What Are Stylistic Devices

7/27/2019 What Are Stylistic Devices

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What are stylistic devices?

In literature and writing, a figure of speech (also called

stylistic device or rhetorical device) is the use of any of a

variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or

feeling.

Sometimes a word diverges from its normal meaning, or a

phrase has a specialized meaning not based on the literal

meaning of the words in it. Examples are metaphor, simile,

or personification.

Stylistic devices often provide emphasis, freshness of

expression, or clarity.

Alliteration

What is an al l i teration?

Alliteration is the repetition of initial sounds in neighboring

words.

Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used

for emphasis.The initial consonant sound is usually

repeated in two neighboring words although sometimes the

repetition occurs also in words that are not neighbors.

Examples:

sweet smell ofsuccess,

a dime a dozen,

bigger and better,

jump forjoy

share a continent but not a country

Here is an example of alliteration in a poem by Wordsworth:

And sings a solitary song That whistles in the wind.

Remember

1. Only the repetition of the same sound is valid in an

alliteration not the consonants themselves.

Examples:

keen camarad.

philosophy fan.

A neat knot need not be re-knotted.

Although they start with different consonants, they

constitute perfect instances of alliteration;

2. By contrast, if neighboring words start with the sameconsonant but have a different initial sound, the words are

not alliterated.

Examples:

a cute child

highly honored (pay attention to the h in honored; it

is silent)

Although they start with the same consonants, they are not

instances of alliteration since the sounds differ.

What is an allusion?

Al lus ion

The act of alluding is to make indirect reference. It is a

literary device, a figure of speech that quickly stimulates

different ideas and associations using only a couple of

words.

ELEMENTS OF FICTION

EFINITION OF PLOTPlot refers to the series of events that give a story its

meaning and effect. In most stories, these events arise out

ofconflict experienced by the main character. The conflict

may come from something external, like a dragon or an

overbearing mother, or it may stem from an internal issue,

such as jealousy, loss of identity, or overconfidence. As the

character makes choices and tries to resolve the problem,

the story's action is shaped and plot is generated. In some

stories, the author structures the entire plot chronologically,

with the first event followed by the second, third, and so on,like beads on a string. However, many other stories are told

with flashback techniques in which plot events from earlier

times interrupt the story's "current" events.

All stories are unique, and in one sense there are as many

plots as there are stories. In one general view of plot,

howeverand one that describes many works of fiction

the story begins with rising action as the character

experiences conflict through a series of

plot complications that entangle him or her more deeply inthe problem. This conflict reaches a climax, after which the

conflict is resolved, and the falling action leads quickly to

the story's end. Things have generally changed at the end

of a story, either in the character or the situation; drama

subsides, and a new status quo is achieved. It is often

instructive to apply this three-part structure even to stories

that don't seem to fit the pattern neatly.

conflict: The basic tension, predicament, or challenge that

propels a story's plot

complications: Plot events that plunge the protagonist

further into conflict

rising action: The part of a plot in which the drama

intensifies, rising toward the climax

climax: The plot's most dramatic and revealing moment,

usually the turning point of the story

falling action: The part of the plot after the climax, when

the drama subsides and the conflict is resolved


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CHARACTER

protagonist: A storys main character (see

also antagonist)

antagonist: The character or force in conflict with the

protagonist

round character: A complex, fully developed character,

often prone to change

flat character: A one-dimensional character, typically notcentral to the story

characterization: The process by which an author presents

and develops a fictional character

A. PlotDefinition of Plot: Events that form a significant pattern ofaction with a beginning, a middle and an end. They movefrom one place or event to another in order to form apattern, usually with the purpose of overcoming a conflict.The plot is more formally called a narrative.Elements of Plot:

Beginning

1. Plot Line: a graph plotting the ups and downs of thecentral character's fortunes. A very conventional plot might

look like the one above.

2. Initial Situationi.Characters: Who are the central characters? What dothey aspire to?ii.Setting: Where/when do the characters live? Does thesetting contribute to the narrative?iii.Conflicts: What are the challenges facing theprotagonist(s)? What are the conflict(s) that he or she (orthey) will have to overcome?

The beginning is often calledthe introduction orexposition. By establishing thecharacters, setting and initial conflicts, the beginning "setsthe scene" for the rest of the narrative. Dickens' famousopening line inA Tale of Two Cities, "It was the best oftimes, it was the worst of times," is a classic piece ofexposition that helps establish the social and politicalbackground of the novel.

Rising Action

3. Incentive Moment:i. Which event thrusts itself into the tension of thecharacters' situation and triggers the action of the story? Anew event frequently jostles the smoothness of things andchanges the course of action.4. Episodes: After the introduction, a story usuallypresents a series of separate events in the plot, buildingfrom one situation to the next. A new episode (or scene)begins when the place and time change, or when somethingreally important interrupts what has been happening. Witheach successive episode, the conflict becomes more andmore intense, demanding some sort of resolution.

The Climax

5. Climax: the critical point at which the central character isabout to win or lose all. When the probable outcome of themain conflict is finally revealed (i.e. the turning point), thestory has reached its climax. In a Shakespearian tragedy,

the climax occurs when the main character's "momentum"switches from success to failure. Beyond that point, theending is inevitable. However, the climax does not mark theend of conflict; it only determines how the conflict will bedecided. The climax usually occurs anywhere from 50% to90% of the completed story.

Falling Action

6. Falling Action (or Resolution or Denouement): theevents that occur after the climax that tie up "loose ends";

they perform the necessary plot actions to fulfill theprotagonist's fortunes that are now clear after the climax. Itis a tricky part of a narrative to write as the author has todecide which parts of the plot to tie up and which to leaveas questions for the reader to think about (or leave for afuture story). Part of the decision regarding what to tie upand what to leave open often depends on the extent towhich the author wants to satisfy the reader's need for asense of justice or closure.7. Epilogue: the part that tells the reader what happens tothe characters well afterthe story is finished. It's seen in
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longer narratives (like novels and movies) rather than shortfiction, but even then it is only used occasionally.

B. Author's Role in Plot1. Plot grows out of the characters.

2. The author is always in control of what happens; fictionmanipulates events; it is created.3. Central focus of the story has to be intriguing, and theauthor has to arrange events in such a way as to: i. Eliminate all events that are not significant.ii. Make each succeeding event more and more intriguinguntil he reaches the climax. The purpose of fiction is toentertain; how well are you entertained?

C. PlotTechniques1. Suspense: Frequently involves dilemma. e.g. Caught in abad situation with a choice in a boating accident, you cansave either your mother or your husband from drowning.2. Flashback: The author waits until the story is moving andthen flashes back to reveal biographical data or deeppsychological reasons why a character acts as s/he does. Itfocuses more on why things happen, rather thanon what happens.3. Telescoping: It's a matter of economy. The author can'tdescribe every motion of the character or event during thetime the story covers. S/he has to choose the significantand merely suggest the others by saying they happened,without much description. Art attempts verisimilitude, not

"reality."4. Foreshadowing: The outcome of a conflict is often hintedat or "foreshadowed" before the climax and resolution.These clues are usually very subtle; you don't realize theyare foreshadowing clues until you've finished the story.Early on in the novel Lord of the Flies, the boys roll a rockdown from the light of the hill into the murky jungle below.The destruction of the foliage is a symbolic hint at what's tocome:the boys' descent into savagery and destruction.Open School describes foreshadowing as "a technique thatwriters use to make the events in their stories morebelievable. In foreshadowing, the reader is given little hintsabout an important future event. Something like providing

clues in a mystery novel, foreshadowing ensures that whenan important event occurs, the reader thinks: "Oh, I shouldhave seen that coming" rather than, "This doesn't fitanywhere in this piece!" Foreshadowing can be a smallseries of events leading up to a big event, or an event thatis similar in a thematic way to something that happenslater." Another example of foreshadowing in Lord of theFlies occurs just after the plane crash. The author, WilliamGolding, describes the band of choirboys as dressed all inblack and moving as if one creature. The black creature isled by Jack, which is a foreshadowing of the evil that willsoon overtake him and his followers.

D. Conflict in PlotPlot usually involves one or more conflicts, which areproblems that need to be solved. The "movement" towardsa solution is what drives the narrative forward, and is whatoccupies most of the protagonist's time. The morerewarding plots are often built around mental, emotional andmoral conflicts. Plots involving physical conflict, war,exploration, escapes often contain the most excitement and

suspense. Here are the major types of conflict:

1. Man's struggle against nature2. Man against man3. Man against society4. Man against himself (i.e. a portrayal of an inner struggle)The first three types are said to be "external conflicts", whilethe last is "internal conflict".Identifying Conflict:

Who or what is the protagonist? Who or what is the antagonist? Why is this person or thing the antagonist? Why are the antagonist and the protagonist

in conflict? Which events contribute to the developing

conflict? Which event or episode is the climax? What does the outcome of the conflict

reveal to you about the protagonist? Did you feel sympathetic toward the

protagonist or the antagonist? Explain why.

For more information, check out the Open School'sdiscussion ofconflict.I also recommend Susan Vaughan's article onconflict. Itdiscusses the importance of conflict in narrative fiction, andoffers a good distinction between internal and externalconflict.

E. Setting: Aspects of SettingSetting is defined as the physical location and the time of astory. In short stories, one or both of these elements areoften not defined.a. Physical World in which Characters Live1. Geographical location, topography, scenery, even thearrangement of objects in a room can carry specialsignificance. Note detail.2. Spot words that ask you to hear, see and feel elementsthat make up and strengthen awareness of physical setting.
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b. Characters Revealed by Setting.1. Physical objects surround characters in different waysand these differences reveal traits and changes incharacters.a. Psychologically, spiritually, economically andphysically.b. Observe feelings and actions of characters with respect

to their surroundings; as setting changes, often so doescharacter.c. Listen for any remarks characters make about theirsetting.d. Look for clues to characters in objects they have placedin their physical world.c. Setting Revealed by Characters1. Characters contribute clues about setting.2. When time isn't made obvious, the reader can oftenmake inferences from objects a character has placed in thesetting

3. Dress and dialect contain clues as to historical period inwhich events take place, as well as to regional setting andsocial levels within a region.

d. Plot Assisted by Setting1. Some stories or plots can take place only in certainsettings. Actions governed by particular customs andmores.2. Traditions established over many generations exertgreat influence on what characters do.3. Physical nature also creates conditions that affect plot:

setting can confine action as, for example, on the sea, or ona mountaintop.e. Atmospheric Setting1. The mood is reliant on the words and tone ofdescription; a jingle can be light, full of life, and exciting, or,dark, foreboding, and full of evil.2. The setting of a Victorian drawing room elicits anatmosphere of restraint and decorum.3. Atmosphere can be overdrawn (as in many Harlequinromances) and become gooey with manufactured emotion.f. Theme Revealed by Setting1. Some authors skillfully use atmosphere to introduceand reinforce the theme of the novel; what happens insetting (flood) happens to characters (changed course ofaction).2. Setting may reveal how man sees nature, they mayshow hate, agony, courage, etc. or men's struggle forinsignificant things.For more information, check out the Open School'sdiscussion ofsetting.

F. Mood or Atmosphere: The mood is the feeling thereader gets while reading the story. The author helps tocreate the mood by using carefully chosen descriptive orevocative words. It can be compared to the use of music infilms. Examples of mood are: hostile, optimistic, threateningominous, bitter, defiant, etc..For more information, check out the Open School'sdiscussion ofmood.G. Theme: The theme is a recurring social or psychologicalissue, like aging, violence, alienation or maturity. The authoror poet weaves the theme into the plot, which is used as avehicle to convey it. The title of the story or poem is often ofsignificance in recognizing the theme.What is theme?

It's the unifying or central concept of astory.

It's a theory of life which acts as theunifying force in a story, or the universaltruth which the story illustrates.

The simplest way of defining theme is this:it is the description of the basic challengesof mankind (e.g. "the human condition").

In most stories it's not just a simple moral,which is usually what an authorthinks about the theme.

Identifying a story's theme:

Start with a clear idea of the character'ssituation and the plot. Why did thecharacters act as they did?

Examine closely the centralconflict.Overcoming a conflict is often the basis ofthe recurrent human challenge in thetheme.

Look closely at the events and/orcharacters that seem relevant to the mainline of action. Why are they included?

Does the author offer an explicit view pointabout the theme, or does s/he merelydescribe the many points of view?

Look for literary devices suchassymbolismorirony. They often revealkey elements of the theme.

For more information, check out the Open School'sdiscussion oftheme.

H. Symbolism:

In literature, a symbol is an object, event or a character
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that's used to represent an abstract idea; it is somethingwhich stands for something else. Symbols are clues towhat's going on in the story and often stand for key parts ofthetheme. A symbol is related to metaphor and simileinsofar as it's a type of figurative (indirect/dual) language.The key thing to remember is that readers aren't told thatsomething is a symbol, unlike a metaphor ( the flowero fmylove) or a simile (my love is l ikea flower). A symbol just sitsthere inside the story... readers are simply expected tounderstand its symbolic existence.

White Dove - Peace Santa/Mistletoe - Christmas Red Roses - Love Wedding Ring - Marriage/Eternal Love The mockingbird in To Kill A Mockingbird- a symbol

of innocent people being unjustly persecuted Napoleon inAnimal Farm - Joseph Stalin, dictator

of the USSR

Allusion relies on the reader being able to understand theallusion and being familiar with the meaning hidden behind

the words.

Example:

Describing someone as a "Romeo" makes an allusion to the

famous young lover in Romeo and Juliet by William

Shakespeare

In an allusion the reference may be to a place, event,

literary work, myth, or work of art, either directly or by

implication.

Examples of a l lus ion:1. David was being such a scrooge!. (Scrooge" is the

allusion, and it refers to Charles Dicken's novel, A

Christmas Carol. Scrooge was very greedy and

unkind, which David was being compared to.)

2. The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on

the Trojan horse from Greek mythology)

3. to wash ones hands of it. (allusion on Pontius

Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed

his hands afterwards to demonstrate that he was

not to blame for it.)4. to be as old as Methusalem (allusion on Josephs

grandfather, who was 969 years old according to

the Old Testament)

There are many advantages when you use an allusion:

1. You don't need to explain or clarify a problem in a

lengthy way.

2. You make the reader become active by reflecting

on the analogy.

3. You make your message memorable.

What is anaphora?

Anaphora is a stylistic device that consists of repeating a

sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses

to give them emphasis. This rhetorical device is contrasted

with epiphora, also called epistrophe, which consists of

repeating words at the end of clauses.

Examples of anaphora

Some examples of the literary works that use anaphora are

listed below:

In time the savage bull sustains the yoke,

In time all haggard hawks will stoop to lure,

In time small wedges cleave the hardest oak,

In time the flint is pierced with softest shower.

Thomas Kyd, The Spanish Tragedy, I, vi. 3

Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!

William Shakespeare, King John, II,

Anticlimax (figure of speech)

Anticlimax refers to a figure of speech in which statements

gradually descend in order of importance. Unlikeclimax,

anticlimax is the arrangement of a series of words, phrases,

or clauses in order of decreasing importance.

Examples of anticlimax

These are some examples of anticlimax:

1. She is a great writer, a mother and a good humorist.

2. He lost his family, his car and his cell phone.

What is antithesis?

Antithesis is a figure of speech which refers to the

juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas. It involves

the bringing out of a contrast in the ideas by an obvious

contrast in the words, clauses, or sentences, within a

parallel grammatical structure.

Examples:

These are examples of antithesis:

Man proposes, God disposes.

"Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real

thing." Goethe

"We must learn to live together as brothers or

perish together as fools." Martin Luther King, Jr.

Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice

Many are called, but few are chosen.

What is apostrophe?

Apostrophe is an exclamatory rhetoricalfigure of speech,

when a speaker or writer breaks off and directs speech to

an imaginary person or abstract quality or idea.

Examples

Some examples of apostrophe are listed below:
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1.

"O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth,

That I am meek and gentle with these butchers!

Thou art the ruins of the noblest man

That ever lived in the tide of times."

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1

Assonance

Assonance is a figure of speech that is found more often in

verse than in prose. It refers to the repetition of vowel

sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or

sentences.

Examples of Assonance

These are some examples:

"the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple

curtain" - The Raven By Edgar Allan Poe

"The crumbling thunder of seas" - Robert Louis

Stevenson

Cataphora

Cataphora refers to a figure of speech where an earlier

expression refers to or describes a forward expression.

Cataphora is the opposite ofanaphora, a reference forward

as opposed to backward in the discourse.

Examples of cataphora

These are some examples:

If you want them, there are cookies in the kitchen.

(them is an instance of cataphora because it refers

to cookies which hasn't been mentioned in the

discourse prior to that point.)

After he had received his orders, the soldier left the

barracks. (he is also a cataphoric reference to the

soldierwhich is mentioned later in the discourse)

More figures of speech

Climax (figure of speech)

Climax refers to a figure of speech in which words,

phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of increasing

importance.

Examples of climax

"There are three things that will endure: faith, hope, and

love. But the greatest of these is love."

1 Corinthians 13:13

3.

This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as

well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable

Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

Martin Luther King, I Have a Dream

What is Dysphemism?

Dysphemism is the use of a harsh, more offensive word

instead of one considered less harsh. Dysphemism is often

contrasted witheuphemism. Dysphemisms are generally

used to shock or offend.

Examples:

These are examples of dysphemism:

Snail mailfor postal mail,

Cancer stickin reference to a cigarette.

Eggheadfor genius.

Worm foodfor dead.

Pigfor policeman.

Bullshitfor lies.

Dead tree edition for the paper version of a

publication that can be found online

Fagfor homosexual man.

What is ellipsis?

Ellipsis (orelliptical construction ) is the omission of a

word or words. It refers to constructions in which words are

left out of a sentence but the sentence can still be

understood.

Ellipsis helps us avoid a lot of redundancy. In fact there is a

lot of redundancy in language and it can be surprising how

much can be left out without losing much meaning,

particularly when there are contextual clues as to the real

meaning.

Examples

Some examples of ellipsis are listed below:

Lacy can do something about the problem, but I

dont know what (she can do.)

She can help with the housework; Nancy can (help

with the housework), too.

John can speak seven languages, but Ron can

speak only two (languages.)

The words between parentheses can be omitted and the

sentences can still be meaningful.

What is euphemism?

Euphemism is used to express a mild, indirect, or vagueterm to substitute for a harsh, blunt, or offensive term.

Euphemism is often contrasted withdysphemism. Some

euphemisms intend to amuse, while others intend to give

positive appearances to negative events or even mislead

entirely.

Examples:

These are examples of euphemism:

Going to the other side for death,

Do itorcome togetherin reference to a sexual act.
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Passed awayfor die.

On the streets for homeless.

Adult entertainmentfor pornography.

Comfort woman for prostitute

Between jobs for unemployed.

Hyperbole

What is hy perbole?

Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device

or figure of speech. It may be used to evoke strong feelings

or to create a strong impression, but is not meant to be

taken literally. Hyperboles are exaggerations to create

emphasis or effect.

Examples

Examples of hyperbole include:

The bag weighed a ton.

I was so hungry; I could eat a horse!

She's older than the hills.

I could sleep for a year; I was so tired.

He's filthy rich. He's got tons of money.

I've told you a million times to help with the

housework.

What is irony?

Irony is a figure of speech in which there is a contradiction

of expectation between what is said what is really meant. It

is characterized by an incongruity, a contrast, between

reality and appearance. There are three types of irony:

verbal, dramatic and situational.

Types of i rony

1. Verbal irony:

It is a contrast between what is saidand what

is meant

2. Dramatic irony:

It occurs when the audience or the reader knows

more than the character about events. In other

words, what the character thinks is true is

incongruous with what the audience knows.

3. Situational irony:This refers to the contrast between the actual result

of a situation and what was intended or expected to

happen.

Examples of i rony

His argument was as clear as mud.

The two identical twins were arguing. One of them

told the other: "You're ugly"

The thieves robbed the police station.

What is lilotes?

Lilotes is a figure of speech consisting of an

understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by

negating its opposite. For example, instead of saying that

someone is mean, you can say he is not very generous.

Examples of l i lotes

He's not a very generous man.

She is not very beautiful.

He is not the friendliest person I 've met.

What is oxymoron?

An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines

incongruous or contradictory terms. The plural

is oxymorons oroxymora.

Examples:

An oximoron can be made of an adjective and a noun:

Dark light

Deafening silence

Living dead

Open secret

Virtual reality

Oximorons can also be a combination of a noun and a verb.

The silence whistles

Personification

What is Personif ication ?

Personification is a figure of speech in which human

characteristics are attributed to an abstract quality, animal,

or inanimate object.

ExamplesNotice the use of personification in William Blake's poem

below:

Two Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room.

"Ah, William, we're weary of weather,"

said the sunflowers, shining with dew.

"Our traveling habits have tired us.

Can you give us a room with a view?"

What are puns?

A pun, also called paronomasia, involves a word play

which suggests two or more meanings, by exploitingmultiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words,

for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. Puns are

constructions used in jokes and idioms whose usage and

meaning are entirely local to a particular language and its

culture. To be understood, puns require a large vocabulary.

Examples:

These are examples of puns:

"Atheism is a non-prophet institution"

The word "prophet" is put in place of its homophone


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"profit", altering the common phrase "non-profit

institution".

"Question: Why do we still have troops in

Germany?

Answer: To keep the Russians in Czech" - Joke.

This joke relies on the aural ambiguity of the

homophones "check" and "Czech"

What is metalepsis?Metalepsis is a figure of speech in which reference is made

to something by means of another thing that is remotely

related to it, either through a causal relationship, or through

another figure of speech.

Examples of meta lepsis

1.

Was this the face that launched a thousand ships

and burnt the topless towers of Ilium?

- Chistopher Marlowe, Doctor Faustus

A reference to the mythological figure Helen of Troy (or

some would say, to Aphrodite). Her abduction by Paris was

said to be the reason for a fleet of a thousand ships to be

launched into battle, initiating the Trojan Wars.

2.

I've got to catch the worm tomorrow.

"The early bird catches the worm" is a common maxim,

advocating getting an early start on the day to achieve

success. The subject, by referring to this maxim, is

compared to the bird; tomorrow, the speaker will awaken

early in order to achieve success.

3.

A lead foot is driving behind me.

This refers to someone who drives fast. This metalepsis is

achieved only through a cause and effect relationship. Lead

is heavy and a heavy foot would press the accelerator, and

this would cause the car to speed.

4.

He experienced a pallid death.

While death has the effect of making the body look pale,

describing death itself with the adjective pallid created a

metaleptic expression.

What is a metaphor?

Unlikesimile,metaphor(from the Greek language:

meaning "transfer") is language that directly compares

seemingly unrelated subjects. It is a figure of speech that

compares two or more things not using like or as. In the

simplest case, this takes the form:

X - is -Y

Examples of metaphor:

All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;

They have their exits and their entrances;

(William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2/7)

What is metonymy?

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or concept

is not called by its own name, but by the name of something

intimately associated with that thing or concept.

Examples:

Here are some examples of metonymy:

Crown. (For the power of a king.)

The White House. (Referring to the American

administration.)

Dish. (To refer an entire plate of food.)

The Pentagon. (For the Department of Defense and

the offices of the U.S. Armed Forces.)

Pen. (For the written word.)

Sword - (For military force.)

Hollywood. (For US Cinema.)

Hand. (For help.)

Consider this quote which is a metonymic adage coined by

English author Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839 for his

play Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy:

"The pen is mightier than the sword."

What is a simile?

A simile is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things,often introduced with the word "like" or "as". It takes the

form of:

X is (not) likeY

X is (not) asY

X is (not) similar toY

Examples of s im i le:

He fights like a lion.

He swims as fast as a fish.

He slithers like a snake.

"My dad was a mechanic by trade when he was inthe Army, When he got the tools out, he was like a

surgeon."

What is a synecdoche?

Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of

something is used to represent the whole or the whole of

something is used to represent part of it. It is considered to

be a special kind ofmetonymy.
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Types and examples of s ynecdoche

Part of something is used to refer to the whole thing

-

A hundred head of cattle (using the part headto

refer to the whole animal)

The whole of a thing is used to represent part of it -

The world treated him badly(using the worldto

refer to part of the world)

A specific class of thing is used to refer to a larger,

more general class -

A bug(used to refer to any kind of insect or

arachnid, even if it is not a true bug)

A general class of thing is used to refer to a smaller,

more specific class -

The good book(referring to the Bible or the Qur'an)

A material is used to refer to an object composed of

that material -

Glasses orsteel( referring to spectacles or sword)

A container is used to refer to its contents -

A barrel(referring to a barrel of oil)

Present tenses

he Present Perfect

The Formation of the Present Perfect

auxiliary verb to have (have/has) + Participle II

(the present tense of the verb to have + the past

participle of the main verb.)

The Past Perfect

The Formation of the Past Perfect

auxiliary verb had + Participle II

(the past tense of the verb to have + the past


The Future Perfect

The Formation of the Future Perfect

auxiliary verb shall/will have + Participle II

(the future tense of the verb to have + the past


Present Perfect

FORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

You have seen that movie many times.

Have you seen that movie many times?

You have not seen that movie many times.

Complete List of Present Perfect Forms

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happenedat an unspecified time before now. The exact time is notimportant. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect withspecific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago,last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at thatmoment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the PresentPerfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never,once, many times, several times, before, so far, already,yet, etc.

Examples:

I have seen that movie twenty times.

I think I have met him once before.

There have been many earthquakes in California.

People have traveled to the Moon.

People have not traveled to Mars.

Have you read the book yet?

Nobody has everclimbed that mountain.

A: Has there everbeen a war in the UnitedStates?B: Yes, there has been a war in the UnitedStates.

How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing toEnglish learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect withthe following topics:

TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe yourexperience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..."You can also use this tense to say that you have never had
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a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used todescribe a specific event.

Examples:

I have been to France.THIS SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE HAD THEEXPERIENCE OF BEING INFRANCE.MAYBE YOU HAVEBEEN THERE ONCE, OR SEVERAL TIMES.

I have been to France three times.YOU CAN ADD THE NUMBER OF TIMES AT THE END OFTHE SENTENCE.

I have neverbeen to France.THIS SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE NOT HAD THEEXPERIENCE OF GOING TO FRANCE.

I think I have seen that movie before.

He has nevertraveled by train.

Joan has studied two foreign languages.

A: Have you evermet him?B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change thathas happened over a period of time.

Examples:

You have grown since the last time I saw you.

The government has become more interested inarts education.

Japanese has become one of the most popular

courses at the university since the Asian studiesprogram was established.

My English has really improved since I moved toAustralia.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list theaccomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannotmention a specific time.

Examples:

Man has walked on the Moon.

Our son has learned how to read.

Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.

Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an actionwhich we expected has not happened. Using the Present

Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action tohappen.

Examples:

James has not finished his homework yet.

Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can

communicate.

Bill has still not arrived. The rain hasn't stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about severaldifferent actions which have occurred in the past at differenttimes. Present Perfect suggests the process is not completeand more actions are possible.

Examples:

The army has attacked that city five times. I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this

semester.

We have had many major problems while workingon this project.

She has talked to several specialists about her

problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.

Time Expressions with Present Perfect

When we use the Present Perfect it means that somethinghas happened at some point in our lives before now.

Remember, the exact time the action happened is notimportant.

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in foran experience. We can do this with expressions such as: inthe last week, in the last year, this week, this month, so far,up to now, etc.

Examples:

Have you been to Mexico in the last year?

I have seen that movie six times in the lastmonth.

They have had three tests in the last week.


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She graduated from university less than threeyears ago. She has worked for three differentcompanies so far.

My carhas broken down three times this week.

NOTICE

"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different inmeaning. "Last year" means the year before now, and it is

considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "Inthe last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is notconsidered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:

I went to Mexico last year.IWENT TO MEXICO IN THE CALENDAR YEAR BEFORETHIS ONE.

I have been to Mexico in the last year.IHAVE BEEN TO MEXICO AT LEAST ONCE AT SOMEPOINT BETWEEN365DAYS AGO AND NOW.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous usesofMixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show thatsomething started in the past and has continued up untilnow. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "sinceTuesday" are all durations which can be used with the

Present Perfect.

Examples:

I have had a cold for two weeks.

She has been in England for six months.

Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little

girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normallylimited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous usesof Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and"study" are sometimes used in this way even though theyare NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammaradverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You have only seen that movie one time.

Have you only seen that movie one time?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Many tourists have visited that castle.ACTIVE

That castle has been visited by manytourists. PASSIVE

Present Perfect Continuous

FORM

[has/have + been + present participle]

Examples:

You have been waiting here for two hours.

Have you been waiting here for two hours? You have not been waiting here for two hours.

Complete List of Present Perfect Continuous Forms

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that

something started in the past and has continued up untilnow. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "sinceTuesday" are all durations which can be used with thePresent Perfect Continuous.

Examples:

They have been talking for the last hour.

She has been working at that company for threeyears.

What have you been doing for the last 30minutes?

James has been teaching at the university sinceJune.

We have been waiting here for over two hours!

Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine forthe last three days?

USE 2 Recently, Lately
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You can also use the Present Perfect ContinuousWITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without theduration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately."We often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasizethis meaning.

Examples:

Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

She has been watching too much televisionlately.

Have you been exercising lately?

Mary has been feeling a little depressed.

Lisa has not been practicing her English.

What have you been doing?

IMPORTANT

Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has themeaning of "lately" or "recently." If you use the Present

Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you beenfeeling alright?", it can suggest that the person looks sick orunhealthy. A question such as "Have you been smoking?"can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person. Usingthis tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hearor feel the results of the action. It is possible to insultsomeone by using this tense incorrectly.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-ContinuousVerbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also,certain non-continuous meanings forMixed Verbs cannot

be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using PresentPerfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use PresentPerfect.

Examples:

Sam has been having his car for two years. No tCorrect

Sam has had his car for two years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT


Examples:

You have only been waiting here for one hour.

Have you only been waiting here for one hour?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Recently, John has been doing the work.ACTIVE

Recently, the work has been being done byJohn. PASSIVE

NOTE: Present Perfect Continuous is less commonly usedin its passive form.

Past Perfect

FORM

[had + past participle]

Examples:

You had studied English before you moved toNew York.

Had you studied English before you moved toNew York?

You had not studied English before you moved toNew York.

Complete List of Past Perfect Forms

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that somethingoccurred before another action in the past. It can also showthat something happened before a specific time in the past.

Examples:

I had neverseen such a beautiful beach before I

went to Kauai.

I did not have any money because I had lost mywallet.

Tony knew Istanbul so well because he hadvisited the city several times.

Had Susan everstudied Thai before she moved

to Thailand? She only understood the movie because she had

read the book.

Kristine had neverbeen to an opera before lastnight.

We were not able to get a hotel room becausewe had not booked in advance.

A: Had you evervisited the U.S. before your trip in2006?B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.
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USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous usesofMixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that

something started in the past and continued up until anotheraction in the past.

Examples:

We had had that car for ten years before it brokedown.

By the time Alex finished his studies, he hadbeen in London for over eight years.

They felt bad about selling the house becausethey had owned it for more than forty years.

Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited

to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of

Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study"

are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT

Non-Continuous Verbs.IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specifictime words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this ispossible, it is usually not necessary.

Example:

She had visited her Japanese relatives once in1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

MOREOVER

If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, theSimple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when

"before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words"before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, sothe Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentencesbelow are correct.

Examples:

She had visited her Japanese relatives once in1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993before she moved in with them in 1996.

HOWEVER

If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specifictime, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examplesbelow. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience

rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason,Simple Past cannot be used.

Examples:

She neversaw a bear before she moved toAlaska. Not Correct

She had neverseen a bear before she moved toAlaska. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT


Examples:

You had previously studied English before you

moved to New York.

Had you previously studied English before youmoved to New York?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

George had repaired many cars before hereceived his mechanic's license.ACTIVE

Many cars had been repaired by George beforehe received his mechanic's license. PASSIVE

Past Perfect Continuous

FORM

[had been + present participle]

Examples:

You had been waiting there for more than twohours when she finally arrived.

Had you been waiting there for more than twohours when she finally arrived?

You had not been waiting there for more than twohours when she finally arrived.
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Complete List of Past Perfect Continuous Forms

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that

something started in the past and continued up until anothertime in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" areboth durations which can be used with the Past PerfectContinuous. Notice that this is related to the Present PerfectContinuous; however, the duration does not continue untilnow, it stops before something else in the past.

Examples:

They had been talking for over an hour beforeTony arrived.

She had been working at that company for three

years when it went out of business. How long had you been waiting to get on the

bus?

Mike wanted to sit down because he had beenstanding all day at work.

James had been teaching at the university for

more than a year before he left for Asia.

A: How long had you been studying Turkishbefore you moved to Ankara?B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action inthe past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

Sam gained weight because he had beenovereating.

Betty failed the final test because she had notbeen attending class.

Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes,""for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakerschoose to use the Past Continuous rather than the PastPerfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change themeaning of the sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes

interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuousemphasizes a duration of time before something in the past.Study the examples below to understand the difference.

Examples:

He was tired because he was exercising so hard.THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIREDBECAUSE HE WAS EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT

MOMENT. He was tired because he had been exercising so

hard.THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WAS TIREDBECAUSE HE HAD BEEN EXERCISING OVER A PERIOD

OF TIME.IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WAS STILLEXERCISING AT THAT MOMENTORTHAT HE HAD JUSTFINISHED.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-ContinuousVerbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also,certain non-continuous meanings forMixed Verbs cannotbe used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Past PerfectContinuous with these verbs, you must use Past Perfect.

Examples:

The motorcycle had been belonging to Georgefor years before Tina bought it. Not Correct

The motorcycle had belonged to George for years

before Tina bought it. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT


Examples:

You had only been waiting there for a few minutes

when she arrived.

Had you only been waiting there for a few minuteswhen she arrived?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant'sfantastic dinners for two years before he moved toParis.ACTIVE

The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been beingprepared by Chef Jones for two years before hemoved to Paris. PASSIVE
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NOTE: Passive forms of the Past Perfect Continuous arenot common.

Future Perfect

Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and

"be going to have done." Unlike Simple Future forms,Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Perfect with "Will"

[will have + past participle]

Examples:

You will have perfected your English by the timeyou come back from the U.S.

Will you have perfected your English by the time

you come back from the U.S.?

You will not have perfected your English by thetime you come back from the U.S.

FORM Future Perfect with "Be Going To"

[am/is/are + going to have + past participle]

Examples:

You are going to have perfected your English bythe time you come back from the U.S.

Are you going to have perfected your English bythe time you come back from the U.S.?

You are not going to have perfected your

English by the time you come back from the U.S.

NOTE: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" tocreate the Future Perfect with little or no difference inmeaning.

Complete List of Future Perfect FormsUSE 1 Completed Action Before Something in theFuture

The Future Perfect expresses the idea that something willoccur before another action in the future. It can also showthat something will happen before a specific time in thefuture.

Examples:

By next November, I will have received my

promotion.

By the time he gets home, she is going to havecleaned the entire house.

I am not going to have finished this test by 3o'clock.

Will she have learned enough Chinese tocommunicate before she moves to Beijing?

Sam is probably going to have completed theproposal by the time he leaves this afternoon.

By the time I finish this course, I will havetaken ten tests.

How many countries are you going to havevisited by the time you turn 50?

Notice in the examples above that the reference points(marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than SimpleFuture. This is because the interruptions are in time

clauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Future (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous usesofMixed Verbs, we use the Future Perfect to show thatsomething will continue up until another action in the future.

Examples:

I will have been in London for six months by thetime I leave.

By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book

for a week.

Although the above use of Future Perfect is normally limitedto Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses ofMixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study"are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOTNon-Continuous Verbs.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used inclauses beginning with time expressions such as: when,while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc.Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used.

Examples:
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I am going to see a movie when I will havefinished my homework. Not Correct

I am going to see a movie when I havefinished my homework. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT


Examples:

You will only have learned a few words.

Will you only have learned a few words?

You are only going to have learned a few words.

Are you only going to have learned a few words?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

They will have completed the project before thedeadline.ACTIVE

The project will have been completed before thedeadline. PASSIVE

They are going to have completed the projectbefore the deadline.ACTIVE

The project is going to have beencompleted before the deadline. PASSIVE

Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms: "willhave been doing " and "be going to have been doing."UnlikeSimple Future forms, Future Perfect Continuousforms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Perfect Continuous with "Will"

[will have been + present participle]

Examples:

You will have been waiting for more than twohours when her plane finally arrives.

Will you have been waiting for more than twohours when her plane finally arrives?

You will not have been waiting for more than twohours when her plane finally arrives.

FORM Future Perfect Continuous with "Be Going To"

[am/is/are + going to have been + present participle]

Examples:

You are going to have been waiting for more

than two hours when her plane finally arrives.

Are you going to have been waiting for morethan two hours when her plane finally arrives?

You are not going to have been waiting for morethan two hours when her plane finally arrives.

NOTE: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" tocreate the Future Perfect Continuous with little or nodifference in meaning.

Complete List of Future Perfect Continuous FormsUSE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future

We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show thatsomething will continue up until a particular event or time inthe future. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "sinceFriday" are all durations which can be used with the FuturePerfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the PresentPerfect Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous;however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration stopsat or before a reference point in the future.

Examples:

They will have been talking for over an hour by

the time Thomas arrives. She is going to have been working at that

company for three years when it finally closes.

James will have been teaching at the universityfor more than a year by the time he leaves forAsia.

How long will you have been studying whenyou graduate?

We are going to have been driving for over threedays straight when we getto Anchorage.

A: When you finish your Englishcourse, will you have been living in NewZealand for over a year?B: No, I will not have been living here that long.

Notice in the examples above that the reference points(marked in italics) are in Simple Present rather than SimpleFuture. This is because these future events are intimeclauses, and you cannot use future tenses in time clauses.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future
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Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another actionin the future is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

Jason will be tired when he gets home becausehe will have been jogging for over an hour.

Claudia's English will be perfect when she returnsto Germany because she is going to have beenstudying English in the United States for over two

years.

Future Continuous vs. Future Perfect Continuous

If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes,""for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakerschoose to use the Future Continuous rather than the Future

Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change themeaning of the sentence. Future Continuous emphasizesinterrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuousemphasizes a duration of time before something in thefuture. Study the examples below to understand thedifference.

Examples:

He will be tired because he will be exercising sohard.THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIREDBECAUSE HE WILL BE EXERCISING AT THAT EXACT

MOMENT IN THE FUTURE.

He will be tired because he will have beenexercising so hard.THIS SENTENCE EMPHASIZES THAT HE WILL BE TIREDBECAUSE HE WILL HAVE BEEN EXERCISING FOR A

PERIOD OF TIME.IT IS POSSIBLE THAT HE WILL STILLBE EXERCISING AT THAT MOMENTORTHAT HE WILLJUST HAVE FINISHED.

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot

be used in clauses beginning with time expressions suchas: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if,unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, PresentPerfect Continuous is used.

Examples:

You won't get a promotion until you will have beenworking here as long as Tim. Not Correct

You won't get a promotion until you have beenworking here as long as Tim. Correct

AND REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-ContinuousVerbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also,certain non-continuous meanings forMixed Verbs cannotbe used in continuous tenses. Instead of using FuturePerfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use FuturePerfect .

Examples:

Ned will have been having his driver's license forover two years. Not Correct

Ned will have had his driver's license for over two

years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT


Examples:

You will only have been waiting for a few minutes

when her plane arrives.

Will you only have been waiting for a few minuteswhen her plane arrives?

You are only going to have been waiting for a fewminutes when her plane arrives.

Are you only going to have been waiting for a fewminutes when her plane arrives?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

The famous artist will have been painting themural for over six months by the time it isfinished.ACTIVE

The mural will have been being painted by thefamous artist for over six months by the time it isfinished. PASSIVE

The famous artist is going to have beenpainting the mural for over six months by the timeit is finished.ACTIVE

The mural is going to have been beingpainted by the famous artist for over six monthsby the time it is finished. PASSIVE

NOTE: Passive forms of the Future Perfect Continuous arenot common.
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