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What Happens to Precipitation?
• General hydrologic equationPG = RO + ET + ST,
Where,• PG ≡ gross precipitation
• RO ≡ runoff• ET ≡ evapotranspiration
• ST ≡ storage
Slumping in Honduras
Forest Hydrology
• What happens to precipitation falling on a forest?– Gross precipitation, PG, equals
throughfall, T, plus stemflow, SF, plus evapotranspiration, ET
PG = T + SF + ETDevice for measuring stem flow, http://gaia.fr.a.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~shirakik/fukuro/stem/stem.html
Throughfall
Device for measuring throughfall, http://water.usgs.gov/nrp/proj.bib/hawaii/throughfall.htm
Forest Hydrology• Evapotranspiration, ET, includes
– Evaporation from surfaces of,• Water • Soil • Vegetation
Massive slump deposited debris in La Libertad
Forest Interception
• Total interception, IF , is canopy interception, IC, plus litter interception, IL
IF = IC + IL
• Precipitation reaching mineral soil, called effective precipitation, PE, gross precipitation, PG, minus, total interception, IF
PE = PG - IF
Focus on Evapotranspiration
• Transpiration– Evaporation from
vegetative surfaces• Primarily through
stomata• It occurs chiefly while
the stomata are open for the passage of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis.
Vaporization Process for
• Water Surface
• Bare Soil
• Vegetative Surfaces
The “Heat of vaporization” is the heat required to vaporize one mass unit (one gram) of a substance at its normal boiling point. The vaporization heat of water is 540 calories per gram.
Evaporation from Water Surface
• Evaporation – net loss of water molecules
• Condensation – net gain of water molecules
• Saturation – equilibrium between evaporation and condensation
Evaporation Rate
Water vapor is a gas. Therefore it exerts pressure in the air.
e = vapor pressure of atmosphere in mbar (millibars of mercury)
es = vapor pressure of saturated atmosphere
(es – e) = saturation vapor deficit
Vapor Pressure of WaterTorr – unit of pressure force per unit area, millimeters of mercury
Convert water vapor pressure to water vapor density
for use in evaporation formula
ρ (g/m3) = 217e/T
T = degrees Kelvin
Evaporation Rate V (g/cm2/sec) = - (ρs- ρa)(Dv)/dv
ρs= water vapor density at surface of water
ρa = water vapor density of air
(ρs – ρa) = vapor density gradient in g/cm3
Dv = diffusion coefficient of water vapor in the air in cm2/sec
dv = thickness of wind speed dependent boundary layer in cm
Evaporation from Bare Soil
• Stage I – wet soil surface, similar to evaporation from water surface
• Stage II – evaporation rate falls below potential rate and is determined primarily by hydraulic conductivity
• Stage III – liquid flux of water ceases, rate determined by vapor flux governed by soil vapor diffusivity
Definitions
• Hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability – movement of water within soil from areas of higher moisture content to lower moisture content
• Flux - the rate of transfer of fluid, particles, or energy across a given surface
Definitions
• Diffusion - the flow of energy or matter from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
Bare Soil
E = cumulative evaporation in cm _
= 2(Θi – Θf)[Dt/π]0.5
where,t = time in days_Dt = weighted mean diffusivity in cm2/dayΘi = initial profile wetnessΘf = final surface wetness
Evapotranspiration (EV)
Thornthwaite model of potential EV (PE)
PE = 16 (10Tm/I)a (K),
where,
Tm = monthly air temperature
I = sum of monthly heat index∑(Tm/5)1.514
a = polynomial in I
K = adjustment in length of day for 12 hour period
Example of EV calculations used for
watershed management in Colorado
Forested Watershed
Actual evapotranspiration (AE)= (1 – α)E + α(T + I),
where,
α = watershed forest coverage
E = evaporation from soil and water surfaces
T = forest transpiration (about 60% of AE)
I = forest canopy and litter interception (loss is about 10% to 30% of precipitation)
Average Daily ET Rates by Species
Species mm/day inches/day Location
Douglas fir 2.1 0.0821 Seattle, WA
Slash pine 3.0 0.1191 Gainesville, FL
Ponderosa pine 2.0 to 3.3 0.0800 to 0.1310 Alpine, AZ
White pine 3.1 0.12131 Cowetta, NC
Pinyon-juniper 1.2 0.0476 Flagstaff, AZ
Spruce-fir 1.2 0.0476 Frazier, CO
Aspen 1.5 0.0595 Bountiful, UT
Oak-hickory 2.6 0.1032 Cowetta, NC
Yellow poplar 1.7 0.0675 East Tennessee
Annual rainfall of 45 inches is 0.1233 inches per day
Occult/Horizontal Precipitation
• Condensation in canopy exceeds canopy interception
• Net precipitation increases
Monteverde Cloud Forest, Costa Rica
Cloud Forest in Turrialba Mountains, Costa Rica