What is the meaning of studying the religious conceptions of … · What is the meaning of studying the religious conceptions of Émile Guimet (1838-1918) ? Frédéric Girard It is

277Journal of International Philosophy, No.4 2015

What is the meaning of studying the religious conceptions of Émile Guimet (1838-1918) ?

Frédéric Girard

ItiswellknownthatÉmileGuimet(1838-1925),aprominentfigureinthehistoryoforientalartandmuseologyinFrance,hadfoundedthemuseumnamedwithhispatronyme,theMuséeGuimet,situatedinanelegantand«chic»quarterofParisandaverypopularplace,nearTrocadéro,EffeilTowerandChamps-ÉlyséesAvenue,sothatithasbeen considered and assimilated to an important centerof tourism inFrance.But, on another side, by itsmuseologicalconception,itcanbesaidtohavegiveninfluenceandshapetothesensibilityofitsvisitorsconcerningtheOriental religionsand thought, fromat leastonecenturyandhalf, so that thismuseumhasaverygreatimportancetounderstandandgraspthevisionandconceptionoforientalworldconceptionamongsWesternpeople,thegeneralcultivatedpublicandalsoscientificpersonalities.1

WhatislessknownisthefactthatGuimetambrassedagreatambitioninthescientificfieldofhumanities,fineartsandhistoryofreligions.HisimageisassociatedwiththeoneofabusinessmanofLyon’shightbourgeoisie-hehisthesonofaPresidentofasociety,knownbytheinventionof«GuimetBlue»(akindofindigo),whichchargeheinheritedduringallhislifetime-, interestedinEgyptianandOrientalreligionsandarcheologyas,somesonotbenevolentcriticssaid,an«amateur»animatedbyamindofcuriositybutwithnoprofessionalism,sothathehasneverbeensoseriouslytakenintoconsiderationbyWesternscholarsinwhateverscientificfield.AsanexceptionisthepionneerworkofBernardFrank,myregrettedandbelovedmaster inJapanesestudies,who tried toheldconcerningGuimetanother image,as the initiatorofseriousstudies inOrientalandmorespecificallyJapanesereligionsthroughhisBouddhist-andshintō’spantheonelaborationandanalysis.OnegreatachievementofFrankishismajorworkontheJapaneseBuddhistPantheon,writtenwhiletryingtoorganizeasawholethecollectionofJapaneseReligiousartpiecesofGuimetmuseum,andparalleltoanothergreatworkonhisownJapaneseO-fuda’scollection,asreflectingtheJapanesereligiosity. InthecontinuityoftheworkofFrank,letprematurallyunfinished,2IhavebringedoutaquestioningontheworkofGuimetonnewbasis.33IhavetriedtotreatwithattentionthedialoguesthatGuimethadwiththerepresentativesoftheJapaneseBuddhistsectsandShintōpriests,duringhistravelinFarEastcountries,fromthesummertothewinterof1876,theninthyearofMeijiEra,withthefinancialassistanceofFrenchgovernment,throughtheMinistryofPublicInstruction(that isMinistryofEducation).Firstofall,IhaveeditedtheJapanesetextsoftheJapanesereligiousmenwhoanswerdtoGuimets’squestions,aworkwhichhadnotbeendone,oronlyinparts,fromtheyear1877.WhatcanbesaidofGuimetisthat,asacultivatedman,hewasinterestedinEgyptianarcheologyfromhisyoungyearsand thathiscuriosity in the fieldofEgyptian religion,namely in the Isiaccults,composedfromassociationofEgyptian,Greco-Roman,Celtic,Galliccults,didnotabandonedhimtillhisdeath.InhisanalysisofIsiaccultshewaswellinformed,asanotherspecialistGeorgesLafaye(1854-1927),4-hewrotea«Isisromaine»5 and«LesIsiaquesdelaGaule»6,andheknewverywell thephilosophicalstudiesofAthanasiusKircher(1601-1680),asLa Chine Illustrée,of1670,possessedbyGuimethimself,onhissyncreticandneoplatonicianpantheon7 whocanbesaidtheforerunnerofcomparedreligions.Hewashimselfhopingthathisreligiousstudiescouldsow

Articles

278 WhatisthemeaningofstudyingthereligiousconceptionsofÉmileGuimet(1838-1918)?

somehappinessinthesociety. WhenhestartedtotheFarEst,hehadthecommonidealsofaFrenchintellectualman,nonattachedorweaklyattachedtotheCatholicfaith,withrepublicanideasnearthesocialismofFourrier,thatthesocietywascomposedofphalansteries,spontaneouscommunitiesdirectedwith justice.But likesomeofhisfriendsandrelations,as thepoliticalmenJeanJaurèsorGeorgesClémenceau,hewas insearchofaphilosophicalandmoralsystemwhichfoundeditsmetaphysicsandethicalnormswithoutaSupremeBeingorGod,asinChristianism,andanequivalentofthisSupremeBeinginareligionwithoutasBuddhismwassaidtobeinEuropeancountriesatthetime.Inasceptic,agnosticandatheisticFrance,whichhaddeveloppedtheconceptsoflaicity,withacomitantnotionofseparationoftheChurchand theState,andof freedomof faith,Buddhismappeardasa religionwith interestingatheisticphilosophicalsystemwhichsucceededinhavingharmoniousanddeveloppedsocietiesintheFarEastpartof theworld. GuimethelddialogueswithBuddhitmonksandShintōpriest, that isZen,Jōdo,Jōdoshin,Nichiren,Tendai,Shingon,andShintōpriestsofKitanotenmangū.WhatwerethequestionsoftheFrenchscholar?1/Isthereacreatororacreation?2.Whatisispowerandvirtueasahotoke,ajudgeandsubjectoftherretributionofacts(karman);inotherwords,ifthereisnocreator,whatorwhoisthesupremeauthoritywhodecideswhatisgoodandbad?3/Istheremiracles?4/Istherealifeafterthedeath?5/Whataretheprinciplesofmorality?6/Historyanddoctrinesofthesect.7/WhataretherelationsbetweenBuddhaandDeities.8/Whatarethesacredtextsofthesect?(9/ThemudrāofShingonsect). Whatisthemeaningofthesequestions,whicharethesamewhateverwasthesectconcerned?Atthefirst, itseems thatwehaveadialogueChristianity-Buddhism,as in theChristianCentury.ButasGuimetwasnotaconvincedCatholic, thishypothesis is tooweakandnonreliable. Inhis report to theFrenchMinistry,Guimetassertedthatthetranslationoftheanswershereceivedwasaprioritarywork. But infact,heonlypublishedthedialogueswiththeNishihonganjirepresentatives,ShimajiMokurai(1838-1911),AkamatsuRenjō(1841-1919)andAtsumiEnkai (1840-1906)).8Whatwas the reasonof this restrictivelimitationhastobeinquiredon.ItiswellknownthatMokuraivisitedEuropeandintroducedinJapanthedecisiveconceptsofseparationofReligionandStateandofFreedomofFaithwhichhadadetermininginfluenceatthetime,buttheyarenotdiscussedinthesedialogues. Ifweconsiderthesefacts,thebesthyptothesisisnotitthat,consideringtheinconciliablevarietyoftheanwersofJapanesereligiousmen,heresignedhisprojectbecausehehadnotanonlyoneanswerfromhisinterlocutorstothe questions. Forinstance, theshintōhadtheGodMasterintheMiddleoftheHeaven(Amenominakanushinokami)asacreator,buttheBuddhistspokemostlyofCausality(innen, inga, engi),orofthemanifestationofthingsbythemind-only (yuishin),or theprincipleof things (shinnyo),besides the Indiandemiurges (Brahmā,andsoon).TheconclusionofGuimet,iftherewasone,wasthattheshintōhadananswerbutnotclearlytheBuddhist:nethertheless,theBuddhistsheld,throughcausality,akindofFatumorDestiny,asanoverwhelmingprincipleoftheuniverse,anon-personalcausativeprinciple identifiedwith innermostpartofhumanmind(yuishin, isshin, shinnyo),andkarman...Inthiscase,theBuddhisthadakindofcausallawasaprincipleofuniverse,liketheoccidentalnotioncosmiclaw,withouttheembarrassinghypothesisofaPersonalGod.Fromthispointofview,thenormofgoodandbadhastobeinquiredinsomethingelsethanthemindofmanhimself.Andif,asBuddhistsstates, thereareno


exceptiontothislaw(themiracles),thislawispurelynaturalanduniversal.Fromthispoint,itcanbeassertedthatthemoralandethicalprinciplesareinhumanmindonlyandnotinanextrinsicauthorityasapersonaldeity.InthelastquestionontherelashionshipbetweenBuddhasanddeities, therewerenoallusionto theactualsituationofpersecutionofBuddhismandtheanswerwereveryquiet,stressingthesuperiorityofBuddhasandbodhisattvasandtheaccessory roleof Indian,Chineseand Japanesedeities,whereGuimetmaybehoped tohave treated therelationshipofAmenominakanushinokamiwiththeBuddhasandbodhisattvas.Theveryconfusedandmuddledanswers tohisquestionsweretherenot themotivationof thenon-publicationof thesedialogues,fromwhichhecouldnotextractanyconsistantconclusiononthemattershehadinmind?Thismatterwas:insteadoftheChristianGod,whatprincipleBuddhistshaveyoutosuggesttous?Asheobtainednoclearconclusion,heonlyhadtomakesuppositions, thatwecanfind in thepublicationsofhiscollaborators,FélixRégamey(1844-1907)9orLéondeMilloué(1842),butscarcelyintheworksofGuimethimself.ThatisalsothereasonwhyhehadtheSummary of the

Twelve SectsofFujishimaRyōonandtheSummary of the Eight SectsofBuddhism(Hasshū kōyō)ofGyōnen(1240-1321)translatedintoFrench.10

AlongthesamelinesofconcernsofKircherviewofcomparativereligions,asallbornfromEgyptianreligionandbeingramificationsofit,Guimetandsomeofhiscontemporaryscholarsinthisfield,developpedonthemodelofthePeriodical Classification of elements(1869)byDmitriMendeleïev(1834-1907),akindofClassificationTableofReligionsoftheworld,asMauriceVernes(1845-1923),withaphilologicalmethodology,inhis«Introduction»of thefirstvolumeof thenewlyappearedreview, theReview of History of Religions, thatheco-foundedwithGuimet, theMauriceVernes(1845-1923), in1880.Amethodologyassociatedhistoricalevolution,bygathering“positive”materials,andstructuralandphilosophicalschemesgoingbeyondthepastoppositionofanevoluedjudeo-christianismandaprimitivepaganism:itwascurrentatthistimedominatedbythe“positivism”ofAugusteComte(1798-1857),EugèneBurnouf (1801-1852)andÉmileLittré (1801-1881)or the spiritualistpositivisieFélixRavaisson(1813-1900),inheritedbytheOrientalistandJaponologistLéondeRosny(1837-1914). In the Encyclopédie des sciences religieusesofFrédéricLichtenberger(1832-1899),11atthearticle«Religions(Classementetfiliationdes)»(1880),thesameMauriceVernesdescribestheconceptionsofreligioussciencesatthetimewhenGuimetreturnedfromOrient.HealludesinparticulartotheclassificationofreligionsestablishedbytheDutchG.P.TieleinheritedbyAlbertRéville(1826-1906),alsoaco-founderofthesameRevue,andthefirsttoholdtheChairinHistoryofReligionsattheCollègedeFrance(1880)andthefirstpresidentoftheSectionofReligiousSciencesat theÉcolepratiquedeshautesétudes(1886).Themost importantoriginalityofRévillehasbeen toestablishapartitioningbetween,ononehand,“polytheisticreligions”,with(1)theprimitivereligionofnature,(2)theanimismdistinguishingbodyandsoul- inAfrica,Eskimocountries,Finland,Tartarpopulations, IndiansofAmerica,Polynesia -, (3) thenationalmythologies - Indo-EuropeanandSemiticpopulations,China,Egypt,Babylonia,Germany,Gaul,Italy,Greece,Mexico,theVedicmythologyvédiquebeingthemoreachievedandtheJapanesemythologybeingunknown-, (4) thepolytheistic-legalist religions-Taoïsm,Confucianism,Mosaïsm,Judaïsm,Brahmanism,Mazdeism-, (5)Buddhism,and,ontheotherhand, the“monotheisticreligion”,with(1)Judaism,issuedfromMosaïsm,legalistandnational,(2)Islamism,legalistandinternational,(3)Christianism,aredemptivereligionofinternationalnature.Bouddhismis,belongingtoRéville,at theturningjunctionofthetwogroups:itisauniversalredemptivereligion,opposedtopolytheismbutinrealityintegratinglocalpolytheisms. Thisclassification issupposed tosupplantandreplace thehierarchicalclassificationprevalent inCatholicmiddles,byevacuingthesurnaturalelementsdonebyprotestantcriticism,astheoneproposedbytheAbbotBertrandin 1848, in his Dictionnaire Universel, historique et comparatiste de toutes les Religions du Monde.Bertrandholdaso-calledexhaustivetypology:1/primitiveornaturalreligionrevealedbyGodtohumankindwithouttextsmais,2/MosaïsmorJudaïsmwithprescriptionspreparingRedemption,3/ChristianismastheachievementofJudaïsm,4/


Sabeism,aheresywithanastralcult,5/DualismorMagismexplainingthegoodandthebad,6/BrahmanismorTritheism,7/AncientGreco-RomanPaganism,8/Buddhism,akindofpantheismnegating theDivinityandextendingitineverything,9/Tao-sse[sic],aphilosophismbasedonrituals,10/Fétichism,11/Chamanism,fusioningSabeism,BouddhismetFetichisminCentralandSeptentrionalAsia,12/Islamism. TheclassificationofRévillewascriticizedbyVernesforitsartificialphilosophicaldistinctionswithoutlinkwiththenaturalenvironmentandsocialevolutionwherereligionshadgrowed.12Anationalcharacterneverdisappearinauniversalreligionandevenamonotheismhasanevolutiontowardsapolytheisminasmuchithastoadaptitselftolocal religions.Verneshas inviewa indo-europeangroupandaegypto-semiticgroupwhichevolutedfromtheoriginstillmoderntimes,combinedinsymbiosiswithotherpopulationsinitatingnewsyncreticshapesofreligions.Religionsreducedtotheirsimplestformsofdeveloppementt,withtheprogressofcivilisation,indogmsandcults,butalsowithdeclines,sothatitisimpossibletoestablishageneralevolutionofreligions,inastrictchronologicaland typologicalparallelism. It is illusory to tracea linearevolutionfromaroughandprimitivestate,a initialRevelationand thefurtherelaborationof thehighterconceptsof theologians.ThenewRevue de l’histoire des

religions,undertheauspicesofthemuséeGuimet,hadatendancytomakeanequalviewofallthereligions,thoughitrecognizeddifferenciesinthelevelsofcivilizations:thetendencytowardsanintegralequalizationbecamemorepatentwithLévy-Bruhl(1857-1939),whousedtheepithetof“primitive”astobetterabolishit,buthad,maby,towait tillClaudeLévi-Strauss tobecomecompletelyachieved(Lévi-Straussstartedhis investigationsfromSouthAmericanpopulationswhichcouldnotbesaidtobelinkedwithapossibleegyptianorigin,asinothercases). Thenewsciencewasalsocalled“hiérography”,andwasconcomitantwiththescientificworkseditedinjournalsas the Revue historique,foundedfouryearsbefore,andwantedtoconcentratethescatteredarticlesinjournalsastheJournal Asiatique or the Revue critique.But thenewjournalandthereforethenewsciencehadnot thenameof“sciencesofreligions”butof“historyofreligions”:itaimedtoinquireintotheancientandmodernorientalreligionsandintotheancient,butnotmodern,occidentalreligions,astoavoidunsefullpolemicsandtoopenthedoortoaprogressiveenrichmentandincreaseinthefieldofafecondproductionofthehumanmind,notwithasoleandunickey:«TheJournalispurelyhistorical,itexcludesanyworkhavingapolemical or dogmaticcharacter.»TherolepalyedbyGuimetwaspreciselytoopenthedoortowardstheobservationoftheseOrientalreligions,withoutanydogmaticpresupposition,inacompleteintellectualautonomy. Guimetknewverywellallthesetheoriesfortheyhadbeenelucidatedandstressedbyscholarswhowerealsohiscolleaguesandfriends.But inGuimet’sviews, theJapanesereligionshadasaparticularity tohaveaveryelaboratedtheoriticalsystemofthought,withapantheonwherethedivinitieshad,eachone,adefinitefunction,anattributesymbolizinghisfunction,andaclergywhoconcretizedtheroleofthesefunctionsinceremoniesandrituals,whereinChinaorinIndiathathevisitedtherewerenothingsimilartoobserve:thefunctionswereconceptsandtheattributessymbolizationsorconcrete imagesof theseconcepts, inawayrathersimilar toKircher’sviews.TheJapanesereligionswerethemostcompletesystemsofsymbolsandrepresentations,andthiswasthereasonwhyheattachedimportancetostudythem.Hewasprobably,onthispoint,notinaccordancewithhiscolleagueVerneswhodissociatedtheologicalelaborationsofconceptsfromritualandsymbolicrepresentations.Andthesystemofthoughtthathefoundin theShingonpantheonconcretisedby theShingonmaṇḍalashadmanyreasons toplease tohisopinions:ithadBuddhismasitsfocus,areligionbeingattheintersectionofallthereligions,intheschemesandclassificationsthatwehavedescribed;itgaveasyntheticrepresentationoftheevolutionofallthereligionsofAsia,fromBrahmanism,Taoism,Confucianism,Shintō,andevenAtheism,tillallformsofBuddhism.ThereasonwhyGuimetwasfascinatedby theMaṇḍalaofTōji, thathereproduced inhismuseummayhavebeen thisholisticconceptionofreligionsofAsia,ononehand,andthefactthatitofferedevidentsimilarities,forhim,withtheIsiacorBembineTable,asithadbeeninterpretedinthreelevelsbyKircher:theleveloftheAbsoluteDeity(Isis),thelevelofdeitiesgovernedbyReason,andthelevelofdeitiesandbeings(includingmen)dominatedbyPassions.These


levelsarethethreestatesofbeingorhypostasisoftheNeo-Platonism,anditisexactlyinthesameterminologythatGuimetinterpretedtheMaṇḍalaofTōji, intheExpositionUniverselleinParis, in1878.13TheIsiacTableandtheTōji’sMaṇḍalahavealmostthesamenumberofdeities,anorientation,ahierarchy,anddoublecourseupwardanddownwardmovement,withreligiousandmetaphysicalsignification.His tableof thereligionsof theworldwascomplete, as the RepertoryofMendeliev.HisdefectwasthefactthattheJapanesedeities,thekami,wereputinaratherlowlevel,whichdidnottalliedwiththerealityofthecultsandbelievesofJapanesepeoplehediscribedinhisPromenades Japonaises(1876).14HereisoneofthelimitsofGuimet’sinvestigationsinreligionsbuthismeritshavetobereappreciatedinaverymuchhighterdimensionthatinthepast.

1 SeeOmoto,KeikoetMacouin,Francis:Quand le Japon s'ouvrit au monde,Gallimard,«Découvertes»,1990,rééd.2001;Idem:Nihon no kaikoku 日本の開国:Emiiru Gime aru furansujin no mita Meiji エミール・ギメ　あるフランス人の見た明治,OmotoKeiko,FuranshisuMakuwan尾本圭子, フランシス・マクワン著 ;Trad.OmotoKeiko尾本圭子訳, Sōgensha創元社,Ōsaka大阪,1996.;forabriefpresentation,seeJean-FrançoisJarrige,«ÉmileGuimet(1836-1917):Unnovateuretunvisionnaire»,Comptesrendusde l’AcadémiedesInscriptionsetBelles-Lettres, fasciculeIV,novembre-décembre2000;SuekiFumihiko末木文美士,«Shiiboruto/HofumantoNihonshūkyō»「シーボルト／ホフマンと日本宗教」,KikanNihonshisōshi『季刊日本思想史』, n°55,1999.German transltion,Sieblod,«HoffmannunddiejapanischenReligionen»...BochumerJahrbuchzurOstasien-forschung,Bd.26,2002.

2 BernardFrank,L’Intérêt pour les religions japonaises dans la France du XIXe siècle et les collections d’Émile Guimet, Paris :PUF,1986. Idem :Le panthéon bouddhique au Japon :Collection d'Emile Guimet,MuséeNationaldesArtsAsiatiquesGuimet,Réuniondesmuséesnationaux,Paris,1991,335pages,272illustrations.Idem:«L'image du bodhisattva Seishi du Kondô du Hôryûji retrouvée au musée Guimet – Le dossier documentaire»,Artsasiatiques,XLVII,1992.Furanku,Berunaruフランク、ベルナル:Yomigaeru Banpaku to rittai mandara-ten zuroku - Emīru Gime ga mita Nihon no hotoke shinkō - 甦るパリ万博と立体マンダラ展　図録−エミール．ギメが見た日本のほとけ信仰 - Furansu kokuritu Gime bijutsukansōritsuhyakushūnenkinenフランス国立ギメ美術館創立100周年記念,Seibuhyakkaten西武百貨店,Tōkyō,1989.

3 The Approach of a European towards Japanese Religions: The Dialogues of Emile Guimet with Japanese Monks and Priests, Yoroppajin no Nihon shūkyō heno apurōchi - Emīru Gime to Nihon no sōryo kannnushi tono mondō ヨロッパ人の日本宗教へのアプローチ−エミール　ギメと日本の僧侶、神主との問答,KokusaiNihonbunkakenkyūsentā国際日本文化研究センター,Kyōto,2010,48pages.(inJapanese).

4 Histoire du culte des divinités d’Alexandrie hors d’Égypte, 1883.GeorgesLafaye,Histoire du culte des divinités d'Alexandrie, Sérapis, Isis, Harpocrate et Anubis, hors d'Egypte : depuis les origines jusqu'à la naissance de l’école néo-platonicienne,Paris,Thorin,1883.

5 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres,1896.6 Revuearchéologique,t.36,1900,ett.II,1912,t.XX,1914,ett.V,1916.7 True and natural interpretation of the Isiac Table (Vera & genuina mensa Isiaca, sive tabulae Bembinae interpretatio).8 Montai ryakki『問對略記』, Shimaji Mokurai zenshū 島地黙雷全集、daigokan第五巻、Honganjishuppanbu本願寺出

版部、Kyōto京都、1976,pp.818-849.Annales du Musée Guimet,1880,tomeI;Montai ryakki : Fu Kyōgi ryakutō,TōkyōetKyōto1877.

9 FélixRégamey,Japon,PaulPaclot&Cie,Éditeurs,Paris,1907.Idem, Le Japon en Images,Dessinsd’aprèsnatureetdocumentsoriginaux,LibrairiePaulPaclot&Cie,1904.Idem, Japan in Art and Industry, With a Glance at Japanese Manners and Customs,byF.R.,AuthorizedTranslationbyM.French-SheldonandEliLemonSheldon,NewYorkandLondon,FrederickA.StokesCompanyPublishers,1892.«Ru•mondo•iryusutore»Nihonkankeisashie-shū『ル・モンド・イリュストレ』日本関係さし繪集,Yokohamakaikōshiryōkan横浜開港資料館,Yokohama,1988.

10 Millioud,Alfred:«EsquissedeshuitsectesbouddhistesduJaponparGyau-nen»,Revue de l'histoire des religions, 13e

année,tomesXXV,XXVI,Paris,1892.Fujishima,Ryauon[Ryōon]:Le bouddhisme japonais, doctrine et histoire des douze grandes sectes bouddhiques du Japon,Paris,MaisonneuveetLeclerc,1889.ReeditedbyBernardFrankwithaPostfaceandnotes:Les douze sectes bouddhiques du Japon...Paris,ÉditionsTrismégiste,1982,XLIII+189pages.

11 «EsquissedeshuitsectesbouddhistesduJaponparGyau-nen»[Gyônen(1240-1321):Hasshû-kôyô],Revuedel'histoiredesreligions,13eannée(Paris,1892),tomeXXV,pp.219-243,337-360;tomeXXVI,pp.201-219,279-315..


12 Vernes,Maurice:«Introduction»,Revuedel’HistoiredesReligions,AnnalesduMuséeGuimet,PremièreAnnée,TomePremier,Paris,ErnestLeroux,Éditeur,1880.

13 Exposition Universelle, Galeries historiques – Trocadéro. Religions de l’Extrême-Orient.:NOTICE EXPLICATIVE sur les objets exposés par M. Émile Guimet et sur les peintures et dessins faits par M. Félix Régamey.Paris,ErnestLeroux,Editeur,1878

14 Promenades japonaises, IllustrationsdeFélixRégamey,G.Charpentier,Paris,1878,212pages.AlsoPromenades japonaises:Tokio-Nikko.IllustrationsdeFélixRégamey,Paris,G.Charpentier,1880,288pages..SeeAsahina,Michiko朝比奈美知子(compiléettraduitpar):Furansu kara mita Bakumatsu ishin-«Iryusutorashion Nihon kankei kijishū » - フランスから見た幕末維新イリュストラシオン日本関係記事集,Tōshindō東信堂,Tōkyō,2004.


Guimet-Rapport

Authors（alphabetical order）

ETO, Takumi Part-Time Lecturer, Toyo UniversityFUJII, Chikayo JSPS Research FellowGIRARD, Frederic Professor, École française d'Extrême-OrientHORIUCHI, Toshio Research Associate of IRCPISHIHARA, Yuko PhD student, University of CopenhagenISSHIKI, Daigo Project Researcher, the University of TokyoIWAI, Shogo Associate Professor, Faculty of Letters, Toyo UniversityKANEKO, Tomotaro Assistant Professor, Tokyo University of the ArtsMIURA, Setsuo Professor, Faculty of Human Life Design, Toyo University MIYAMOTO, Hisayoshi Professor, Faculty of Letters, Toyo UniversityMOREAU, Pierre-Francois Professor, Institut d’ histoire de la pensée classique, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, MURAKAMI, Katsuzo Professor, Faculty of Letters, Toyo UniversityMUTO, Shinji Research Associate of IRCPNAGAI, Shin Professor , Faculty of Letters, Toyo UniversityNUMATA, Ichiro Professor, Faculty of Letters, Toyo UniversityOBERG, Andrew Lecturer, Faculty of Regional Development Studies, Toyo UniversityONISHI, Yoshitomo Associate Professor, Faculty of Letters, Kumamoto UniversitySATO, Atsushi Specially-Appointed Professor at Senshu UniversitySHIRAI, Masato Research Associate of IRCPSIEG, Urlich Professor at the Philipps-Universität MarburgSONI, Luitgard InnsbruckTAKENAKA, Kurumi Doctoral student, graduate school of Letters, Toyo UniversityTAKEMURA, Makio President of Toyo UniversityWATANABE, Shogo Professor, Faculty of Letters, Toyo UniversityWATANABE, Hiroyuki Part-Time Lecturer, Toyo UniversityKANG, Mun-sun （Venerable Hyewon） Professor, College of Buddhist Studies, Dongguk University

Journal of International Philosophy No.4

（Published in March 2015）

＊This was published as part of the Strategic Research Base Development Program for Private Universities.

Edited by Editorial Board of International Research Center for Philosophy, Toyo University

（KIKUCHI Noritaka（Editor in chief）, IBUKI Atsushi, OHNO Takeshi）Published by International Research Center for Philosophy （IRCP）, Toyo University

（Director: MURAKAMI Katsuzo）

　　　〒112－8606　Toyo University, 5-28-20 Hakusan, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo

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What is the meaning of studying the religious conceptions of … · What is the meaning of studying the religious conceptions of Émile Guimet (1838-1918) ? Frédéric Girard It is