is adefining characteristic in the social construc-tion of waste Wastes include materials that areunwanted because they were produced with noutilitypurpose have fulfilled their intended pur-pose(s) and are no longer useful do not performin a satisfactory manner or are discarded withoutbeing used for their purpose

Pongraacutecz (2002 89) also noted that lsquowaste initself is not detrimentalrsquo (it might be used as asecondary resource) but that lsquothe act of wastingisrsquo Hamilton et al (2005) defined lsquowasteful con-sumptionrsquo as the purchase of goods and servicesthat are not subsequently consumed They esti-mated that the average Australian householdspent over A$1000 (over 10 billion dollars acrossthe nation) per year on goods and services thatwere never or rarely used

Gourlay (1992 21) provided an alternativeperspective on wasteful consumption noting that

waste lsquois what we do not want or what we fail tousersquo with the proviso that failure to use an itemincluded lsquofailure to use for its proper purposersquoThis waste includes materials used in agricultureand aquaculture that miss their targets and enterthe environment

Similarly there is the issue of resource dissi-pation Jackson (1996 6) noted that while it wasthermodynamically impossible to totally preventthe dissipation of energy and materials someproducts and processes are lsquoinherently dissipa-tiversquo This is a problem as resources and wasteproducts are dispersed rapidly into the environ-ment and are difficult to recover and manage

Many wastes have adverse impacts These areoften described as hazardous wastes and pollu-tion Gourlay (1992) argued that the focus on theimpacts of these materials and the use of labelssuch as lsquoemissionsrsquo lsquodischargesrsquo and lsquoeffluentrsquodisguises the fact that those materials are wastesGarcier (2008 10) described pollution as beinglsquoa silly and un-economic waste of matterrsquo

A large part of the problem is that many wasteshave (or are perceived to have) negative net eco-nomic values While some wastes can be usedprofitably as secondary resources (for example20 of the aluminium produced each year isrecycled scrap) the management of many wastesentails net costs Consequently there is a propen-sity for waste to become a negative externality(Lacoste and Chalmin 2007)

The ecological rucksackProducts incur environmental impacts through-out their lifecycle as resources are consumedand wastes are produced Schmidt-Bleek (1993)developed the ecological rucksack concept todescribe the material impact of products Henoted that the ecological rucksack of each goodor service comprises the materials moved ortransformed in the course of producing usingand disposing of that good or service As suchthe ecological rucksack includes resources con-sumed and wastes produced in the entire life-cycle of a good or product For exampleSchmidt-Bleek noted the rucksack of a tonne oflignite produced along the Rhine included eighttonnes of overburden

The ecological rucksack concept fits withinthe scope of material flow analysis Otherlifecycle measures include embodied energy(eMergy) the proportion of plant organic matterproduced through photosynthesis that is con-sumed by humanity and the more commonlyapplied ecological footprint (Moran et al in

L Knight What is Waste 423

copy 2009 The AuthorJournal compilation copy 2009 Institute of Australian Geographers

press) Where the unit of measurement in theecological footprint approach is the bioproduc-tivity equivalent lsquoglobal hectaresrsquo needed toprovide the resources consumed and to absorbthe wastes produced by humans the unit ofmeasurement for material flow analysis is tonnes(weight)

The ecological rucksack approach is useful inthat it creates an easily understood materialaccount of the impacts embodied in a productwithout the requirement for complicated unitconversions It is also a useful framework forattaching environmental responsibility for theimpacts embodied in products that are tradedbetween regions It can for example be used totrack the carbon emissions embodied in interna-tionally traded goods ndash one of the stumblingblocks to coordinated international action onclimate change

As such the ecological rucksack approach iswell suited to the study of waste generation Forexample Meadows et al (2004) noted that atonne of post-consumer waste typically entailsthe production of five tonnes of waste at themanufacturing stage and 20 tonnes of waste atthe resource extraction stage (mining agricul-ture forestry) whereas Connor et al (1995)noted that the amount of solid waste produced atthe resource extraction stage was two orders ofmagnitude greater than the amount produced inthe course of final consumption

The ecological rucksack includes wastes gen-erated both lsquoupstreamrsquo and lsquodownstreamrsquo of theproduct itself The wastes generated upstreamcould be said to be embodied wastes while thewastes generated downstream could be describedas second order or induced wastes and representa waste legacy

A model of waste generation inthe Australian economyThe object of this paper is to unpack the wastes inAustraliarsquos ecological rucksack using Queen-sland as a regional case study In this case therucksack metaphor has been altered ndash from thecumulative load on the global environment ofthe products and services consumed in Queen-sland ndash to the cumulative load of economicactivity in Queensland on the environment inQueensland Where goods are traded with otherregions it considers the ecological burden that isborne by the environment in Queensland Thisis an important distinction given the resource-intensive pattern of Queenslandrsquos economy (dis-cussed below)

As this paper investigates waste generationacross the economy it canvasses waste streamsnot included in conventional waste reportsThese wastes include what Donald Rumsfeldmight have termed lsquoknown knownsrsquo lsquoknownunknownsrsquo and lsquounknown unknownsrsquo (Seely2003) The known knowns are material flows thatare publicly conceptualised as wastes (such ashousehold waste) and are routinely monitored byenvironmental agencies Conversely there arematerials that are recognised as waste (such aslitter) but are not monitored by environmentalagencies Their extent is rarely documented inwaste reports These wastes are effectivelyknown unknowns Finally there are unknownunknowns ndash wastes that are yet to be recognisedlet alone measured (such as marine life killed byghost fishing nets)

This paper examines wastes generated inQueensland at three stages of the economy ndashresource extraction material transformation anddistribution and product consumption (Jackson1996) Resource extraction wastes includewastes generated by mining forestry fisheriesaquaculture farming and water diversion(primary industries) Material transformationwastes include wastes generated in the course ofmanufacturing energy conversion and productdistribution (secondary and tertiary industries)Product consumption wastes are wastes gener-ated through the end use of products (Figure 1)

The wastes examined are classified as

1 intentional nonuse ndash extracted materials thatare discarded without being used

2 by-products of production and consumptionprocesses

3 end-products ndash materials discarded at the endof life or use of a product

4 dispersive materials ndash products that fragmentor wear down while in use

5 inefficient use ndash materials lost or inadvert-ently discarded due to process inefficiencyand

6 legacies ndash second order or consequentialwastes arising from the effect of antecedentwastes

Where possible the materials reported are wastesgenerated during the 2006ndash2007 financial yearAll wastes are reported in terms of weight(kilolitres of water are converted to tonnesgreenhouse gases are converted to tonnes ofcarbon dioxide equivalents and measures ofenergy are converted to coal equivalents) Whilethis enables an examination of the magnitude of

424 Geographical Research bull December 2009 bull 47(4)422ndash433


the waste streams reported it is not a measure ofenvironmental impact (for example the emissionof one gram of dioxin is more damaging than thedisposal of one tonne of waste paper)

An overview of the economies of Queenslandand AustraliaSchandl et al (2008) noted that resource use inthe Australian economy is notably different tothe OECD trend being dominated by two largelydisconnected sectors ndash export-orientated pri-mary producers and affluent urban consumersAustralia is also unusual in that manufacturingand primary production made similar contribu-tion to the economy ndash 10 of GDP in 2006ndash2007(ABS 2008a)

Schandl et al (2008) discussed the highresource intensity of the Australian economynoting that it extracted four times the OECDaverage volume of materials per capita The envi-ronmental impact of resource use in Australiais disproportionately skewed towards resourceextraction and away from product manufactureThe Australian environment carries the load of

the raw and partially processed exports andavoids the load of the imported final products

These tendencies are magnified in the case ofQueensland (Table 1) While Queenslandrsquos shareof Australiarsquos GDP and household final con-sumption are largely in line with its share ofAustraliarsquos population it has disproportionatelylarge shares of primary production and construc-tion activity and a disproportionately small shareof manufacturing activity While this economicpattern contributed to Queenslandrsquos positivetrade balance during the resources boom it alsomeans that Queenslandrsquos pattern of waste gen-eration is likely to be further skewed towardsresource extraction

Resource extraction waste generatedin QueenslandResource extraction is the net result of theprimary industries Raw materials are withdrawnfrom the environment for subsequent transfor-mation distribution and consumption Table 2classifies and provides estimates of the size of anumber of waste streams Many of these esti-

Figure 1 Examples of wastes generated by resource extraction material transformation and product consumption

Table 1 A comparison of the Queensland and Australian economies (Source ABS 2008a)

2006ndash2007 Variable Australia Queensland Queenslandrsquos proportionof the national total

Population Dec 2006 20 848 760 4 131 389 198International trade balance -$12 702 000 000 $9 028 000 000Gross State Product $1 045 674 000 000 $198 514 000 000 190Household final consumption $584 875 000 000 $110 269 000 000 189Agriculture forestry fishery 22 of GDP 28 of GDP 238Mining 78 of GDP 102 of GDP 250Manufacturing 99 of GDP 887 of GDP 169Construction 69 of GDP 80 of GDP 220



mates are derived from published data In theinterests of brevity the derivations of these sta-tistics have been placed in a separate appendixthat can be provided on request

Mining and mineral productionCollectively the mining sector produced 25billion tonnes of waste in 2006ndash2007 The largestsolid waste streams were generated through theremoval of overburden (waste rock) and the pro-duction of waste ore In the case of coal the 22billion tonnes of waste rock were close to ninetimes the amount of raw coal extracted (235million tonnes) and almost 12 times the amountof saleable coal produced (183 million tonnes)

These stockpiles of waste rock and ore canlead to the generation of acid leacheate and othertoxic products (Mudd 2007) The amount of

water contaminated by acid mine leacheate israrely quantified and is largely unknown In onecase gold mining at Mt Morgan (in centralQueensland) resulted in 3 to 10 million tonnes oftailings contaminating up to 50 km of the DeeRiver (Harries 1997)

Similarly the extraction of oil and gas resultsin the discharge of saline groundwater whilethe extraction of minerals and fossil fuels leadsto the emission of greenhouse gases and otherpollutants In particular the mining industry isdependent on the use of explosives These aredissipative materials that are converted to heatand waste gases when they are detonated

Farming forestry and fishingLivestock manure is the largest agriculturalwaste stream The 30 million farm animals in

Table 2 Resource extraction wastes generated in Queensland during 2006ndash07 Many of these estimates are derived frompublished data In the interests of brevity the derivations of these statistics have been placed in a separate appendix that can beprovided on request

Waste Stream Type of Waste Amount (tonnes) Basis Source

Mining SectorWaste rock coal extraction Intentionally unused 2 174 000 000 DPF DME 2008a CIWMB 2007Waste rock metal extraction Intentionally unused 186 000 000 PC Mudd 2008Waste ore coal production Intentionally unused 51 000 000 DPF DME 2008bWaste ore metal production Intentionally unused 75 000 000 PC Mudd 2008Fugitive Greenhouse emissions By-product 3 100 000 PF QG 2008NPI emissions By-product 302 000 DPF NPI 2008Saline groundwater Intentionally unused gt 4 000 000 PF Bowman 2004Mining explosives Dispersive material 850 000 PC Biddle 2008Contaminated surface amp groundwater Legacy Unknown

Farming forestry and fishing sectorAnimal manure By-product 112 000 000 DPF ABS 2008c Poldy and Foran

1999Greenhouse emissions agriculture By-product 26 400 000 PF DCC 2008aCleared vegetation (dry biomass) Intentionally unused 23 000 000 PF NRW 2008aGreenhouse emissions land clearing By-product 41 700 000 PF DCC 2008aAnimal mortalities land clearing By-product ~2 000 DPF Cogger et al 2003 NRW 2008aExcess soil erosion Inefficient use 12 000 000 DPF NRW 2006 ANRA 2007Stock losses End-product gt1 000 000 DPF ABS 2008a OrsquoRourke et al

1995Nitrogen and phosphorus exports Inefficient use 56 000 DPF NPI 2008Ammonia By-product 35 000 DPF NPI 2008Fishery bycatch Intentionally unused 35 000 DPF Zeller 2008 Woodhams and

Stobutzki 2007 Hill andWassenberg 2000

Lost fishing gear amp mortalities End-productlegacy unknownBenthic biota destroyed Inefficient use unknown

Diverted Water LossesSurface water loss Inefficient use gt600 000 000 DPF AWA 2005 Craig et al 2005Uncontrolled artesian bores Inefficient use 136 000 000 DPF Hovey et al 2008 NRW 2008b

PF = Published Figure DPF = Derived from Published Figure PC = Personal Communication



Queensland collectively produce more than 100million tonnes of fresh manure per year The bulkof the manure produced by livestock on extensivefarms breaks down in situ and is not a majorconcern The situation is somewhat differentfor the animals in intensive livestock industries(feedlots dairies piggeries and chicken farms)These produce more than 10 million tonnes ofconcentrated waste a year Proper management isneeded to prevent environmental harm

Similarly there are farm mortalities (animalcarcases) Farm animals die due to disease foodand water shortages temperature extremes firesfloods accidents birthing and birth defectsThere is no consistent public reporting of farmmortalities and there would be considerablevariation in mortality rates between regions andseasons As an example OrsquoRourke et al (1995)reported an average mortality rate of 12 forcattle in the subcoastal speargrass region in northQueensland

Agricultural and grazing activities generateexcess soil erosion ndash rates of soil loss above thenaturalbackground rates of erosion that wouldoccur in the absence of human interventionThis excess erosion is a form of resource wasteThe actual amount of soil eroded in Queenslandis unknown so the figure 12 million tonnes is aconservative estimate based on levels of sedi-ment transported to the coast in key riverbasins

Agricultural activities also result in the exportof nutrients These exports come as the result ofsoil erosion excess application of fertilisers anddischarges from intense animal industries

The clearance of native vegetation ndash 375 000hectares during 2005ndash2006 (NRW 2008a) ndash pro-duces vegetative waste and wildlife mortalitiesThis vegetation clearance combined with arange of other agricultural sources (methane pro-duction by livestock soil cultivation vegetationburning and manure management) is responsiblefor the release of tens of millions of tonnes ofgreenhouse gas emissions

The fishing industry creates waste in severalways The first and partially documented wasteinvolves the capture of non-target species ofmarine life There do not appear to be any sys-tematic statistics on fishery by-catch

A second form of fishery waste involves lostfishing gear Fishing boats loseabandon netslines pots hooks and sinkers Not only does thislost fishing gear constitute waste it forms adeadly hazard to marine life There appear to befew if any data on lost fishing equipment or the

amount of marine life that is killed by this ghostfishing gear

A third form of fishery waste involves thebenthic vegetation coral and other organismsdestroyed by bottom trawling fishing gear(Johnson 2002) The equipment used to collectspecies living in and on the seafloor can destroybenthic organisms in a similar manner to theterrestrial clearance of native vegetation Thereappear to be few if any data on the extent of thisbenthic waste

Diverted water lossesSurface water storages lose water to evaporationwhile a large proportion of the water dischargedfrom uncontrolled artesian bores is lost throughseepage and evaporation The net effect of theselosses is that water is not used for the purpose forwhich it was abstracted from the environmentThe lost water is a resource that is wasted priorto use

Material transformation and distributionwastes in QueenslandThe manufacturing and distribution sectors of theeconomy take resources that have been extractedfrom the environment transform them into inter-mediate and final products and transfer thoseproducts to users within Australia and overseasThey also transfer to Australian consumers goodsand services produced overseas (Table 3)

Material transformation wastesThe conversion of primary fuels into secondaryenergy (mostly electricity and petroleum prod-ucts) produces millions of tonnes of ash green-house gases and other emissions In additionenergy is lost in the conversion process In thecase of electricity generation only 358 of theinput energy is converted into electricity Theseenergy losses are equivalent to millions of tonnesof coal

Similarly large amounts of waste are pro-duced by the manufacturing sector Theseinclude millions of tonnes of metal productionwastes interred in refinery waste depositories aswell as solid materials sent to composters recy-clers and licensed landfills In addition millionsof tonnes of greenhouse gases are produced bydirect energy use in the manufacturing andconstruction sectors while manufacturing andconstruction activities are responsible for thegeneration of hundreds of thousands of tonnes ofother pollutants



Distribution losses and wastesThe distribution of products also results in wastegeneration For example water gas and electri-cal energy is lost from transmission and distribu-tion networks The distribution of freight resultsin greenhouse gases and other emissions whilecargo ships arriving at Queensland ports tocollect cargo discharge ballast water before theycommence loading

Final material consumption wastesgenerated in QueenslandThe consumption of goods produces a range offamiliar and unfamiliar wastes (Table 4) Rea-sonably well-known streams include householdand garden wastes (mostly collected by Coun-cils) building demolition waste wastewater andbiosolids extracted from that wastewater andgreenhouse gases and other emissions generatedby passenger transport

There are no systematic statistics on theamounts of litter and illegally dumped waste inQueensland While there are some statistics fromlitter counts and Clean Up Australia Day events(for example McGregor Tan Research 2007 andClean Up Australia 2007) these anecdotal datacannot be extrapolated to annual generation rates

Cultural sensitivities affect discussions aboutthe disposal of human remains While the amo-unts of waste generated are not large comparedwith other waste streams environmental concernsover the impacts of the traditional cemetery (land-fill) and crematorium (incineration) disposalmethods are leading to alternative approaches tothe disposal of cadavers (Dennehy 2008)

Other undiscussed streams include the detritusfrom dispersive materials For example roadvehicles deposit rubber on the surface of roads astheir tyres wear This rubber dust may be a sig-nificant source of polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons and other contaminants in waterwaysSimilarly munitions become waste (gases heatsolid residues) when they are used While it ispossible to estimate the volume of munitionsconsumed the amount of materials destroyed(converted to waste) by those munitions is effec-tively unknown

Waste generated by wasteWhile some of the legacy wastes can be attrib-uted to different sectors of the economy thegreenhouse gas and pollutant inventories do notdisaggregate the emissions arising from wastedisposal and management In summary the

Table 3 Material transformation and product distribution wastes generated in Queensland during 2006ndash07


Manufacturing SectorGreenhouse gas ndash energy industry By-product 53 500 000 PF DCC 2008aAsh ndash electricity production By-product 6 300 000 PF EPA 2008NPI emissions ndash electricity petroleum By-product 380 000 DPF NPI 2008Energy losses ndash electricity (coal eq) Inefficient use 17 200 000 DPF ABARE 2008a ABARE

2008bGreenhouse gas ndash manufacturing energy use By-product 11 900 000 PF DCC 2008aNPI emissions ndash manufacturing By-product 420 000 DPF NPI 2008Mineral refining and smelting waste By-product gt 5 000 000 DPF QT 2008 McConchie et al

2000Other Commercial amp industrial waste By-product

End-product4 000 000 DPF EPA 2008

Construction waste By-productEnd-product

~ 1 000 000 DPF EPA 2008

Distribution SectorWater distribution losses Inefficient use 400 000 000 PF ABS 2006Ballast water discharge End-product 40 000 000 DPF Hayes 1997 OESR 2008Greenhouse emissions ndash freight By-product 7 700 000 DPF DCC 2008a DCC 2008b

Apelbaum 2006NPI emissions ndash freight By-product 210 000 DPF NPI 2008 Apelbaum 2006Energy loss ndash electricity distribution Inefficient use 600 000 DPF Powerlink 2008 Wilkenfeld

2002




waste sector was responsible for 34 milliontonnes of greenhouse gas emissions (DCC2008a) and 1900 tonnes of other pollutantsduring 2006ndash2007 (NPI 2008)

Summing upA waste generation inventory for 2006ndash2007based on the materials examined in this paperyields a total of more than 43 billion tonnes ofwastes (Table 5) While this waste account isincomplete (and parts are uncertain) it indicatesthat the Queensland economy generates about1000 tonnes of waste per capita per year Thisfigure is three orders of magnitude greater thanthe one tonne of solid waste per capita per yearreferred to by Newton (2006) Furthermoresome of the wastes documented in this study areout of control once they are released into theenvironment unlike the solid wastes immobil-ised in formal landfills

Sectoral analysisDuring 2006ndash2007 wastes generated at theresource extraction stage amounted to 34 billiontonnes material transformation and distributionwastes amounted to 055 billion tonnes andproduct consumption wastes amounted to 034billion tonnes The two largest material flowswere associated with mining and mineral pro-cessing (25 billion tonnes) and water use (15billion tonnes) While these wastes are nowherenear as attention grabbing as hazardous andintractable wastes they accumulate in the envi-ronment with substantial impacts and legacies(MacKillop 2009)

A key point is that the 25 billion tonnes ofmining waste produced in Queensland in 2006ndash2007 exceeds the amount of solid waste thatConnor et al (1995) attributed to the wholeAustralian economy 16 years earlier This pointsto a significant increase in waste generation asthe economy has grown

Table 4 Product consumption wastes generated in Queensland during 2006ndash07


Domestic waste End-product 2 000 000 DPF EPA 2008Demolition waste End-product ~1 000 000 DPF EPA 2008Green waste End-product 1 100 000 DPF EPA 2008Wastewater treated by Councils End-product 320 000 000 DPF EPA 2008Biosolids End-product 450 000 DPF EPA 2008Greenhouse gas ndash passenger transport By-product 10 900 000 DPF DCC 2008a DCC 2008b

Apelbaum 2006NPI emissions ndash passenger transport By-product 360 000 DPF NPI 2008 Apelbaum

2006Litter End Product UnknownTyre wear Dispersive material 7 000 DPF Atech 2001 ABS 2007Funerals End-product 5 000 DPF ABS 2008bDomestic and military munitions End-product

Dispersive material1 000 PC DPF Hayden 2008 Sharley

et al 1992


Table 5 Summary inventories categorised by waste generation sector and type

Waste Sector Amount (tonnes) Waste Type Amount (tonnes)

Mining gt2 490 000 000 Intentionally unused 2 500 000 000Food and fibre 220 000 000 Inefficient use gt1 170 000 000Water extraction gt740 000 000 By-product 280 000 000Manufacturing 100 000 000 End-product 370 000 000Distribution 450 000 000 Legacy gtgt3 000 000Product consumption 340 000 000 Dispersive material 1 000 000Total documented 43 billion Total documented 43 billion



A second point is that the overwhelming bulkof the waste was generated upstream of consum-ers Where solid wastes are considered in isola-tion 27 billion tonnes were generated at theresource extraction stage 35 million tonnes weregenerated at the material transformation and dis-tribution stage and 44 million tonnes were gen-erated at the product consumption stage during2006ndash2007 The amount of waste generated atthe resource extraction stage was 600 times theamount arising from product consumptionBearing in mind the large size of the miningindustry in Queensland this ratio is largely inline with Connor et alrsquos (1995) observation thatresource extraction wastes are two orders ofmagnitude greater than product consumptionwastes

Electricity production is a good example ofupstream waste generation Electricity genera-tion consumes approximately 13 of the coalmined in Queensland (DME 2008a) whileQueensland households consume 21 of theelectricity generated in the State (ABARE2008a) Consequently 21 of the waste arisingfrom electricity production and 27 of thewaste associated with coal mining during 2006ndash2007 can be attributed to domestic electricityconsumption

The amount of waste in the ecological ruck-sack of household electricity consumption (76million tonnes) is 43 times the amount of solidwaste generated by Queensland households (17million tonnes) during 2006ndash2007 While theaverage Queenslander generates 12 kg of house-hold waste per day their electricity consumptionis responsible for the upstream generation of51 kg of waste per day

Effectively the waste intensity of distributedelectricity is 88 kg of waste per KWh deliveredto consumers Given their high rates of electricityconsumption air conditioners are very wasteintensive

A third point is that the geographical pattern ofwaste generation in Queensland is highly variedFor example the bulk of the domestic and con-struction wastes are generated in south-eastQueensland and the larger east coast populationcentres In contrast many of the large wastestreams are linked to primary industries andenergy production and hence are decoupledfrom population In particular the bulk of miningwaste is generated in the Bowen Basin wellaway from the major cities There may also beunpredictable temporal variability when naturaldisasters (such as Cyclone Larry) strike popu-

lated areas and cause surges in the generation ofgreen and demolition wastes

A fourth point is that a lot of waste is generatedproducing materials (food fibre and minerals)that are exported For example 21 billion tonnesof waste (50 of the total) can be attributed tocoal exported during 2006ndash2007 (DME 2008b)Conversely a large amount of manufacturedgoods are imported from overseas This meansthat there is a disconnect between product con-sumption and upstream waste generation inQueensland Consequently Queenslandrsquos eco-logical rucksack is overweight in wastes arisingfrom resource extraction and underweight inwastes arising from material transformationrelative to final product consumption in the State

Type analysisOver half of the waste documented in this study(25 billion tonnes) involved materials such assoil rock and vegetation that were dumped during2006ndash2007 without being used They were re-moved to gain access to desired resources

More than a quarter of the waste (12 billiontonnes) involved resources that were unintention-ally lost or damaged prior to final consumptionduring 2006ndash2007 In order of magnitude thesewastes were caused by the inefficient use ofwater soil nutrients and marine resources

Approximately 650 million tonnes of wasteswere by-products or end-products of materialtransformation and consumption during 2006ndash2007 Most of this waste involved wastewatergreenhouse gases and other pollutants A rela-tively small proportion involved manufacturedproducts While the amount of legally disposedby-products and end-products is reasonably well-known the extent of illegal waste product dis-posal is not

The most poorly documented wastes are dis-persive materials and waste legacies Aside fromthe greenhouse gas emissions and other pollut-ants arising from landfills and other waste man-agement facilities very little attention is given towaste generated by waste The magnitude ofwater contamination by toxic leacheate fromcurrent and abandoned mines and the inadvert-ent destruction of wildlife by litter and lostfishing gear are largely unknown As is the casewith the residues from dispersive materials out-of-sight is out-of-mind

ConclusionWhile the mining industry is bigger inQueensland than most other States and the



commencement of the global financial crisis in2008 impacted on resource consumption manyof the trends apparent in this analysis hold for thewhole of Australia

The ecological rucksack framework consider-ably broadens the scope of waste analysis Itraises questions about the generation of littleknown and rarely considered wastes in theAustralian economy It spotlights the resourcelosses fragmented wastes and waste legacies thattend to be ignored by conventional waste reportsIt demonstrates that there is far more waste gen-erated by Australiarsquos resource intensive economythan is documented by those reports Much ofthis waste is discarded without being used or islost prior to use

The ecological rucksack framework highlightsthe upstream intensity of waste production Theinverted waste pyramid evident in Queenslandrsquoseconomy demonstrates that inefficient andwasteful consumption entails a cascade ofupstream waste It points to the need for demandmanagement in addition to increased recyclingand resource use efficiency as means to minimisewaste generation (Price and Joseph 2000) It alsopoints to the importance of dealing with thereasons why things become waste ndash such as thelimited usefulness and short lives of many prod-ucts technical and social obsolescence and thesimple failure of consumers to use products

As things currently stand there is little tomake Australians consider (or account for) thewaste burden arising from their consumptionof goods and services The transition to a sus-tainable society that is less prone to resourcemanagement crunches may well involve theimplementation of some form of ecological ruck-sack accounting While that may now seem to bean academic prospect it is quite possible thatmid-term climate change mitigation policies willsee people having to pay for the carbon in theecological rucksacks of the products and servicesthey consume

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author has written several waste and recycling reports forthe Queensland EPA and acknowledges the role of the EPA inassembling key waste data A precursor to this paper waspresented at the 2008 IAG conference in Hobart

REFERENCESABARE 2008a Table F4 Queensland energy consump-

tion by industry and fuel type In Energy Update 2008Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Econom-ics Canberra Retrieved 15 August 2008 from httpwwwabareconomicscominteractiveenergyUPDATE08excelTable_F_08xls

ABARE 2008b Energy in Australia 2008 AustralianBureau of Agricultural and Resource EconomicsCanberra Retrieved 16 August 2008 from httpwwwabareconomicscompublications_htmlenergyenergy_08energyAUS08pdf

ABS 2006 Water Account Australia 2004ndash05 AustralianBureau of Statistics catalogue number 92080 CanberraRetrieved 17 August 2008 from httpwwwausstatsabsgovauausstatssubscribernsf03494F63DFEE158BFCA257233001CE732$File46100_2004-05pdf

ABS 2007 Survey of Motor Vehicle Use 12 Months Ended31 October 2006 Australian Bureau of Statistics cataloguenumber 92080 Canberra Retrieved 31 July 2008 fromhttpwwwausstatsabsgovauausstatssubscribernsf0331AFCE3EFECE3EECA257378007BC0F2$File92080_1220months_ended_31_October_2006pdf

ABS 2008a Australian National Accounts State AccountsAustralian Bureau of Statistics catalogue number 52200Canberra Retrieved 15 February 2009 from httpwwwabsgovauAUSSTATSabsnsfDetailsPage522002007-08OpenDocument

ABS 2008b Australian Demographic Statistics DecemberQuarter 2007 Australian Bureau of Statistics cataloguenumber 31010 Canberra Retrieved 11 August 2008 fromhttpwwwausstatsabsgovauausstatssubscribernsf0720767F97001A093CA25747100121A3F$File31010_dec202007pdf

ABS 2008c Agricultural Commodities Small Area DataAustralia 2006ndash07 Australian Bureau of Statistics cata-logue number 71250 Canberra Retrieved 4 Septem-ber 2008 from httpwwwausstatsabsgovauausstatssubscribernsf0E836B4844CC2F938CA25745F0015FCAB$File71250do006_200607xls

ANRA 2007 Agriculture in Australia Australian NaturalResources Atlas Department of the Environment WaterHeritage and the Arts Canberra Retrieved 13 August2008 from httpwwwanragovautopicsagriculturepubssummary_reportsag_in_aust_aa_07html

Apelbaum 2006 Queensland Transport Facts 2006 Apel-baum Consulting Group Brisbane Retrieved 9 February2009 from httpwwwtransportqldgovauresourcesfileebb7d20bcaa114ePdf_qld_transport_facts_2006pdf

Atech Group 2001 A National Approach to WasteTyres Commonwealth Department of EnvironmentCanberra Retrieved 31 July 2008 from httpwwwenvironmentgovausettlementspublicationswastetyresnational-approachindexhtml

AWA 2005 Status of Water in South East QueenslandAustralian Water Association Artarmon Retrieved 19September 2008 from httpwwwlockyerwatercomdocdownloadExecutiveSummarypdf

Baumgartner S and de Swaan Arons J 2003 Necessityand inefficiency in the generation of waste a thermo-dynamic analysis Journal of Industrial Ecology 7 (2)113ndash123

Biddle R 2008 Explosives Inspectorate Department ofMines and Energy personal communication

Bowman A 2004 Coal Seam Gas Water ManagementStudy Department of Natural Resources Mines andEnergy NRO0011 Brisbane Retrieved 6 February 2009from httpwwwdmeqldgovauzone_filesNone_Zoned_Filescsg_water_m_s_final_1pdf

CIWMB 2007 Conversion Factors Construction andDemolition Appendix I Diversion Study GuideCalifornia Integrated Waste Management Board Retrieved19 February 2009 from httpwwwciwmbcagovLGLibraryDSGICandDhtm



Clean Up Australia 2007 Rubbish Report 2007 Clean UpAustralia Glebe Retrieved 12 February 2009 from httpwwwcleanuporgauPDFaurubbishreport_finalpdf

Cogger H Ford H Johnson C Holman J and Butler D2003 Impacts of Land Clearing on Australian Wildlife inQueensland WWF Australia Report Retrieved 27 Sep-tember 2008 from httpwwwwwforgaupublicationsqld_landclearingpdf

Connor MA Evans DG and Hurse TJ 1995 Wasteflows in the Australian economy Waste Disposal andWater Management in Australia 22 9ndash13 24ndash29

Craig I Green A Scobie M and Schmidt E 2005Controlling Evaporation Loss from Water Storages NCEAPublication No 10005801 Retrieved 19 September2008 from httpeprintsusqeduau26621Craig_Green_Scobie_Schmidt_NCEA_Evaporation_Control_Reportpdf

DCC 2008a State and Territory Greenhouse Gas Inventories2006 Department of Climate Change Canberra Retrieved31 July 2008 from httpwwwclimatechangegovauinventorystateinvpubsstates2006pdf

DCC 2008b National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2006Department of Climate Change Canberra Retrieved 6February 2009 from httpwwwclimatechangegovauinventory2006pubsinventory2006pdf

Dennehy K 2008 Dying to do the right thing Well herersquosthe way to go Sydney Morning Herald August 3 2008Retrieved 3 August 2008 from httpwwwsmhcomaunewsenvironmentdying-to-do-the-right-thing-well-heres-the-way-to-go200808021217097606152html

DME 2008a Coal Industry Review Overburden Removed ndashBank Cubic Metres Department of Mines and EnergyBrisbane Retrieved 19 February 2009 from httpwwwdmeqldgovauzone_filescoal_stats_pdftable_3pdf

DME 2008b Queensland Coal Statistics Overview2007 Financial year Department of Mines and EnergyBrisbane Retrieved 28 July 2008 from httpwwwdmeqldgovauzone_filescoal_stats_pdffinyr_0607_statspdf

EPA 2008 Queensland Waste amp Recycling Report Card2007 Environmental Protection Agency BrisbaneRetrieved 26 September 2008 from httpwwwepaqldgovaupublicationsid=2629

Garcier R 2008 The Social Dynamics of Water PollutionThe Waste of the World Working Paper 6 University ofSheffield Retrieved 19 January 2009 from httpwwwresearchoptioncoukHostDocuments60RjG_Social_dynamics_Pollution-1pdf

Gourlay KA 1992 World of Waste Dilemmas of IndustrialDevelopment Zed Books London

Hamilton C Denniss D and Baker D 2005 WastefulConsumption in Australia The Australia Institute Discus-sion Paper Number 77 Retrieved 19 January 2009 fromhttpswwwtaiorgau443filephpfile=DP77pdf

Harries J 1997 Acid mine drainage in Australia Its extentand potential future liability Supervising Scientist Report125 Supervising Scientist Canberra Retrieved 22August 2008 from httpwwwenvironmentgovaussdpublicationsssr125html

Hayden B 2008 Explosive Ordnance Managementand Policy Branch Department of Defence personalcommunication

Hayes KR 1997 A Review of Ecological Risk AssessmentMethodologies Centre for Research on Introduced MarinePests Technical Report No 13 CSIRO Retrieved 6 Sep-tember 2008 from httpwwwmarinecsiroaucrimpreportsCRIMPTechReport13pdf

Hill BJ and Wassenberg TJ 2000 The probable fate ofdiscards from prawn trawlers fishing near coral reefs Astudy in the northern Great Barrier Reef Australia Fish-eries Research 48 277ndash286

Hovey A Brooks K and Besley D 2008 Great ArtesianBasin Sustainability Initiative Mid-term Review of Phase2 Sinclair Knight Merz Retrieved 8 February 2009 fromhttpwwwgabccorgautoolsgetFileaspxtbl=tblContentItemampid=199

Jackson T 1996 Material Concerns Pollution Profit andQuality of Life Routledge London

Johnson KA 2002 A Review of National and InternationalLiterature on the Effects of Fishing on Benthic HabitatsNOAA Technical memorandum NMFS-FSPO-57National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSilver Spring Retrieved 22 August 2008 from httpwwwnmfsnoaagovhabitathabitatprotectionpdfefhliteratureKJohnsonpdf

Lacoste E and Chalmin P 2007 From Waste to Resource2006 World Waste Survey Economica Paris

MacKillop F 2009 The construction of lsquowastersquo in the UKsteel industry Journal of Environmental Planning andManagement 52 177ndash194

McConchie D Clark M Hanahan C and Davies-McConchie F 2000 The Use of Seawater-neutralisedBauxite Refinery Residues in the Management of AcidSulphate Soils Sulphidic Mine Tailings and Acid MineDrainage 3rd Queensland Environmental Conference25 and 26 May 2000 Brisbane Retrieved 9 February2009 from httpsearchinformitcomaufullTextdn=720666836100905res=IELENG

McGregor Tan Research 2007 National Litter Index AnnualReport Keep Australia Beautiful Retrieved 28 July 2008from httpwwwkaborgau_dbase_uplNLI200607200506pdf

Meadows D Randers J and Meadows D 2004 Limits toGrowth The 30-Year Update Chelsea Green PublishingCompany White River Junction (Vermont)

Moran DD Wackernagel MC Kitzes JA HeumannBW Phan D and Goldfinger SH in press Tradingspaces Calculating embodied Ecological Footprints ininternational trade using a Product Land Use Matrix(PLUM) Ecological Economics doi101016jecolecon200811011

Mudd GM 2007 The Sustainability of Mining in AustraliaKey Production Trends and Their Environmental Implica-tions for the Future Research Report No RR5 Departmentof Civil Engineering Monash University and MineralPolicy Institute Retrieved 28 July 2008 from httpcivilengmonasheduauaboutstaffmuddpersonalSustMining-Aust-aReport-Masterpdf

Mudd GM 2008 Department of Civil EngineeringMonash University personal communication

Newton PW 2006 Human Settlements Theme commen-tary prepared for the 2006 Australian State of the Environ-ment Committee Department of the Environment andHeritage Canberra Retrieved 25 August 2008 from httpwwwenvironmentgovausoe2006publicationscommentariessettlementspubssettlementspdf

NPI 2008 NPI Location Report ndash All Sources QueenslandDepartment of the Environment Water Heritage and theArts Canberra Retrieved 29 July 2008 from httpwwwnpigovauoverviewreportsqld-location-reporthtml

NRW 2006 Erosion Control in Cropping LandsDepartment of Natural Resources and Water BrisbaneRetrieved 13 August 2008 from httpwwwnrwqldgovaufactsheetspdflandl13pdf



NRW 2008a Land Cover Change in Queensland 2005ndash06 aStatewide Landcover and Trees Study (SLATS) ReportDepartment of Natural Resources and Water BrisbaneRetrieved 27 September 2008 from httpwwwnrwqldgovauslatspdfland_cover_change_0506land_cover_change_0506pdf

NRW 2008b The Great Artesian Basin Department ofNatural Resources and Water Brisbane Retrieved 8 Feb-ruary 2009 from httpwwwnrwqldgovauwatergab

OESR 2008 Overseas Export of Goods by Port VolumeQueensland Ports 1996ndash97 to 2006ndash07 Office ofEconomic and Statistical Research Brisbane Retrieved6 September 2008 from httpwwwoesrqldgovauqueensland-by-themeeconomic-performancetradetablesos-export-goods-port-vol-qld-portsindexshtml

OrsquoRourke PK Fordyce G Holroyd RG and Loxton ID1995 Mortality wastage and lifetime productivity of Bosindicus cows under extensive grazing in northern Australia1 Seasonal mating in the speargrass region AustralianJournal of Experimental Agriculture 35 285ndash295

Poldy F and Foran B 1999 Resource Flows the MaterialBasis of the Australian Economy CSIRO Wildlife andEcology Canberra Retrieved 4 September 2008 fromhttpwwwcsecsiroaupublications1999resourceflows-99-16pdf

Pongraacutecz E 2002 Re-defining the Concepts of Waste andWaste Management Academic Dissertation Departmentof Process and Environmental Engineering University ofOulu Oulu Retrieved 19 January 2009 from httpherkulesoulufiisbn9514268210isbn9514268210pdf

Powerlink 2008 Annual Planning Report 2008 PowerlinkQueensland Brisbane Retrieved 15 August 2008 fromhttpwwwpowerlinkcomaudataportal00005056content56727001214541091625pdf

Price JL and Joseph JB 2000 Demand management ndash abasis for waste policy a critical review of the applicabilityof the waste hierarchy in terms of achieving sustainablewaste management Sustainable Development 8 96ndash105

QG 2008 Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme GreenPaper Submission Queensland Government Retrieved 9February 2009 from httpwwwclimatechangegovaugreenpaperconsultationpubs0518-queensland-governmentpdf

QT 2008 Trade Statistics by Commodity 2004ndash2008Queensland Transport Brisbane Retrieved 9 February2009 from httpwwwtransportqldgovauresourcesfileebc8dd4199170fdPdf_trade_statistics_report_2008_part_4_trade_by_commodity_1pdf

Schandl H Poldy F Turner GM Measham TGWalker DH and Eisenmenger N 2008 Australiarsquosresource use trajectories Journal of Industrial Ecology 12669ndash685

Schmidt-Bleek FB 1993 The Fossil Makers (Translated byRuben Deumling) Retrieved 26 January 2009 from httpwwwfactor10-instituteorgfilesthe_fossil_makersFossilMakers_Intropdf httpwwwfactor10-instituteorgfilesthe_fossil_makersFossilMakers_1pdf

Schroumldinger E 1967 What is Life and Mind and MatterCambridge University Press London

Seely H 2003 The poetry of DH Rumsfeld recent worksby the Secretary of Defense Slate Magazine April 2 2003Retrieved 13 February 2009 from httpwwwslatecomid2081042

Sharley AJ Best LW Lane J and Whitehead P 1992An overview of lead poisoning in Australian waterfowl andimplications for management Cited in The Use of LeadShot in Cartridges for Hunting Waterfowl Flora amp FaunaGuarantee Action Statement 32 Department of Sustain-ability and Environment Melbourne 2003 Retrieved 11August 2008 from httpwwwdsevicgovauCA256F310024B62807BB2B0C7ACB5D072CA2570920021FE39$File032+Lead+Shot+1992pdf

UNEP 2007 Global Environment Outlook Environmentfor Development GEO4 United Nations EnvironmentProgram Valletta Retrieved 25 August 2008 from httpwwwuneporggeogeo4reportGEO-4_Report_Full_enpdf

Wilkenfeld G 2002 Regulatory Impact StatementMinimum Energy Performance Standards And AlternativeStrategies For Electricity Distribution Transformers Pre-pared for the Australian Greenhouse Office by GeorgeWilkenfeld and Associates Sydney Retrieved 16 August2008 from httpwwwlegislationqldgovauLEGISLTNSLSRIS_EN200404SL223R1pdf

Woodhams J and Stobutzki I 2007 Torres Strait PrawnFishery In Larcombe J and McLoughlin K (eds) FisheryStatus Reports 2006 Status of Fish Stocks Managed bythe Australian Government Bureau of Rural SciencesCanberra 49ndash56 Retrieved 11 August 2008 from httpwwwaffashopgovauproductaspprodid=13736

Zeller B 2008 Annual Status Report 2007 ndash East CoastTrawl Fishery Department of Primary Industries andFisheries Brisbane Retrieved 11 August 2008 from httpwww2dpiqldgovauextrapdffishwebAnnualStatusReport-EastCoast-OtterTrawl-BeamTrawl-2007pdf



The nature of wasteThere is a plethora of physical social and legaldefinitions of waste Wastes may be identifiedby their physical properties the way they werecreated where they were created their impact onthe environment or their lack of purpose

At the simplest level waste is unwantedmaterial (matter or energy) that is discarded TheNobel Prize wining physicist Erwin Schroumldinger(1967) noted that waste was a part of life Organ-isms maintain low internal entropy by consumingfree energy and excreting high-entropy waste

Thermodynamic inevitabilities mean thatwastes are produced in the process of materialconversion In this sense wastes are produced asby-products of material production The thermo-dynamic minimum is the smallest amount ofwaste that might be produced under conditions of100 efficiency In practice excessive waste isproduced due to process inefficiencies and theuse of material fuels (Baumgartner and de SwaanArons 2003)

Wastes are also produced when a productreaches the end of its useful life or no longerfunctions acceptably This may be due to it beingcontaminated worn out or improperly designedor constructed It is also produced when productswith short life spans or limited purposes (such asproduct packaging) have fulfilled their purpose

In addition wastes are produced when func-tional materials are discarded Products may beno longer wanted become obsolete or consumedinefficiently They may be surplus to require-ments past their lsquouse-byrsquo dates or have simplybecome unfashionable

Pongraacutecz (2002) noted that purpose is adefining characteristic in the social construc-tion of waste Wastes include materials that areunwanted because they were produced with noutilitypurpose have fulfilled their intended pur-pose(s) and are no longer useful do not performin a satisfactory manner or are discarded withoutbeing used for their purpose

Pongraacutecz (2002 89) also noted that lsquowaste initself is not detrimentalrsquo (it might be used as asecondary resource) but that lsquothe act of wastingisrsquo Hamilton et al (2005) defined lsquowasteful con-sumptionrsquo as the purchase of goods and servicesthat are not subsequently consumed They esti-mated that the average Australian householdspent over A$1000 (over 10 billion dollars acrossthe nation) per year on goods and services thatwere never or rarely used

Gourlay (1992 21) provided an alternativeperspective on wasteful consumption noting that

waste lsquois what we do not want or what we fail tousersquo with the proviso that failure to use an itemincluded lsquofailure to use for its proper purposersquoThis waste includes materials used in agricultureand aquaculture that miss their targets and enterthe environment

Similarly there is the issue of resource dissi-pation Jackson (1996 6) noted that while it wasthermodynamically impossible to totally preventthe dissipation of energy and materials someproducts and processes are lsquoinherently dissipa-tiversquo This is a problem as resources and wasteproducts are dispersed rapidly into the environ-ment and are difficult to recover and manage

Many wastes have adverse impacts These areoften described as hazardous wastes and pollu-tion Gourlay (1992) argued that the focus on theimpacts of these materials and the use of labelssuch as lsquoemissionsrsquo lsquodischargesrsquo and lsquoeffluentrsquodisguises the fact that those materials are wastesGarcier (2008 10) described pollution as beinglsquoa silly and un-economic waste of matterrsquo

A large part of the problem is that many wasteshave (or are perceived to have) negative net eco-nomic values While some wastes can be usedprofitably as secondary resources (for example20 of the aluminium produced each year isrecycled scrap) the management of many wastesentails net costs Consequently there is a propen-sity for waste to become a negative externality(Lacoste and Chalmin 2007)

The ecological rucksackProducts incur environmental impacts through-out their lifecycle as resources are consumedand wastes are produced Schmidt-Bleek (1993)developed the ecological rucksack concept todescribe the material impact of products Henoted that the ecological rucksack of each goodor service comprises the materials moved ortransformed in the course of producing usingand disposing of that good or service As suchthe ecological rucksack includes resources con-sumed and wastes produced in the entire life-cycle of a good or product For exampleSchmidt-Bleek noted the rucksack of a tonne oflignite produced along the Rhine included eighttonnes of overburden

The ecological rucksack concept fits withinthe scope of material flow analysis Otherlifecycle measures include embodied energy(eMergy) the proportion of plant organic matterproduced through photosynthesis that is con-sumed by humanity and the more commonlyapplied ecological footprint (Moran et al in














































































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2002














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