What is Research

“If we knew, what it was we were doing, it would not be called research” (Albert Einstein, 1875 -1955)

“Research is to see what everybody has seen and to think what

nobody else had thought” (Albert Szent-Gyorgyi)

Types of PhD:

1.Philosophy of High Degree

2.Pizza House Delivery

3.Learn How To Research

Definition of Literature Review

What Is Literature Review?A literature review may be presented as: A paper on its own. An integral part of an article. An integral part of research proposal. An integral part of thesis.

It describes, compares, contrasts and evaluates the major theories, arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies in the scholarly literature on a subject.

The literature review is: not an annotated bibliography not a summary of each of your sources listed one by one not just a descriptive summary of the historical background to your topic

General Definition of Literature Review:

Literature review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and

unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the

researcher (Uma Sekaran 2003)

Why do I need a literature Review?

When readers come to your thesis, They will ask questions such as:

What research question(s) are you asking?Why are you asking it/them?Has anyone else done anything similar? Is your research relevant to research/practice/theory in your field?What is already known or understood about this topic?How might your research add to this understanding, or challenge

existing theories and beliefs?

5 C’s of Literature Review Cite(primary focus on past literature)

Compare(frameworks, arguments, theories, methodologies, approaches and findings )

Contrast(major areas of disagreement, controversy, debate)

Critique (which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? )

Connect (connect your work with others works)

Main Sources for LitReviewPrimary source: Original research from journals, articles

or conferences, original materials such as historical documents, or creative works such as art or literature.

Secondary source: Evaluations, reviews or syntheses of original work.

Tertiary source: Broadly scoped material put together usually from secondary sources to provide an overview.

Scholarly Writing The Literature Review shows you to know where your research fits

in, with others.

DO NOT editorialize – just the facts!

DO connect your study to what you find in the review.

DO make certain that every review relates to YOUR study and show to reader HOW.

Questions to be answered What is already known about this issue/problem?

What useful data already exists that informs your efforts?

What is missing from the literature that your study will provide?

Why is your approach (method) an excellent way to solve the problem? 

How to find SourcesLook for key authors within the field-- big name authors will be found

often within bibliographies.

Computer literature searches-- most universities have an extensive on-line library with full text and citation databases.

Write or call key authors.

Look at literature in other disciplines.

Go from beginning to end of a very concern Review Paper to your field of study.

What to include in LitReview What was done? Was it effective?What was the accepted belief at that time?Where did this study or event take place?How does this relate to your study?Who was involved?What methodologies were used? Were they appropriate?What were the limitations? How were these limitations addressed?What type of instruments were used?What was the sample and population studied?What did this add to the knowledge or solution of the problem?What recommendations were made?Who was affected by this study or program?What are the similarities between this study and your study?

Main Points of LitReview The Literature Review plants the seeds that will grow your study from those

that came before it. Usually 100+sources; 30-60 pages.(The proposal could be half this amount). You need to cite appropriate literature to provide a rationale for the study’s

research design, instruments, and methods of data collection, analysis, and conclusions. Were they accurate? Why? or Why not?

The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline. A review is a required part of grant and research proposals and often a

chapter in thesis. A review may be a self-contained unit. Summary of past research related to the research to be conducted. Bibliographic essay published in scholarly journal. A discussion on several questions/problems related to the research to be

conducted. Generate questions that triggers further research. If not necessary not too much hypotheses (Prof.J.S).

How LitReview Judged A ‘good’ literature review…..

….. is a synthesis of available research ….. is a critical evaluation ….. has appropriate breadth and depth ….. has clarity and conciseness ….. uses rigorous and consistent methods

A ‘poor’ literature review is…..

…..an annotated bibliography ….. confined to description ….. narrow and shallow ….. confusing and longwinded ….. constructed in an arbitrary way

Purpose of Literature Review To provide background information. To establish importance. To demonstrate familiarity. To “carve out a space” for further research. To know what has been known or unknown/researched. To develop explanation on certain phenomena, state-of- the art . To learn how other researchers define words, concepts and identify hypothesis that can be

studied. To identify relationships between concepts and hypothesis. To identify sources of data used by earlier researchers. To explore issues, theories in scholarly writings . To identify what had been published on a certain topic . To critically analysis a segment of a particular knowledge through classification, summary,

comparison. Identify key landmark studies: key sources and authors. To explore and analysis previous approaches and methodologies. To identify how to fill a bit in the existing Research Gap.

Conceptual Framework & Variable Measurement Table

Conceptual framework is outcome of LitReview consist of major concepts and ideas of concern research.

Variable measurement table may include:

1. Variable

2. Indicator

3. Scale

4. Authors

5. Analysis

All these make questioner to become appropriate data

collecting instrument(a suitable time for questioner and its accuracy

procedure is 6 moths).

Steps of Writing LitReviewPlanning

Reading and Research

Analyzing

Drafting

Revising

Planning a Literature Search

DEFINE THE TOPICDEFINE THE TOPIC

THINK ABOUT THE SCOPE OF THINK ABOUT THE SCOPE OF THE TOPICTHE TOPIC

THINK ABOUT OUTCOMESTHINK ABOUT OUTCOMES

RECORD KEEPINGRECORD KEEPING

PLAN SOURCES TO BE PLAN SOURCES TO BE SEARCHED & SEARCH SEARCHED & SEARCH RELEVANT SOURCESRELEVANT SOURCES

Task of Analyzing LitReviewSummarize

Synthesize

Critique

Compare

Major LitReview Components Literature review involves 4 stages:

I : Formulate problem statements the proposed topic and the issues that are related.

II: Classify previous research according to categories

III: Discussions on similarities and differences between researches

IV: Conclusion :

Which research is the best research from the aspect of argumentation?

Which research is the best research that gives opinions that are most

convincing?

Which research gives the most contribution in the development of the area

studied?

A LITERATURE REVIEW MUST DO THESE THINGS……Dena Taylor (Director, health Sciences Writing Centre, University of Toronto)

BE ORGANIZED AROUND AND RELATED DIRECTLY TO THE RESEARCH QUESTION YOU ARE DEVELOPING

SOCIALIZATION OF ICT AMONG STUDENTS

IMPACT OF ICT

RESEARCH ON SOCIALIZATION OF ICT

ICT IN TEACHING &LEARNING

DIGITAL DIVIDE

A LITERATURE REVIEW MUST DO THESE THINGS……Dena Taylor (Director, health Sciences Writing Centre, University of Toronto

SYNTHESIZE RESULTS INTO A SUMMARY OF WHAT IS AND IS NOT KNOWN

AN EXAMPLE OF SYNTHESIS OF RESULT

RESEARCH ON PUBLIC PROTEST AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT IN AUSTRALIA

While the early settlers and today’s citizen both use public notices, supporters, public speeches, pamphlets and appeals to the govt. authorities to protest actions they oppose, there are also distinct differences in their methods. the early settlers were more inclined to use physical force where as today's citizens use the media in actions that are less violent in nature.

WHAT IS NOT KNOWN ? WHAT IS THE NATURE OF PUBLIC PROTEST AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT IN OTHER COUNTRIES?

SIMILARITIES EARLY SETTELERS PUBLIC NOTICEPUBLIC ASSEMBLYPUBLIC SPEECHESPAMPHLETAPPEAL TO THE

GOVERNMET

TODAYS’S CITIZENNOTICES IN

MAGAZINESSUPPORTERSPUBLIC SPEECHESAPPEAL TO THE

GOVERNMENT

DIFFERENCES

EARLY SETTLERSVIOLENCEDEMONSTRATIONWAR

TODAY’S CITIZENNON VIOLENTCAR STICKERSUSE MEDIA

A LITERATURE MUST DO THESE THINGS……Dena Taylor (Director, health Sciences Writing Centre, University of Toronto) Identify areas of controversy in the literature.

Formulate questions that require further research.

To select what parts of the research to discuss (e.g. the methodology).

Show how it relates to the other works (e.g. what other methodologies have

been used?)

How are they similar? how are they different? and show how it relates to your work (what is its relationship to your methodology?).

Literature search and Literature search and review on your topicreview on your topic

What are the key sources?

What are the major issues and debate about

the topic?

What are the key theories concepts and ideas?

What are the epistemological and ontological grounds for

the discipline?

What are the political standpoints?

What are the origins and definitions of the topic?

How is knowledge on the topic structured and organized?

What are the main questions and problems that have been

addressed to date?

How approaches to these questions How approaches to these questions increased our understanding and increased our understanding and

knowledge?knowledge?

Some of the questions the review of the literature can answerSome of the questions the review of the literature can answer

HOW CAN I WRITE A GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW?

Remember with a purpose :you are not writing a literature review just to tell your reader what other researchers have done. Your aim should be to show why your research needs to be carried out.

Read with a purpose: you need to summarize the work you read but you must also decide which ideas or information are important to your research and which are less important and can be covered briefly or left out of your review.

Write with a purpose: your aim should be to evaluate and show relationships between the work already done (Is Researcher Y's theory more convincing than Researcher X's? Did Researcher X build on the work of Researcher Y?) and between this work and your own.

INTERNET (eTOOLS) How to use search engines effectively

(surface Web such as: GOOGLE, YAHOO)

Search by using directories

Search by using meta search engine

Search by using Deep Web

Search by using Invisible Web

Evaluating web documents

2,112

3,000

No Search engines Indexing (million)

12345

7

8

9

6

GoogleAlltheWebAltaVistaWiseNutHotbotMSN Search

Teoma

NLResearch

Gigablast

3,083

1,000

500

1,500

3,000

125

150

INTERNET:INTERNET:Capabilities of search enginesCapabilities of search engines

Mapping and analyzing ideasMapping and analyzing ideasMapping a topicTo acquire sufficient knowledge of the subject to develop

the necessary understanding of the methodology and research techniques,

To comprehend the history and diffusion of interest in the topic,

To undertake an analytical evaluation of the main arguments, concepts and theories relevant to the topic in order to synthesize from the analysis an approach or thesis that is unique, that is your work.

Types OF Mapping Feature Map: Argumental structures developed from summary

record sheets.Subject Tree Map: Summative maps showing the development of

topic into sub-themes to any number of levels.Content Map: Linear structure of organization of content through

hierarchical classification.Taxonomic Map: Classification through standardized taxonomies.Concept Map: Linking concepts and processes enables declarative

to procedural knowledge. With an underlying principle of cause and effect and problem solving, concept maps can show the relationship between theory and practice.

Classification Classification involves sorting and organizing

ideas into categories and labeling those categories.

Information needsInformation

sourcesInformation styles

USE OF ONLINE INFORMATION SERVICES AMONG MANAGERS

Possible structures you can usePossible structures you can use

Problem awareness pattern (summative evaluation)

Cause and effect pattern (analytical evaluation)

Possible solution pattern (formative evaluation)

These structures show us how we can begin to think about arranging our ideas in a systematic way. However,

we have also to think of the logical arrangement we may want to use in our writing.

Structures for your argumentProblem awareness

patternCause & effect Possible solution

pattern

Describe nature of problem.

Give examples & evidence that the problem exist.

Develop a definition of the problem.

Establish the existence of the problem.

Propose possible causes.

Show the main factors underpinning the proposed causes.

Consider definition & solution already tried.

Give relevant examples of the solutions tried.

Show why they failed and causes for failure.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDRES (University of Leicester, UK)

Getting started:1. What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my

literature review helps to define?

2. What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy? quantitative research? qualitative research? Is it Inductive or Deductive Research?

3. What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using (e.g. journals, books, government documents, popular media)?

4. What discipline(s) am I working in (e.g., nursing, psychology, sociology, medicine)?

(University of Leicester, UK)Ways of finding relevant material1. Electronic search

2. References of references

3. Hands searching of journal(library printed collection)

Collecting material1. To avoid printing out or photocopying a lot of material that you will

not ultimately read.

2. use the abstracts of articles to check their relevance before you obtain full copies.

3. EndNote and RefWorks are software packages that you can use to collect and store details of your references, and your comments on them.

(University of Leicester, UK)Plagiarism1. Plagiarism is the using of someone else’s words or ideas, and

passing them off as your own.

2. You need to make sure that you do not, even accidentally, commit plagiarism.

3. You will need to put inverted commas (‘xxx’) around the exact quote, and record the page number on which it appears.

4. Two option: to use the exact quote in inverted commas, with the reference and

page number; or to describe it in your own words, and use the standard reference

format, without the page number, to acknowledge that it was someone else’s idea.

(University of Leicester, UK)When to stop1. To keep control of the reading process.

2. The aim is to ‘Build an argument, not a library’.

3. Writing while you collect and collecting while you write.

Use Tables 1. Using tables to display numerical data.

2. Tables can be useful to display the key differences between two or more: possible theoretical perspectives; possible methods; sets of assumptions; sample profiles; possible explanations.

(University of Leicester, UK)Writing it up It should be framed by your research questions. It must relate to your study. It must be clear to the reader where it is going. Wherever possible, use original source material rather than summaries or

reviews by others. Be in control, not totally deferent to or ‘tossed about by’ previous literature. Be selective. Ask ‘why am I including this?’ It is probably best to treat it as a research project in its own right.

(University of Leicester, UK)Reference list

1. Almost all academic writing will need a reference list.

2. this is a comprehensive list of the full references of sources that you have referred to in your writing.

3. The term ‘bibliography’ can cause confusion, as some people use it interchangeably with the term ‘reference list’.

4. they are two different things.

5. the term ‘bibliography’ refers to any source list that you want to place at the end of your writing, including sources you have not referenced.

6. A bibliography is not usually necessary or relevant, unless you have been asked to produce one.

Few Tips on Referencing Referencing a source involves two separate steps:

Indicating in the body of a piece of work that some material is not entirely original, by providing a short 'identifier' for its source (here called a reference in the text although it's often called a citation).

listing, in a separate section of the work, the full details of the source (in a list of references) A single list of references should be given at the end of the thesis or paper -- never one per chapter. 

Few examples (Harvard Referencing Style)

 Carson (1970) argued that ...   The system developed by Brown & Smith (1986) is ...   The declaration of human rights published by the United Nations (1948) was ...   AI has been effective as Hasan (1983) claims ... 

 On the other hand, Jones et al. (1988) have reported that ...   Carson's (1970) paper argues ...  A paper by Carson (1970) argues ... Jones (1980, 1983, 1987) has repeatedly argued that ...  An earlier paper (Carson 1970) argues that ...   The ARGA program (Brown & Smith 1986) is ...   It has been claimed that AI is effective (Hasan 1983) ...   The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations 1948) specified ...   On the other hand, it has been reported (Jones et al. 1983) that ..

ConclusionConclusion When you come to do your literature review you need to

check that the review:

Shows a clear understanding of the topicAll key landmark studies have been cited and most

discussedStates clear conclusion about previous research using

appropriate evidenceShows the variety of definitions and approaches to the

topic areaReaches sound recommendations using coherent

argument that is based on evidenceShows a gap in existing knowledge

Literature Review Checklist Did you outline the scope and purpose of the review? Have you identified appropriate source material mainly from primary and

secondary sources? Did you keep bibliographical records of all the researched material? Is each source critically reviewed? Have you organized all the material you obtained from the sources? Have you developed your approach? Have you written a draft and edited it carefully? Is your literature review submitted on time and in the correct format? Suggested style, spelling and grammatical Tools for your LR final touch:

1. Whitesmoke

2. Grammarly.com

An Example of LitReviewPhD Candidate: Sapiah Binti SakriPhD Supervisor : Prof.Juhana SalimDiscipline: Information TechnologyFaculty: FTSMUniversity: UKMBroad Area: Strategic Information system (SIS)Topic of Research:

“ FACTORS INFLUENCING ICT ABUSE IN THE MALAYSIAN PUBLIC SECTOR”

Table of Content2.1 Introduction

2.2 Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior

2.3 Concepts

2.3.1 The Antecedent Factors Concept

2.3.2 The Control Intention Factors Concept

2.3.3 The ICT Abuse Behaviours Concept

2.4 Empirical Studies and application Issues on TPB

2.5 Previous Models

2.5.1 Lee and Lee Model (2002)

2.5.2 Lee Model (2004)

2.6 Development of the ICT abuse Conceptual Framework

2.6.1 Analysis of ICT Abuse within the TPB

2.6.2 Defining of concepts and Constructs of Model

2.7 Relationship B/W Antecedent Factors and Intention Factors

2.8 Relationship B/W Control Intention Factors and ICT Abuse Dimensions

2.9 Conclusion

CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The research pertaining to analysis ICT abuse within organization often relates

to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) as the research framework (Foltz

2004, Leonard et al. 2004; Limayem et al. 1999). The application of the most

appropriate behavioural prediction theory such as TPB in analyzing ICT abuse

has generally relate to the intention determinants and behavioural intention

that would predict the actual ICT abuse behaviour (Lee & Lee,2002). Other

previous researches in analyzing ICT abuse has also relate to several

antecedent factors and several behhavioural intention factors which would

predict the several types of ICT abuse (Lee at al. 2004).

Continue…..This chapter consist of six parts. The first part is to review previous literatures

pertaining to the application of TPB. The second part is to relate the

proposed concepts with the literature of ICT abuse. The third part is to review

the previous empirical studies and their application issues. The forth part is to

review the previous ICT abuse models. The fifth part is to develop ICT abuse

conceptual framework based on findings of the literature review. The final part

is to formulate hypotheses based on the proposed relationships derived from

the literature review findings.

2.2 APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR

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