What is an Organization?

What is an Organization? An organization is a consciously coordinated social entity,

with a relatively identifiable boundary, the functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.

Organization‘s structure has having three components: 1) complexity, 2) formalization, and 3) centralization. Organizations tend to be centralized or tend to be decentralized. Organization design is concerned with constructing and changing

an organization’s structure to achieve the organization’s goals. Organization theory it is the discipline that studies the structure and

design of organizations. In contrast, organization theory takes a macro perspective. OT is

concerned not only with employee performance and attitudes but with the e overall organization’s ability to adapt and achieve its goals.

What is a System A system is a set of interrelated and inter-dependent parts

arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole. Every system is characterized by two diverse forces: 1) differentiation and

2) integration. Systems are classified typically as either closed or open.

A perfect closed system would be one that receives no energy from an outside source and from which no energy released to its surroundings.

The open system recognizes the dynamic interaction of the system with its environment.

Open systems, however, have some additional characteristics: A system can reach the same final state form differing initial conditions and by a variety of paths.

1) Environment awareness

2) Feedback

3) Cyclical character

4) Negative entropy

5) Steady state

6) Movement toward growth and expansion

7) Balance of maintenance and adaptive activities. Maintenance activities ensure that the various subsystems are in balance and that the total system is in accord with its environment. Adaptive activities are necessary so that the system can adjust over time to variations in internal and external demands.

8) Equifinality

System growth (Organizational Life Cycle) All organizations are born, live, and die.

They evolve through a standardized sequence of transitions as they develop over time. Transitions for one stage to another are predictable rather than random occurrences.

Five-stage model : 1) Entrepreneurial stage. infancy 2) collectivity stage. mission is clarified 3) Formalization-and-control stage. efficiency and stability are

emphasized. Departure of members causes no severe threat to the organization.

4) Elaboration-of-structure stage. Diversifies its product or service markets.

5) Decline stage.

Organizational Life Cycle

Formation

Growth

Maturity Decline

Entrepreneurial stageAmbiguous goalsHigh creativity

Collectivity StageInformal communication andstructureHigh commitment

Formalization & control stageFormalization of rulesStable structureEmphasis on efficiency

Elaboration of structure stageMore complex structureDecentralizationDiversified markets

Decline stageHigh employee turnoverIncreased conflictCentralization

Organizational Question Almost every issue within an organization can be cataloged

as an answer to one of five questions: 1) How do we know if an organization is successful? 2) What are the components of an organization? 3) What determines the structure of an organization? 4) What options do managers have for designing their

organization and when should each be used? 5) How do you apply a knowledge of organization theory to

the resolution of current management problems?

Org. Theory Development (Mgt. History) Prior to about 1960, organization theory tended to be dominated by a closed-system perspective.

Beginning around 1960, however, organization theory began to take on a distinctly open-system perspective.

The rational perspective argues that the structure of an organization is conceived as a vehicle to effectively achieve specified objectives. The social perspective emphasizes that structure is primarily the result of the conflicting forces by the organization’s constituents who seek power and control.

Type 1 theorists, also known as the classical school. In 1911 of Frederick Winslow Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management. He argued)R(1) the placement of rule-of-thumb methods for determining each element of a worker’s

job with scientific determination; (2) the scientific selection and training of workers; (3) the cooperation of management and labor to accomplish work objectives, in accordance with the scientific method; and (4) a more equal division of responsibility between managers and workers, with the former doing the planning and supervision, and the latter doing the execution.

Henri Fayol was consolidating this principles of organization. Fayol proposed fourteen principles. Esprit de corps. “ideal-type” organization structure proposed by the German sociologist, Max Weber? Bureaucracy. Ralph C. Davis. Primary objective of a business firm is economic service.

Mgt. History (2) Type 2 The human-relations school. These theorists operated under closed-system assumptions but emphasized the informal relations and

noneconomic motives operating in organizations. Hawthorne studies. Social norms of the group, therefore, were concluded to be the key determinants of individual work

behavior. An organization is a cooperative system is generally credited to Chester Barnard. Douglas McGregor’s. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Warren Bennis argued the other extreme-conditions now pointed to flexible adhocracies as the ideal

organizational form in fifty years.

Type 3 The need for organizations to adapt to a changing environment if they are to survive. Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn’s book The Social Psychology of Organizations, Was a major impetus toward

promoting the Type 3 theorists include theorists include those who advocate organization size as an important factor

influencing structure such as the Aston Group. Technology as an influencing factor was also considered by Woodward & Perrow.

Type 4 March and Simon challenged the classical notion of rational or optimum decisions. They argued that most

decision makers selected satisfactory alternatives-alternatives that were good enough. Pfeffer proposes that control in organizations becomes an end rather than merely a means to rational goals

such as efficient production of output. An organization’s design represents the result of the power struggles by these diverse coalitions.

Mgt. History SummaryDate: 1900-1930 1930-1960 1960-1975 1975-

Systems Perspective: Closed Closed Open Open

Ends Perspective: Rational Social Rational Social

Central Theme: Mechanical People & Contingency Power &

efficiency human designs politics

relations

Classification: Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

Key People: Fredrick Taylor Elton Mayo Katz & Kahn March & Simon

Henri Fayol (Hawthorne Woodward & Pfeffer

Max Weber studies) Perrow

Ralph Davis Chester Barnard Aston Group

Douglas McGregor

(Theory X & Y)

Warren Bennis

Organizational Effectiveness (OE) This belief that OE defies definition has been widely

accepted. The goal-attainment approach states that an organization’s

effectiveness must be appraised in terms of the accomplishment of ends rather than means. Assumes that organizations are deliberate, rational, goal-seeking

entities.

Management by objectives ( MBO ). The fact that organizations have multiple goals also creates

difficulties. In some cases, official goals may merely be rationalizations to

explain past actions rather than guides to future actions.

OE (2) A systems approach to OE

Implies that organizations are made up of interrelated subparts. If any one of these subparts performs poorly, it will negatively affect the performance of the whole system.

Focuses on the means necessary to assure the organization’s continued survival.

Output/input (O/I), transformations/input (T/I), transformations/output (T/O), changes in input/input (I/I).

The problem is that its focus is on the means necessary to achieve effectiveness rather than on organizational effectiveness itself.

The strategic-constituencies approach Proposes that an effective organization is one that satisfies the

demands of those constituencies in its environment from whom it requires support for its continued.

The task of separating the strategic constituencies from the larger environment is easy to say but difficult to do in practice.

OE (3) Different Aspects of OE Flexibility versus control. Well-being and development of the people. Well-being and development of the organization. Means versus ends.

Summary of the Four OE Approaches Goal attainment Systems Strategic constituencies Competing values

Complexity, Formalization & Centralization Complexity. formalization, and centralization are the three

core dimensions of organizational structure. Complexity:

Horizontal differentiation. Vertical differentiation Spatial differentiation

The most visible evidence in organizations of horizontal differentiation is specialization and departmentation.

Vertical differentiation refers to the depth in the structure. Vertical differentiation is a response to an increase in

horizontal differentiation.

Leads to

Span of Control The span of control defines the number of subordinates

that a manager can direct effectively. Narrow or wide spans. Spatial differentiation: organization’s offices, plants, and

personnel are dispersed geographically. The paradox of organizations.

The more complex an organization, the greater the need for effective communication, coordination, and control devices. This creates pressures to add managerial personnel to facilitate control, coordination, and conflict reduction. So the economies that complexity creates may be counterbalanced by the increased burden of keeping the organization together.

Formalization Formalization can be explicit or implicit.

Employees required to “clock in ”at their work station by 8 A.M. or be docked a half-hour’s pay and, once at that work station, are required to follow a set of precise procedures dictated by management.

Standardizing behavior reduces variability. McDonald’s, for example, can be confident that a Big Mac will look and taste the same whether it is made at an outlet in Portland, Maine; Biloxi, Mississippi; Fairbanks, Alaska; or Amsterdam.

The greater the formalization, the less discretion required from a job incumbent. Sound judgment is a scarce quality and cost more to buy. Organizations have to formalize jobs wherever possible so as to get the most effective performance from employees at the lowest cost.

The greater the professionalization of a job, the less likely it is to be highly formalized.

Employees higher in the organization are increasingly involved in activities that are less repetitive and require unique solutions.

Externalized & Internalized Externalized: unskilled.

Externalized behavior. The formalization is external to the employee; that is, the rules, procedures, and regulations governing the individual’s work activity are specifically defined, codified, and enforced through direct management supervision. This characterizes the formalization of unskilled employees.

Internalized: professionalization preprogrammed behaviors. Internalized behavior through social specialization. Socialization refers to an adaptation process.

For example, one of the main tasks of a business school is to socialize students to the attitudes and behaviors that business firms want.

As the level of professionalization increases in an organization, the level of formalization decreases.

Selection Choosing New Employees

A “good” employee is defined as one who will perform his or her job in a satisfactory manner and also whose personality, work habits, and attitudes align with what the organization desires. If the selection process does anything, it tries to prevent the employment of misfits; that is, individuals who do not accept the norms of the organization.

Selection should be recognized as one of the most widely used techniques by which organizations control employee discretion.

Role Requirements Role expectations may be explicit and defined narrowly. By loosening or tightening role expectations, organizations are

actually loosening or tightening the degree of formalization.

Org. Strategy Goals refer to ends. Strategy refers to both means and

ends. This includes all the employees in the org. Strategy can be defined as the determination of the basic

long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals.

Strategy is not necessarily a well-thought-out and systematic plan. It evolves over time as a pattern in a stream of significant decisions.

Strategy Org. StructureEnvironmental

Factors &Org. Capabilities

Types of Strategy Corporate-level strategy. This strategy seeks to answer the question, In what set of businesses

should we be?

Business-level strategy. Seeks to answer the question, How should we compete in each of out

businesses?

Alfred Chandler published in the early 1960s. Organizations typically begin with a single product or line. Because the organization‘s strategy is narrowly focused, the structure

to execute it can be low in both complexity and formalization. From the single-product line, companies typically expand activities

within their same industry. Vertical integration. Finally, if growth proceeds further, into product diversification, again

structure must be adjusted if efficiency is to be achieved. Time

ProductDiverivication

Strategy

Structure

t t+1 t+2

Simple Functional Divisional

Low High

Miles & Snow Defenders

seek stability by producing only a limited set of products directed at a narrow segment of the total potential market.

The result is a structure made up of high horizontal differentiation, centralized control, and an elaborate formal hierarchy for communications.

Prospectors The opposite of defenders. Finding and exploiting new-product and

market opportunities. Innovation may be more important than high profitability. 3M.

The structure is flexible. It will rely on multiple technologies that have a low degree of routinization and mechanization. There will be numerous decentralized units. The structure will be low in formalization, have decentralized control, with lateral as well as vertical communications.

The prospector cannot maximize profitability because of its inherent inefficiency.

Miles & Snow (2) Analyzers Capitalize on the best of both the preceding types. They seek to

minimize risk and maximize opportunity for profit. Their strategy is to move into new products or new markets only after viability has been proved by prospectors. Analyzers live by imitation.

Analyzers will tend to have smaller profit margins in the products and services that they sell than will prospectors, but they are more efficient.

But in this compromise there can be costs. If situations change rapidly, demanding that organizations move fully in either direction, their ability to take such action is severely limited.

Little Changeand Uncertainty

Rapid Changeand High Uncertainty

Defen

der

Reacto

r

An

alyzer

Pro

spec

tor

Michael Porter No firm can successfully perform at an above-average level by trying

to be all things to all people. Management must select a strategy that will give its organization a competitive advantage.

Cost -leadership strategy. Efficiency of operations, economies of scale, technological

innovation, low-cost labor, etc.

Differentiation strategy. The key is that the attribute chosen must be different from those

offered by rivals and significant enough to justify a price premium that exceeds the cost of differentiation.

Focus strategy. Aims at a cost advantage (cost focus) or differentiation advantage

(differentiation focus) in a narrow segment.

Stuck in the middle. Organizations that are unable to gain a competitive advantage by

one of the previous strategies.

Power & Control (Contingency Perspective ) John Child in the early 1970s.

1) Decision makers have more autonomy than that defined only by the environment.

2) Organizational effectiveness should be construed as a range instead of a point. The satisfice concept.

The range between maximizing and ”good enough ” creates an area in which managers can utilize their discretion.

3) Organizations occasionally have the power to manipulate and control their environments.

4) Perceptions and evaluations of events are an important intervening link between environments and the actions of organizations.

Restricted by two facts: (1) Commitments often lock an organization into a limited domain and (2) there are barriers to entry in many markets.

The contingency perspective is committed to rationality.

Power & Control (Dominant coalition) In contingency perspective, the dominant coalition and top

management are assumed to be one and the same. First, individual decision makers aren’t able to be totally rational.

Second, even if individuals could be rational, organizations can’t! Realistically, decision makers recognize only a limited number of

decision criteria. The choice of alternatives and assessment of those alternatives,

will reflect their self-interests.

Rather than considering all alternatives and listing them, once a minimum level is attained, the search stops and the choice is made.

DecisionMaker’sInterests

Organization’sInterests

Power & Control (Coalitions) While organizations are made up of individuals, they are

also made up of coalitions of interests. Few situations are so congruent, or the facts so clear-cut that

judgment and compromise are not involved.

Coalitions form to protect and improve their vested interests. Probably the most visible coalitions form along departmental lines. Any coalition that can control critical information, expertise, or any

other resource can acquire power and become a dominant coalition.

Power & Control (Authority & Power) Authority is part of power but, power

does not require authority. When we use the term power we mean an

individual’s capacity to influence decisions. As such, authority is actually part of he larger concept of power; that is , the ability to influence based on an individual’s legitimate position can affect decisions, but one does not require authority to have such influence.

Secretaries of high-ranking executives typically have a great deal of power but very little authority ? As gate-keepers for their bosses.

Those with formal authority may have the clout but, then again, that others in the organization may have created strong power bases that allow them to have even greater influence over decisions.

Power Core

Aut

hori

ty L

evel

Power & Control (How to Get Power) Power is, first and foremost, a structural phenomenon. The evidence indicates that there are three roads to the

acquisition of power: (1) hierarchical authority, (2) control of resources, and (3) network centrality. Formal authority is a source of power. Those occupying senior

management slots, can influence through formal decree. If you have something that others want, you can have power over

them. The resource must be both scarce and important. If resource scarcity increases the power of the resource holder,

then the proximity of relevant substitutes for the resource should also be considered.

International Organizational Structure Subsidiaries in Early Stages of Internationalization

A subsidiary is opened because an on-site presence is required from the start

PersonnelProduction Marketing Finance

ChiefExecutive

Officer

TaiwanFrance Japan Australia

PersonnelProduction Marketing Finance

Asian Vs Western Management Some Basic Features of the Two Management Styles

Ba sic Va lue s

M a na g e m e nt StyleO rg a niza tio n

Asian

Asian

AsianAsian

W esterns

W esterns

W esternsW esterns

Ind ivid ua lLe g a lC o n fro n ta tio nAna lytic

Sho rt Te rmC o ntro lC o nflic tO ne Pro d uc t/Se rvic e fo c use d

Ra tio na lityStruc tu re dD ire c tiveDo in t

Fo rm a lFra g m e nte dHie ra rc h ia lC o m p e titive

G ro upTrustC o m p ro m iseFlu id

Lo ng te rmHum a n Re so urc eC o lla b o ra tiveC usto m e rfo c use d

Re la tio nsh ip sFle xib leAd a p tiveUnd e rsta nd ing

In fo rm a lG e ne ra listIn te g ra te dC o -o p e ra tive

Organizational Characteristics of MNCs Specialization

U.S. plants tend to have more horizontal specialization while Japanese plants tend to have more vertical specialization

Centralization Japanese firms tend to have higher centralization while U.S. firms

have more delegation and involvement at lower levels

Characteristics MNCs tend to keep the structures of the home-based headquarters

even when established overseas for many years (p18)

Organizational Structure Design Growth Stage

Org. structure changes over the growth of the firm Young firms tend to be centered around one or few people who are the

founders or entrepreneurs As staffing and product lines grow, more formal structures are required

to maintain efficiency Reorganization (or re-engineering) is required when market conditions

change and the firm must change

Organizational Configurations There are at least 243 distinctly different org. structure types Five common elements in every org. structure:

Operating core-employees who perform the basic work related to production of products and services

Strategic apex- top-level managers who are responsible for overall org. Middle line-managers who connect the operating core to the strategic apex Technostructure--analysts who have the responsibility for affecting certain

forms of standardization in the organization Support staff-people who provide indirect support services for the org.

Organizational Structure Designs Simple Structure

Strengths: simplicity; fast and flexible; low cost; goals are clear Weaknesses: limited application (only can be used in small size

organizations); too much power with single person

ManagerManager Manager Manager

Owner

Organizational Structure Designs Machine Bureaucracy

Structure Strengths:

standardization; high efficiency; economies of scale; employees in peer groups so easier management; experienced management not required due to high level of standard rules

Weaknesses: each unit is independent and so does not know what other units are doing; org. goals not well known; unknown or new situations cannot be handled

Dir. PublicRelationsExec. Dir.

ChiefExecutive

Officer

VPManufacturing

VPFinance

VPPersonnel

VPMarketing





Organizational Structure Designs Professional Bureaucracy Structure

Combines standardization with decentralization requiring top management to give up power in order to give professional high skill employees more effectiveness. Used in schools, hospitals and firms requiring highly trained employees.

Strengths: Combines standardization with decentralization requiring top management to give up power in order to give professional high skill employees more effectiveness.

Weaknesses: same as for professional bureaucracy; highly trained employees may have professional directions and restraints that do not match firm’s goals


ChiefExecutive

Officer

VPR&D

VPMarketing

Research Strategy Promotions PackagingElectronic Materials

Organizational Structure Designs Divisional Structure A set of autonomous units, each usually a machine bureaucracy, coordinated by a central

headquarters (a business in a business). This structure gives more power to division managers.

Strengths: more focus and responsibility given to each division; gives top management more freedom from day-to-day operations; any division can be cut without hurting other divisions; being part of a larger structure gives economies of scale


ChiefExecutive

Officer

VPAsia

VPEurope

Production

Manager

Manager

Marketing

Manager

Manager

VPPersonnel

Manager

Manager

Production

Manager

Manager

Marketing

Manager

Manager

VPPersonnel

Manager

Manager

•Weaknesses: duplication of effort; conflict between divisions; resentment over lack of division freedom; coordination problems

Organizational Structure Designs Adhocracy Structure Staffed mostly by professionals with

high levels of experience. Supervision needs are small and behaviors are internalized and management has chosen employees based on well established professional criteria. Unlike the professional bureaucracy, the adhocracy does not make rules for new problems, but each and every problem has a unique solution so standardization and formalization is not needed. Power flows to anyone with expertise, regardless of the position.

Strengths: ability to respond quickly; adaptivity; creativity; collaboration; can handle complex, highly technical tasks

Weaknesses: conflict easy to arise due to blurred lines of authority; no economies of scale; inefficient; not long lasting


ChiefExecutive

Officer

VPR & D

VPOperations

VPMarketing

ManagerManager Manager




Bureaucracy (A Closer Look) Max Weber’s ideal organization,

characteristics: The central theme in Weber’s

bureaucratic model is standardization.

Dangers: One of the best-known arguments

presented against the machine bureaucracy was made by social psychologist Bennis.

Division of labor.Well-defined authority hierarchy.High formalization.Impersonal nature.Employment decisions based on merit.Career tracks for employees.Separation organizational and personal lives.

Rapid and unexpected change.Growth in size.Increasing diversity.Change in managerial behavior.

The rules become more important than the ends that they were designed to serve, the result being goal displacement and loss of organizational effectiveness.People will do just the bare minimum to get by. The rules, therefore, become interpreted as setting the minimum standards for performance rather than identifying unacceptable behaviors.A major cost of bureaucracy is employee alienation. A “cog in the wheel.”

Org. Dangers People Dangers

Weber’s Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy (Very Successful Form) Bureaucracies are everywhere!

It works. Bureaucracies are effective in a wide range of organized activities: manufacturing, and voluntary associations.

Large size prevails. Organizations that succeed and survive tend to grow to large size. And we know that bureaucracy is efficient with large size.

Natural selection favors bureaucracy. Societal values are unchanging. North Americans have traditionally

been goal-oriented and comfortable with authoritarian structures. Environmental turbulence is exaggerated. The professional bureaucracy has emerged. Bureaucracy maintains control.

Adhocracy (A Closer Look) The matrix is a structural design that assigns specialists

from specific functional departments to work on one or more interdisciplinary teams, which are led by project leaders. A cornerstone of bureaucracy-which requires every employee to

have one and only one boss to whom he or she reports. Employees in the matrix have two bosses—their functional department manager and their project manager.

Production

Manager

Manager

Marketing

Manager

Manager

VPPersonnel

Manager

Manager

Production

Manager

Manager

Marketing

Manager

Manager

VPPersonnel

Manager

Manager

Adhocracy (Theory A & Z) The major disadvantages of the matrix

Confusion it creates, its propensity to foster power struggles, and the stress it places on individuals.

Not unusual for project managers to fight over getting the best specialists assigned to their projects.

Theory A, J & Z Large American bureaucracy (the Theory A organization) and the

characteristics inherent in the typical large Japanese company (the Theory J organization). William Ouchi.

Theory Z to describe the Americanized version of the Japanese model. Theory A bureaucracy is designed to control employees through a tightly

monitored structural system. It is adapted to handle high rates of employee turnover. Jobs are defined narrowly, and employees are required to specialize. The organization responds to this individualistic ethic by treating people as

just another input cost. Employees, then, are not significantly different from a machine. You purchase them to obtain utility of service and can discard them if they break or become obsolete.

Theory A, J & Z (2) The Japanese model (Theory J) is a very different; essentially

a function of low turnover. Much more likely to mirror an adhocracy than the mechanistic

bureaucracy that Theory A creates. Centered around the generalists rather than specialists. Japanese employees are appraised against a number of criteria, only

one of which is current output or performance. A holistic concern for the well-being of employees.

The Theory Z organization is the Japanese model adapted to fit into American culture. American values such as individualism and allocating rewards on the

basis of performance. Treat their employees as a valuable and scarce resource, to be

nurtured over the long term. Essentially adhocratic. Complexity is low since. Formalization is also

low.

Change The objective of planned change is to keep the

organization current and viable. Causes of change:

Change agents Change agents are those in power and those who

wish either to replace or constrain those in power. You should expect, therefore, that every change

agent will bring along his or her own self-interests. Management can use outside experts to give the

appearance of impartiality.

Purchase of new equipment.Scarcity of labor.New MIS system.Government regulations.The economy.Unionization..Consumer-advocate groups.Mergers or acquisitions.Actions of competitions.Decline in employee morale.Increase in turnover.Sudden internal or external hostility.Decline in profits.

Organizational Change Model for Managing Organizational Change

Change

What is tobe changed?

Change process

Org.effectiveness

Forcesinitializingchange

Changeagent

Unfreeze-Move-Refreeze

Structure?Technology?

Org. process?Implementation tactics

InterventionParticipationPersuasion

Edict

FeedbackDeterminants

Org. Initiator

Interventionstrategies

Implementation

Results

Change Tactics Intervention, participation, persuasion, and edict.

Intervention tactic is characterized by change agents selling their change rationale to those who will be affected.

participation, change agents delegate the implementation decision to those who will be affected.

Internal or external experts then use persuasion to sell their ideas. Edict. When this tactic is used, change agents merely announce

changes and use memos, formal presentations, or the like to convey their decision.

Edict was successful just 43 percent of the time. Participation and persuasion achieved success rates of 84 and 73 percent, respectively. Intervention, while used in only 19jpercent of the cases, attained a perfect 100 percent success rate.

Management would prefer to avoid change, if it were possible, because of its cost, disruptive impacts, and threat to management’s control.

Conflict The average manager spends approximately 20 percent of

his or her time dealing with conflict. Conflict: behavior by organization members which is expended in

opposition to other members. Whether conflict exists is a perception issue. The goal of management is not harmony and cooperation-it is effective

goal attainment! Elimination of conflict is not realistic in complex organizations, nor would such elimination be desirable.

Rules and regulations reduce conflict by minimizing ambiguity. Conflict potential is enhanced when two or more units depend on a

common pool of scarce resources such as physical space, equipment, operating funds, capital budget allocations, or centralized staff services such as the same secretary.

This is especially likely to occur when true value differences exist among the participants. The research suggests that the high interaction incurred in participation acts to solidify differences more than facilitate coordination and cooperation.

Managing Conflict Conflict Normally, we think of conflict as

hindering the achievement of the organization’s goals, but another view of conflict is that it improves effectiveness by stimulating change and improving the decision-making process.

Traditional View All conflict is BAD and must be

resolved quickly

Interactionist View An org. with no conflict is static

and does not adapt

SurvivalConflict Change Adaptation

Conflict-Survival Model

Hig hs

Hig hsLo w Level of conflictorga

niza

tion

al e

ffect

iven

ess

Ap a the ticSta g na ntN o nre sp o nsiveLa c k id e a s

Via b leSe lf-c ritic a lInno va tive

D isrup tiveC ha o ticUnc o o p e ra tive

Conflict & Org. Effectiveness

Sources and Solutions to Conflict Trouble Makers Some employees choose to fight. This group can become continuous conflict

stimulators-looking for problems, spreading rumors, twisting and distorting facts to instigate disturbances, and similar actions. Such people, and all large organizations have as least one, seem to enjoy upsetting the system. To the degree that they establish allies in their cause, they can become a major source of conflict.

Interdepartmental conflict Increases when departments possess a great deal of knowledge of each

other’s activities. Imperfect knowledge, on the other hand, clouds self-interest, diminishes disparities, and makes coordination easier. (Knowing too much is not good)

A superordinate goal: A common goal, held by two or more units that is compelling and highly

appealing and cannot be attained by the resources of any single unit separately.

The cooperative environment grows as effort is directed away from concern with separate and independent units to recognition that the conflicting units are part of a larger group, a synergy developing from the collaboration of forces.

Sources and Solutions to Conflict (2) Scarcity of a resource

The easiest manner in which to resolve the confrontation, and the one most satisfying to the conflicting parties, is through expansion of the available resources.

An appeals system provides the right of formal redress. Authority

The authority that superiors have over the conflicting parties is important enough and its usage spread so widely that it can be singled out as a separate resolution technique.

Managers can manipulate communication messages and channels in such ways as to stimulate conflict.

Org. Culture Organizational culture A system of shared meaning. In every organization

there are patterns of beliefs, symbols, rituals, myths, and practices that have evolved over time. These, in turn, create common understandings among members as to what the organization is and how its members should behave,

Most large organizations have a dominant culture and numerous sets of subcultures.

Core values A strong culture is characterized by the

organization’s core values being intensely held, clearly ordered, and widely shared.

Strong culture increases behavioral consistency. The founding fathers or mothers of an organization

traditionally have a major impact in establishing the early culture.

Individual initiative.Risk tolerance. Direction.Integration.Management support.Control.Identity.Reward system.Conflict tolerance. Communication patterns.

Key characteristics

Influencing the Org. Culture Selection (most widely used method to influence org. culture)

Typically, more than one candidate will be identified who meets any given job’s requirements.

Results in the hiring of people who have common values (ones essentially consistent with those of the organization) or at least a good portion of those values.

Top Management The actions of top management also have a major impact on the

organization’s culture.

Culture (socialization) is transmitted to employees in a number of other forms—the most

potent being through stories, rituals, material symbols, and language.

New employees are potentially most likely to disturb the beliefs and customs that are in place. The organization will, therefore, want to help new employees adapt to its culture.

BOOK TWO

Chpt. 1 A Psychiatrist’S Toolkit A Psychiatrist’s techniques as they relate to business

situations. Let your natural curiosity guide you. Don’t let yourself be injured by negative comments. Unless the words are “You are fired?” or “No deal,” assume that a

solution can still be reached. Don’t take anything personally. Your feeling don’t matter in

business. If you make them matter, then you will pay for it. Accepting your feelings and personal problems as part of the way

you are without making excuses or apologies for them. As you search, be sure not to blame others.

Be open about your ignorance in order to get the most assistance. When someone asks your opinion, simply reveal your thinking.

Don’t try to sell your version of he truth. If you have to lie about what you believe, your opinion doesn’t matter.

Toolkit (continued) There’s no point telling the truth if all you’ll gain from it is to offend others. Keep your goals clearly in mind.

State only the information that is necessary to support your position. Don’t try to demonstrate how brilliant or how worthy you are, or how wrong

someone else is. Be helpful, but don’t needlessly provide ammunition to a conflict that is none

of your business.

Speak in as generous terms toward others as you can. Don’t be afraid to say “I want” and “I need.”

It’s more appropriate to be closed while you survey the opposition and seek your strongest position.

The times for acting boldly aren’t that frequent. Be closed when information is scanty.

Be flexible, understand that you actions must be planned and use being closed to plan, not to avoid.

Admitting what you don’t know can be a highly successful approach to unfamiliar business situations. Admitting your ignorance will get you further than almost any other tactic.

Flying Blind & Making Decisions If you must fly blind, here are some guidelines for faking.

1) Ask for others? opinions, but don’t give your own. Just say, “It’s not quite right.”

2) Always point out that you are still looking for the best direction. 3) Pose disarming questions like “How do you know that is true?” 4) State truisms vigorously: “ I think we can do better, don’t you?” 5) Get other people to express their self-doubts by asking “What if

your calculations are wrong?” 6) Make few decisions. You can avoid being confronted by never

making decisions.

You can distinguish yourself by making a decision when others are afraid to. If you want to lead, to create forward momentum and influence

others, you must project a belief in yourself. A manager’s response to an employee’s statement that the

manager does not understand the complexity of the problem: “Of course I don’t. That’s what you being paid for. I just know what is

needed to save this company and your jobs.”

Simple Truths & Walking Away Managers get to the truth by:

Figure out what’s wrong. Don’t look to blame. It gets in the way of clear thinking. Make a plan to set it right. Delegate the details. Trust your judgment and keep everyone on course. Know when to leave.

Walk away when you realize you don’t belong: 1) Walk away when the other person refuses to hear you. 2) Walk away when you are being provoked into a fight. 3) Walk away when the person is out of control. 4) Walk away when you are being lied to. 5) Walk away as soon as it makes no sense to be there. Don’t walk away just to avoid painful situations, but do walk away

from those that are pointless, futile, draining, and unproductive.

Chpt2. Your Strengths and Weaknesses No one succeeds in business without understanding his or

her strong and weak points. YOUR BEST JUDGMENTS-SUCCESSES

(homework)

YOUR WORSST JUDGMENTS-FAILURES (homework)

YOUR MAXIMUM VULNERABILITY (homework) Your weakest point. You are most vulnerable when you do not know or accept this

weakness.

SKILLS YOU NEED (homework)

YOUR STRENGTH (homework)

Analyze Your Answers What kind of person is this?

Would you want this person as your employer, employee, or co-worker?

Is this person successful, happy? In what way does this person need to grow? How comfortable would you feel betting your life on this person?

Balancing belief in oneself with the potential for self-deception in mind is most important No one particular strength is more important than any other in

achieving success being open about your weakness, whatever it is, will keep you from failing,

Believing in yourself, working hard, giving your best, and being willing to take risks ensure success.

Business Problems Are People Successful Traits for Dealing With People Include:

Believe in self Never arrogant Open to own faults Accept responsibility for failures and have courage to succeed Do not blame others

Look Back at Your Profile How did your profile compare to the profiles of the people in the book? How honest were you about admitting your weaknesses? Do you use your strengths to their best advantage? (these are your

competitive advantages) What personal traits betray you? Do you take full responsibility for your performance? How can you be better? You don’t have to be perfect to be successful, but you have to be

aware to be effective.

Chpt 3 How to Read People Feelings

Get your own emotions out of the way. Pay close attention to any negative first impression when you meet

another person. If you don’t feel at ease in dealing with the person and this feeling

doesn’t change as time passes, it is unlikely that you are ever going to be able to get down to the business of working efficiently.

However, you should be willing to change your first opinion. Try to determine if there is a pattern to the way you misjudge.

Be aware of your weakness.

Three basic personality types: dependent, controlling, andcompetitive. Rare to find a pure type, although a person is likely to stay

predominantly the same type all his life.

DEPENDENT PEOPLE Characteristics

They are happiest when they are pleasing another person. They feel most damaged when they are rejected. Their constant conflict is that they fear losing what they have as

much as they enjoy possessing it. A need for someone else in order to feel complete, a fear of

abandonment, and a need for reassurance. Dependent people want instructions and need to be led. They need to know where to get help, but often are so afraid of

being rejected for appearing stupid that they don’t ask when they get into trouble.

DEPENDENT PEOPLE (2) Negative & Positive Aspects

They tend to become helpless, let bad situations get worse, and need to be rescued.

Dependent people under the right circumstances are the most reliable content members of any work force, the ones least likely to cause problems when their basic needs are met.

This includes providing jobsecurity, retirement benefits, insurance protection, family health and educational support, frequent signs of emotional appreciation, and continued reassurance that they are doing a good job and won’t be replaced or fired.

Their loyalty, when they are well provided for, is unconditional.

DEPENDENT PEOPLE (3) What You Can Do For Them

A parking space with their name on it. Locker or cubby they can call home. Continually reassured Need firmly set limits. They fear that they may find themselves in violation of some rule

and risk disapproval. Rapid change tends to paralyze them and they can become

obstructionistic. Moving frightens them. The unknown terrifies them. Require supervision, especially in difficult situations. Dependent people need as much preparation and explanation of

any change as possible.

Write out your experience with a dependent employee coworker or boss (Homework).

Controlling People Characteristics

Controlling people are difficult people to manage. They are not free and do not want you to be free. They want to control you, write the rules, define the terms, give the

directions, illustrate the points, check the figures, find faults in the logic, show where you went wrong, and prove they were right.

They meet frustration everywhere they go. Need to feel important. Want to be the key person. Down deep, they fear being abandoned just as dependent people

do.

Controlling People (2) Positive & Negative Aspects Controlling people often display a lawyer mentality. They bring up points for the sake of completeness, are rigid, ruled

by precedent, and so are likely to be limited in their creativity. Excuses for everything. The fault is always outside themselves. Ineffectual in leading others for they managea by intimidation and

manipulation not by understanding. Do not trust their own worth. Difficult to believe in others, and so they do not inspire They learn their lessons with great difficulty. Claim that the world is out to get them. Their underlying message is almost always an attempt to

compensate for their self-doubt. It’s important to be sympathetic when correcting their mistakes. Arguing with them is a waste of time.

Controlling People (3) They have an answer for everything and will only rationalize their

actions and resist your reasoning. Just state there is a problem and that it occurred in their sphere of

influence and you just want to help them fix it. On the positive side, controlling people have an excellent sense of

industry. They love to anticipate disaster and prevent it. Have difficulty in assigning priorities and worry excessively about a

problem that is unlikely to occur, mearely because they feel powerful in addressing it; while they may ignore a severe conflict that already exists, because it makes them feel uncomfortable.

Controlling People (4) What You Can Do ForThem

Controlling people need to be carefully managed, monitored, and reminded of their direction.

Channel their energy and put it to your use. Controlling people do not make good leaders at the top corporate

level; they do well leading small groups, where they get personal feedback that keeps them from becoming isolated.

Because there is something ridiculous about being so rigid, other people continually test and tease controlling people

Although they to think of themselves as creative, they are more calculating than intuitive, more intellectual than instinctive.

Controlling People (5) When he gets demanding, ask him if he thinks he is being

unreasonable. Help him correct his thinking. Tell him that the pressure he’s creating is making your job more

difficult. Be polite and matter-of-fact, but be direct. Don’t challenge him. Be a stronger, more stable person than he is. Who but an isolated lonely, and unfeeling person would ever treat

people like he does?

Woking for a Controlling Boss Humor them, do it carefully. Agree with them, but be sincere about it. Remember, you are reassuring them, not lying. Tell them what they want to know just infuriate them and if

they are in control, you may find yourself being assigned a lot of tedious busy work for punishment.

That is their specialty: handing out small work that deals with details. They just cannot see the big picture

There’s really little point in staying, unless you learn not to care.

Write out your experience with a controlling employee, coworker or boss (Homework).

Competitive People Characteristics

Living off the desperate energy of the survival instinct is exciting and may result in material success, but it also exacts a heavy physical and emotional toll.

Competitive people make up the backbone of every sales force, sport team, and marketing division.

Competitive people want to be better. Deep down all competitive people are insecure and need external

reassurance.

Competitive People (2) Positive & Negative Aspects

The drive to be best is both their strength and their weakness, for in trying to beat an unworthy opponent they may not set their sights high enough and may not achieve their full potential.

When competing with someone far above their ability, they may become deeply discouraged and mistakenly draw the wrong conclusion about their true worth.

They like victory and can be so swayed by its thrill that they lose perspective and then often have difficulty finding meaning simply by being themselves.

Living a competitive life is stressful and feels like you are at war. They have little peace of mind, for as much as they desire to win,

they worry about losing. They may appear to be good sports on the surface, but they are

deeply hurt by a loss

Competitive People (3) It is this relentless outward drive that makes the competitive person

so valuable in business. This is the person corporations screen for Such competitiveness takes a costly emotional and physical toll. Competitive people tend to suffer as they get older. While they may seek to improve their playing skills, to become

better salesmen or negotiators, they are mainly focused on winning in the moment.

They do not set personal long-term goals. Their rewards are now.

Competitive People (4) What You Can Do For Them

You must help them to manage their stress. Align their personal goals with those of the company without

manipulating them. These people need to be listened to, supported, and esteemed,

especially when performance is off. By and large, it’s easy to manage competitive people. Reward them generously in words and pay.

Competitive People (5) They need recognition, love applause, feel insecure, fear failure,

dread being embarrassed, want to be better than the other person, and need a goal.

For this person, Losing, like winning, is overvalued. To manage competitive people in defeat, help them find some

sense of personal worth. Consistency and reliability need to be valued as much as being a

hotshot. Write out your experience with a competitive employee coworker or

boss (Homework).

Psychopaths-Con Men This is a Special Case, But Every Organization Has Some

of These Characteristics

You will always have some feeling of doubt in dealing with psychopathic people.

Psychopaths are liars. They have no moral sense at all. They believe what is right is what is good for them. They do not care one bit about you.

Psychopaths-Con Men (2) What They Do

Expect them to be lying, you will seldom be wrong. They undermine authority, destroy team morale, and create an

attitude of suspicion and blame. And yet they are often well liked by everyone because they prey on

people’s needs for attention and understanding. They befriend the lonely, the downtrodden, the insecure, and the

desperate. Psychopaths love using pressure.

Psychopaths-Con Men (3) What You Can Do

Issolate the person and make sure he has no chance to manipulate others. Often, everyone will see this person for what he is and will avoid him.

If your management style lead to much discontent, you can be sure the psycopath will take advantage of the opportunity and manipulate others to increase problems.

If you hire a psychopath, you are in trouble. Write out your experience with a psychopath employee coworker or

boss (Homework).

Chpt 4 Getting Others to Say What They Mean The Truth

Welcome the truth, don’t attack people for bearing bad news. Continually monitor your results and evaluate the reliability of those

you depend upon. People lie not merely to conceal their ignorance and errors, but

also to avoid the reaction of someone who explodes, overreacts, or blames.

The more you feel you are being lied to, the greater the probability that it is true.

Take them seriously. Share your concerns openly. Say, “This doesn’t feel accurate.” “This doesn’t sound right.”

How to Hold a Meaningful Discussion MAKE AN AGENDA

You need to have some plan in mind when you deal with others, to maximize your efficiency.

People who succeed make plans. Give others time to prepare for a meeting. This Lowers their anxiety

and increases their effectiveness.

Reassurances should be generous, appropriate, and effective. Instructions should be clear. Directness is important Ask for the other person’s opinion. Correct any mistakes you make as soon as you make them.

If you don’t understand something, ask. Do not be attached to any belief.

Monopolizing The Conversation Lead him to discuss his own shortcomings.

How to Hold a Meaningful Discussion (2) When Others Act Inappropriately

The other person’s inappropriateness is no excuse for you to get out of control.

Responding emotionally in a business situation is always wrong and gives others an advantage.

Resist angry provocation.

When others reveal their anger, acknowledge it calmly. Ask them how they feel damaged. Don’t be intimidated. Admit what responsibility you must, but do so in a business like manner.

Don’t defend yourself.

Analyze the attack. Ask them why they are getting so emotional. Ask them what they want. Make it their problem. Rise above it.

Do not react emotionally to an emotional outburst. Take control by assuming a positive resolution to the situation and by asking for

constructive suggestions.

Encouraging Ideas Openness in communication is key to allowing the free flow

of communication as well as encouraging creativity, involvement and respect.

It’s easy to cut down any idea or to be the critic Building an open atmosphere takes skill and character If you want other people to share their new ideas and be open, you

must be generous and encouraging Approach all new ideas as possibilities in need of further

development

Helping Others Focus Your comments should always imply a forward direction, a

profitable solution. Be pleasant. Do not respond to silence by being hurt or angry even though the

silent treatment makes one uncomfortable. Showing your willingness to hear criticism enhances your stature.

Show your appreciation for being corrected. Conceding error is always a sign of strength.

Don’t insist on answering every question or solving every problem. Sometimes you lose just by becoming involved in a fight.

Getting others to repeat a point that is obviously false or mistaken can be abused if you use it to ridicule others.

Some victories are empty. Sometimes you win best by helping the other person achieve victory.

Chpt. 5 Using the Telephone Effectively The telephone can be your salvation or your undoing. In a single call you can create a negative impression,

undoing years of good will. Because visual clues such as facial expressions are missing while

the potential for intimacy is increased. When you hang up, the other person is left with the impact of your

call.

Take the time to be focused. Know when you want to hang up, before you call. Ask if this is a good time to call. Is there a better time?

Evaluating Your Telephone Effectiveness For the next week, including weekend, after each call:

Was the call necessary? Why did you make or receive it? Was the call too long? How long did it take to get to the actual business of the call? Why? Did you accomplish what you wanted? Why or why not? How could you have made the call more effective?

Talking excessively in business is almost uniformly a bad trait. The more said in the least amount of time the better. Calling back is a waste of time and often you miss opportunities.

Telephone Signs Signs A cough indicates discomfort.

It may be a fear of expressing disagreement or anger.

Notice when others forget or lose their place. It often indicates that there is something they don’t want to discuss.

Being silent allows the other person room to expound without the benefit of visual feedback, but don’t over do it.

The longest silence that can be tolerated without explanation is about ten seconds.

Being placed on hold is a sign of disrespect or trying to get rid of you. If someone puts you on hold for a long time, hang up and call back

immediately saying you were cut off, and make other arrangements for the call.

Saying that the person you are looking for is not in and you are not given a follow-up contact number is the same sign.

The best time to call is in the morning. While spirits and energy are still high and before problems have come up

that require attention (most managers spend their time putting out fires, so try to catch them before the fires start).

Be Nice to the Little People Treating secretaries as equals often gets you further than

treating their bosses as equals. Spending a few pleasant moments with someone’s secretary is

always in your interest.

It’s not a good idea to get in to an argument with a secretary. She’s only empowered to discourage nuisances.

Ask again if this is a good time for him to talk. On the other hand, do not blame a manager for a really

bad secretary. Remember, really good secretaries are hard to find. Do not mention the secretary problem directly to the manager.

He will already be aware of the problem and can decide on his own what action, if any, to take.

Simply mention that it has been hard to get through or to find him.

Your Phone Receptionist The people who answer the phone should convey the

following messages: I’m glad you called. I have the time to understand what you want. We can solve it. I’m sure we can find a way to work together. You matter. Your business is important. This is a good place to work. We like people. Negative people do not belong on the telephone. Putting people on hold is an insult. It’s made worse by not telling them first. Never put someone on hold for longer than one minute.

The Telephone Call as Business Meeting Avoid calling people casually unless you have a personal

relationship. The unstructured telephone call is unwise. It dilutes your effectiveness and positions you as needy or

annoying. If the other person brings up a point that you don’t want to discuss,

postpone the discussion.

Difficult Calls (like sales calls) People avoid you because they don’t want to face the problem that

comes with you. Sincerity is the best gimmick for being accepted. If you want to avoid harassing calls, take the call and be direct.

Weed out everything in your life that keeps you from thriving.

When You Shouldn’t Call Never express anger over the phone. Remember, the best calls state and answer a single

question clearly,

Answering Machines Keep it simple. Don’t get cute. Don’t leave a message if this is your first contact. Never hang up in anger. Indicate that you are glad to have spoken together. Close with a statement like “We’ll get right to work on that,”

or “you’ll hear from me in a week.”

Chpt. 6 Written Communication Your correspondence must be one hundred percent

effective. Things to Avoid: Don’t boast, brag, or search for compliments. Don’t show off. Don’t use a big vocabulary. Don’t make blind assumptions about what the reader wants or needs. Don’t use nicknames Don’t be insincere. Don’t complain. Don’t undermine. Never threaten. Just indicate that you want to avoid unnecessary

problems and resolve differences agreeably. Never let off steam in a business letter. Never put someone down. Never criticize another person’s company, employees, tactics,

judgment, policy, or attitude. Never send a letter without a clear purpose.

Written Communication (2) Things to Do:

Before you write a letter, remind yourself of your long-term goals. A business letter longer than one page is unnecessary. A long, involved letter indicates that you don’t think well enough of

your ideas to make them precise and understandable. A long letter means you do not value your reader’s time. If you can’t see a profitable outcome in doing business with the

other person, you shouldn’t write the letter. The correct business letter is simple and direct. Can you summarize the letter in a single sentence? The one-sentence letter is intensely personal and reveals even

more about you than a longer letter. But you risk having it backfire.

The Framable Letter Giving positive feedback reassures people that someone

notices them and values their contribution. If you decide to write such a letter, avoid using the pronoun “I.” Receiving it should make the other person proud, happy, and enjoy

sharing it with someone else. Send a memo when you feel good about someone’s work offers

positive reinforcement. If you have an important criticism to make, a memo is not the right

place to express yourself. Negative memos are almost always the product of a controlling, self-

important, rigid person who is out of touch with the people who work with or for him and who is uncomfortable dealing with people directly.

People like to use memos as a form of punishment. (not a good idea) They see the memo as instruction, but really use it to force their way on

others.

Chpt. 7 How to Run a Business Meeting Everyone in business spends time in business meetings.

When people schedule time to share ideas, discuss problems, progress, or planning, they are having a formal business meeting even though only two people may be involved and it lasts only a few minutes.

A good business meeting clarifies directions, creates plans, sets priorities, delegates responsibility, allows for participation, and enhances a sense of cohesion and unity.

Most business meeting are a waste of time; they are poorly planned and administered, and provide an arena more for the display of egos, competitiveness, and power than for work.

“I Hate Meetings” Most of what is discussed is catch-up material, minutes of

the last meeting, filler, and so on. People begin to resent such meetings

People who flourish in the meeting environment are not particularly motivated workers. They see meeting as a social event. The real workers make fun of them. Having meetings just for the sake of having meetings is operating

at the lowest level of efficiency.

Meetings need the thrust of reality to keep them focused. The best are problem-oriented. The worst are pointless discussions.

Getting “Up” for the Meeting All business meetings require preparation.

The object of the meeting is to solve a problem and move forward so you should have a clear idea of what you want to accomplish.

Have some notion of who will object and to what.

To be an effective group leader, don’t permit your comfort or effectiveness to depend on what anyone else in the group says or feels.

Be above this.

You need to get up for the meeting. Consider what you want to accomplish. How necessary is the meeting? Picture the meting in your mind. Imagine the scenes you would like to take place. Write out the purpose of the meeting in a single sentence.

Every Meeting Needs a Leader You can’t lead if you depend on other people’s support for

your leadership. On the other hand, don’t be fixed in your belief about what you

want to take place.

If you are that sure of what you want, why not save everyone the time and effort and simply issue a statement? People resent a leader insincerely seeming to be democratic more

than they do a leader who asserts himself dictatorially.

Consider where you want the meeting to take place. If you are a superior, inviting one other person to your office

reasserts your power and authority. Tell others before hand what you plan to discuss.

Some practical Advice for the Group Leader The function of the leader is to direct the group so that at

the end of the meeting everyone feels it was important to have been there, that he had an effect on the outcome.

The leader is not the center of the group, but its catalyst. Be as subtle and as light-handed as possible. Don’t go into a meeting cold; know what the situation is. Ask, “Is this the right question? Do any of you have an

opinion of how this meeting should proceed?” This invites others to relate to their agendas. When a jealous person intrudes, ask him or her to make a

positive suggestion.

Questions to Focus the Group If a solution develops in a meeting you are leading, your leadership

showed the way and you should be proud. Questions to be effective

I don’t understand. How does this work? These are especially useful comments. Ask others to become clearer. Let them help you understand. Where are we now? Is this the right direction? What are we missing? How could this go wrong?

When others play it safe and are unwilling to comment, pressuring them to contribute is self-defeating.

If you anticipated the meeting correctly, you’ll have a good idea of who will contribute and why.

Good Ideas Good ideas need to be encouraged, but remember they

are a product of the group, not the individual. Praise the idea and direction rather than its author. Challenge them with a statement like “Yes, it’s a great plan, but will

it really work? What could go wrong?” This is not deflating their egos but using their good feeling as leverage

to investigate the downside risk.

As a leader you should always be a little removed from the emotions of the group.

Don’t make a meeting a play Having someone make the comment you want by prior

arrangement is always a bad maneuver. If your idea is good, it will evolve through your careful listening and

support.

Chpt. 8 How to Interview The purpose of interviewing is to discover people’s strengths and

weaknesses, so you can help them make the most of themselves and keep them out of trouble.

Impressions Effective interviewers trust their instincts. Before, be sure you know what you are looking for Pay attention to your first impression.

Dress & Presentation Ask what he had in mind when he dressed that morning. Overly rigid standards don’t protect against hiring losers

If you are hiring someone to represent your company or if you are looking for a computer programmer.

A lot of costly mistakes have been made by losing sight of the firm’s priorities.

Opening & Speaking The best way to open an interview is to ask a question that reflects your

interest in the points on your list. Allow the other person to talk. Be patient. Try to get an idea of the other person’s thinking.

Giving an Interview (2) Mistakes he/she makes The ability to recognize mistakes and correct them is more valuable than giving

a perfect but shallow impression.

Look for something about the other person you like and mention it. Make positive comments like “Yes, Good, Exactly, Of course, I see, and I

agree.” Smile. Nod agreement. Be appreciative, sincere, and listen.

Creating stress is generally counterproductive and should avoided. Confront them when you suspect that other people are not being honest or

frank about their faults,

Evaluating Your Interview Experience Everyone knows of people who have impeccable work qualifications and

dreadful interpersonal skills. Don’t be swayed by an impressive background. See that background as the

ticket for admission to the interview and give the interview independent status. People who struggle to impress you reveal their insecurity about the very things

they brag about, and show their lack of insight into themselves.

Giving an Interview (3) Things to Look for

The object of a good interview is to assess a person’s capacity for growth.

A person with high potential likes to work, works hard, and is eager to get started.

He is open, especially about failures, and yet has a sense of pride achievement, and delight in his successes.

He doesn’t give up. He is honest, ask questions freely, and admits what he doesn’t know. He admits unflattering criticism without excused and accepts blame

without long explanations. He makes helpful contributions without asking for credit and willingly

shared the glory. He is interested in others and has a sense of humor about himself. In order for the interview to have lasting value, it must be a valid

reflection of the company behind it.

Chpt 9 How to Take an Interview The belief that if the situation is right for you, it is going to

turn out right, and if it’s not, it won’t. If you view the interview as trying to convince someone to employ

you, all you are looking for is a job. The most important part of your resume is the growth it reveals. Loyalty is not nearly as important as the ability to adapt and solve

problems.

Be selfish in assessing the position. Where will this job take you ten years from now?

Is this an opportunity to progress on your own merits or a position on a slow-moving conveyor belt where advancement comes only by death and acts of God?

You have to be willing to risk everything in the interview.

An Interview (2)

The correct attitude to project in an interview is that you are concerned with doing a good job, are eager to listen and learn, and are willing to do whatever needs to be done to get the job done. Demonstrating your flexibility without appearing soft is the delicate

balance you are trying to achieve, If you make an important mistake in the interview, don’t ignore it even if the

interviewer hasn’t noticed. Saying “That’s not accurate, I meant to say…”is usually all that’s needed.

If the interviewer asks why you erred, just say you were concerned about making the best impression.

An Interview (3) Some interviewers are unfair. They are usually amateurs, directed by their own insecurity. If you confront them, you risk retaliation. They cannot take criticism, especially about their abuse of power. When you realize that you are dealing with an unfair person, assume

that the situation is probably lost and don’t allow yourself to be dragged into his negativity.

Such an interview is a fair warning of the way you would be treated if you were unlucky enough to be hired.

Should the interview go badly, don’t ignore it.

Prepare some questions to ask yourself that show your interest in the company and the position, and reveal your expertise. Don’t be afraid to ask about opportunities for advancement.

Spent years and expended energy cannot be reclaimed, so take advantage of this moment..

Summarize your impressions Thank him for him time

Chpt. 10 Increasing Productivity The best and most lasting way to make people more

productive is to identify with their needs and employ them for their strongest talents. People adapt to all stimuli so unless people are encouraged to

motivate themselves all attempts at increasing productivity are short-lived.

Attempting to motivate workers by external means requires ever-increasing external rewards to make the same impact. The sudden threat of losing one’s job has a powerful and often

lasting effect in increasing productivity. On the other hand, the chronic threat of losing one’s job undermines

self-esteem and always lowers productivity.

Understanding Your Own Productivity The key to increasing productivity is to tap into the individual’s inner

drives and identify with them. What do you do best? How often do you do that? What would you rather be doing than your present job? Is there anyone with whom you would like to exchange jobs? What appeals to you about the other job? Can any part of this be include in your present work? What stands in the way of you doing this? What part of your job do you do least well? How much of the time do you do this? When are you most productive? How often does this positive situation occur? Are you able to “run” with your most productive times or does your

schedule or other duties cut them short? When are you happiest in your work? Are these times the same as your productive times?

Personal Feelings & Productivity People want to be effective, to make a difference, to how

that they contributed something of value. Praise is a powerful motivator only if it is sincere. This applies to co-workers, juniors, and superiors. Everyone needs praise and encouragement. Ultimately, it is each worker’s personal sense of

responsibility that keeps productivity high. The most productive companies give people the chance to

find themselves. Negative attitude spreads through a work force like a bad

rumor. Feeling cheated, ignored, and unrecognized destroys

morale and is difficult to repair.

Chpt. 11 Taking Criticism The way you react to criticism limits you more than

perhaps any other reaction in business. The most difficult job for many managers is to criticize an

employee’s behavior or job performance. Frequently, they don’t have all the facts and have only second-hand

reports, but know something isn’t the way they expect it to be.

Almost all people offer some resistance to admitting they were wrong. Resisting criticism causes stress and wastes energy and time.

People who take criticism poorly, even though they may otherwise be doing a good job, are often the most difficult people for management to deal with.

You are more trouble than you are worth if you offer resistance to valid criticism.

How to Take it The secret of taking criticism is to turn the situation into one where you are asking for advice. Your capacity for growth.

If you try to avoid making mistakes at all costs, you are making a bigger mistake than the one you are trying to avoid.

The people who are going to amount to anything make mistakes and they make them all the time.

They just admit their errors and learn from them.

Negative people are the worst critics. They feel that because they’ve caught you red-handed they now have

an excuse to dump everything onto you. Negative people try to provoke others to fight when they have a

defensible case against them. Don’t get trapped. Offer no resistance. Keep your distance. Be nimble. Observe and stay detached. Don’t take it personally or retaliate by criticizing their outburst.

Negative People Negative people have a low self-esteem. All of this is a momentous waste of time. Let their comments pass through you. Always remember in dealing with unreasonable or negative people

that their hostility is really their problem even if you are their target. Don’t fight with them (you can never win).

Most of the people who will criticize you are reasonable Consider the way you react to criticism. Don’t automatically challenge Don’t become elusive. Avoid being defensive. A successful person listens to all comments without getting in their

way or trying to influence or criticize the critic. Be easy to deal with. Admit you were wrong.

Don’t Resist When you resist your manager doesn’t know if you are being difficult, stupid, incompetent, insecure, uncooperative, sullen, or are just a loser. If you see yourself as someone on the way up, you don’t want any of

these negative attributes associated with your name. Understand the complaint; Ask questions to be sure you understand. Admit what you don’t know.

The leader differs from the follower in that he is aware of his limitations and overcomes them. Ask for instructions and advice.

Be teachable.

Validate the efforts of the people who are trying to show you a better way.

Use the newly opened lines of communication to broaden the working relationship.

Turn criticism into an opportunity. Ask for advice. Be open, accepting, and expect to grow.

Chpt. 12 Giving Constructive Criticism Supervisors should try to keep an objective distance, so

that they can be effective and yet stay in contact. When a supervisor withholds criticism, he or she experiences

discomfort and irritation. These feelings build, raising the risk of overreaction when the

opportunity to criticize finally presents itself.

Criticism and praise have to go hand in hand. The first rule is to make your criticism an extension of some praise.

Although people know they have room for improvement, they publicly deny their weaknesses, while competence and fear discovery.

Your goal in offering correction is to create a more open work atmosphere in which criticism and praise flow along as part of the work, where people do not dread being singled out

Criticism Objectives Have clear objectives.

Before you criticize someone, know what you want to accomplish. Pick the time and place.

People get grumpy when they are hungry and their stress tolerance drops (Morning may be best).

Pick a place that is private, convenient, and friendly.

Be positive. Talk about the problem with distance and encourage the other

person to comment on it from the same perspective. Accept some of the blame for the problem.

This creates a feeling of mutual concern. Perhaps you were misunderstood. Perhaps you did not express yourself clearly or failed to make sure that

the other person really understood you.

Working Together Once you both agree that something is wrong , allow the

other person to share his perception of the problem. Use short questions to direct him, such as “How did that happen?” “What was your reasoning?” or “What did you think was

happening?”

your job in offering correction is to help people look at themselves and take responsibility for their own improvement. Make sure that you both are talking about the same subject. Restate your opinion and be done with it.

Fear is a poor motivator.

When you’re done, thank the other person for listening. Reassure him of your continued support and belief in his worth. Make future contact easier by scheduling regular follow-up meetings so

that you can monitor progress

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What is an Organization?