Western Sahara 1

Western SaharaGeographical coordinates 25degN 13degW

The Western Sahara(Arabic) ةيبرغلا ءارحصلا

Taneẓṛuft Tutrimt (Tamazight)Saacutehara Occidental (Spanish)

Capital Laayoune[1] [2] [3] [4]

Largest city El Aaiuacuten (Laacircyoune)

Official language(s)Arabic de jure1 Spanish and French widelyusedBerber and Hassaniya (locally spoken)

Demonym Sahrawi

Disputed sovereignty2

- Relinquished by Spain November 14 1975

Area

- Total 266000 km2 (76th)103000 sq mi

- Water () negligible

Population

- 2009 estimate 513000[5] (168th)

- Density 19km2 (236th)5sq mi

Currency Moroccan dirham Sahrawi Peseta

Time zone (UTC+0)

ISO 3166 code EH

Internet TLD eh is reserved but not used

Calling code +2123

Western Sahara 2

1Arabic is the only official language of both Morocco and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic which claim sovereignty over theterritory2 Mostly under administration of Morocco as its Southern Provinces The Polisario Front controls border areas behind the border wallas the Free Zone on behalf of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic3 Code for Morocco no code specific to Western Sahara has been issued by the ITU

The Western Sahara (US En-us-Western Saharaoggˌwɛstərnsəˈhɛrə UK ˌwɛstərnsəˈhɑːrə Arabic ءارحصلا

lrm Berber Taneẓṛuft Tutrimt Spanish Saacutehara Occidental) is a disputed territory in North Africa borderedةيبرغلاby Morocco to the north Algeria to the northeast Mauritania to the east and south and the Atlantic Ocean to thewest Its surface area amounts to 266000 square kilometres ( sq mi) It is one of the most sparsely populatedterritories in the world mainly consisting of desert flatlands The population of the territory is estimated at just over500000[5] over half of whom live in El Aaiun the largest city in Western Sahara (also called Laayoune)The Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963 after aMoroccan demand when it was a Spanish colony[6] In 1966 the UN called on Spain directly for the first time todecolonize the territory[7] The Kingdom of Morocco and the Sahrawi national liberation movement Polisario Frontthrough the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) (exiled government in Tindouf Algeria) dispute control ofthe territorySince a United Nations-sponsored ceasefire agreement in 1991 most of the territory (including the entire Atlanticcoast line) has been controlled by Morocco strongly backed by France[8] and the remainder by the SADR stronglybacked by Algeria[9] Internationally major powers such as the United States and Russia have taken a generallyambiguous and neutral position on each sides claims and have pressed both parties to agree on a peacefulresolution Both Morocco and POLISARIO have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognitionessentially from African Asian and Latin American states in the developing world The Polisario Front has wonformal recognition for SADR from 81 states and was extended membership in the African Union while Moroccohas won recognition or support for its position from several African governments and from most of the ArabLeague[10] [11] In both instances recognitions have over the past two decades been extended and withdrawnaccording to changing international trends

History

Early historyThe earliest recorded inhabitants of the Western Sahara were agriculturalists called the Bafour[12] The Bafour werelater replaced or absorbed by Berber-speaking populations which eventually merged in turn with migrating MaqilArab tribes from YemenThe arrival of Islam in the 8th century (although tribal oral traditions mention an earlier date) played a major role inthe development of relationships between the Saharan regions that later became the modern territories of MoroccoWestern Sahara Mauritania and Algeria and neighbouring regions Trade developed further and the region becamea highway for caravans especially between Marrakesh and Tombouctou in Mali In the Middle Ages the BerberAlmohads and Almoravids empires and dynasties both were able to control the areaTowards the late Middle Ages the Maqil Arab bedouin tribes from Yemen invaded the Maghreb reaching thenorthern border-area of the Sahara in the 14th and 15th centuries Over roughly five centuries through a complexprocess of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and North Africa some of the indigenous Berbertribes mixed with the Maqil Arab tribes from Yemen and formed a culture unique to Morocco and Mauritania

Western Sahara 3

Spanish provinceSee also Spanish Sahara and Spanish Morocco

This article is part of the seriesHistory of Western Sahara

Western Sahara

Historical background

Western Sahara War middot History of Morocco middot Spanish Sahara middot Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic middot Spanish Morocco middot Colonialwars in Morocco middot Moroccan Army of Liberation middot Ifni War middot Harakat Tahrir middot Polisario Front middot Sahrawi National Union Party middotICJ Advisory Opinion middot UN in Spanish Sahara middot Madrid Accords middot Green March middot Berm (Western Sahara) middot Human rights inWestern Sahara

Disputed regions

Saguia el-Hamra middot Riacuteo de Oro middot Southern Provinces middot Free Zone

Politics

Legal status of Western Sahara middot Politics of Morocco middot Politics of the SADR middot Polisario Front middot Former members of the PolisarioFront middot CORCAS middot Moroccan Initiative for Western Sahara

Rebellions

Moroccan Army of Liberation middot Harakat Tahrir middot Polisario Front middot Zemla Intifada middot Independence Intifada

UN involvement

Resolution 1495 middot Resolution 1754 middot UN visiting mission middot MINURSO middot Settlement Plan middot Houston Agreement middot Baker Plan middotManhasset negotiations

After an agreement among the European colonial powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheresof influence in Africa Spain seized control of The Western Sahara and established it as a Spanish colony[13] After1939 this area was administered by Spanish Morocco As a consequence Ahmed Belbachir Haskouri the Chief ofCabinet General Secretary of the Government and Head of the palace for the caliph of Spanish Morocco cooperatedwith the Spaniards to select governors in that area The Saharan Lords who were already in prominent positions suchas the members of Maa El Ainain family provided a list recommending new governors Together with the SpanishHigh Commissioner Belbachir selected from the list of recommendations During the prophets birthday celebrationthese Lords paid their due respect to the caliph to show loyalty to the Moroccan monarchy As time went by Spanishcolonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonization after World War II which saw Europeanslose control of North African and sub-Saharan African possessions and protectorates Spanish decolonization inparticular began rather late but internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up towards theend of Francisco Francos rule in the context of the global trend towards complete decolonization Spain beganrapidly and even chaotically divesting itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions After initially beingviolently opposed to decolonization Spain began to give in and by 1974ndash75 issued promises of a referendum onindependenceAt the same time Morocco and Mauritania which had historical claims of sovereignty over the territory based on competing traditional claims argued that the territory was artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers The third neighbour of Spanish Sahara Algeria viewed these demands with suspicion influenced

Western Sahara 4

also by its long-running rivalry with Morocco After arguing for a process of decolonization guided by the UnitedNations the Algerian government under Houari Boumeacutediegravenne committed itself in 1975 to assisting the PolisarioFront which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independenceThe UN attempted to settle these disputes through a visiting mission in late 1975 as well as a verdict from theInternational Court of Justice (ICJ) which declared that Western Sahara has historical Links with Morrocco andMauritania but population of this territory possessed the right of self-determination On November 6 1975 theGreen March into Western Sahara began when 350000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya insouthern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross the border in a peaceful marchA few days before on October 31 Moroccan troops invaded The Western Sahara from the North-West of theterritory

Demands for independenceIn the waning days of General Francos rule and after the Green March the Spanish government signed a tripartiteagreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to transfer the Territory on 14 November 1975 Thus theaccords foresaw a bipartite administration Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territories withMorocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces and Mauritaniataking control of the southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara withinthree months even repatriating Spanish corpses from its cemeteries[14] The Moroccan and Mauritanian moveshowever met staunch opposition from the Polisario which had by now gained backing from Algeria In 1979following Mauritanias withdrawal due to pressure from Polisario including a bombardment of its capital and othereconomic targets by the Polisario Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory and gradually containedthe guerrillas through setting up the extensive sand-berm in the desert (known as the Border Wall or Moroccan Wall)to exclude guerilla fighters Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire overseen by the peacekeeping missionMINURSO under the terms of a UN Settlement Plan

Stalling of the referendum and Settlement Plan

System of the Moroccan Walls in Western Sahara(territory outside them in yellow) set up in the

1980s

The referendum originally scheduled for 1992 foresaw giving thelocal population the option between independence or affirmingintegration with Morocco but it quickly stalled In 1997 the HoustonAgreement attempted to revive the proposal for a referendum butlikewise has hitherto not had success As of 2010 howevernegotiations over terms have not resulted in any substantive action Atthe heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to beregistered to participate in the referendum and since about 2000Morocco considers that since there is no agreement on persons entitledto vote a referendum is not possiblemeanwhile Polisario still attachedwith insistence to the referendum with independence as a clear optionwithout trying to give a solution to the problem of who is qualified tobe registered to participate in the referendum

Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum The Polisario has insisted on only allowing thosefound on the 1974 Spanish Census lists (see below) to vote while Morocco has insisted that the census was flawedby evasion and sought the inclusion of members of Sahrawi tribes which escape from Spanish invasion to the northof Morocco by the 19th centuryEfforts by the UN special envoys to find a common ground for both parties did not succeed By 1999 the UN hadidentified about 85000 voters with nearly half of them in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara orSouthern Morocco and the others scattered between the Tindouf refugee camps Mauritania and other places of

Western Sahara 5

exile Polisario accepted this voter list as it had done with the previous list presented by the UN (both of themoriginally based on the Spanish census of 1974) but Morocco refused and as rejected voter candidates began amass-appeals procedure insisted that each application be scrutinized individually This again brought the process toa haltAccording to a NATO delegation MINURSO election observers stated in 1999 as the deadlock continued that ifthe number of voters does not rise significantly the odds were slightly on the RASD side[15] By 2001 the processhad effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore otherthird-way solutions Indeed shortly after the Houston Agreement (1997) Morocco officially declared that it was nolonger necessary to include an option of independence on the ballot offering instead autonomy Erik Jensen whoplayed an administrative role in MINURSO wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which theywere destined to lose (see Western Sahara Anatomy of a Stalemate)

Baker PlanAs personal envoy of the Secretary-General James Baker visited all sides and produced the document known as theBaker Plan[16] This was discussed by the United Nations Security Council in 2000 and envisioned an autonomousWestern Sahara Authority (WSA) which would be followed after five years by the referendum Every personpresent in the territory would be allowed to vote regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census Itwas rejected by both sides although it was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal According to Bakers drafttens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers but byMorocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendumand the ballot would be split three-ways by the inclusion of an unspecified autonomy further undermining theindependence camp Also Morocco was allowed to keep its army in the area and to retain the control over allsecurity issues during both the autonomy years and the election In 2002 the Moroccan king stated that thereferendum idea was out of date since it can not be implemented[17] Polisario retorted that that was only becauseof the Kings refusal to allow it to take placeIn 2003 a new version of the plan was made official with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSAmaking it less reliant on Moroccan devolution It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order tomake it harder to stall or subvert This second draft commonly known as Baker II was accepted by the Polisario as abasis of negotiations to the surprise of many[18] This appeared to abandon Polisarios previous position of onlynegotiating based on the standards of voter identification from 1991 (ie the Spanish census) After that the draftquickly garnered widespread international support culminating in the UN Security Councils unanimousendorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003

Today

Landscape in northern Western Sahara

Baker resigned his post at the UnitedNations in 2004 his term did not seethe crisis resolved[19] His resignationfollowed several months of failedattempts to get Morocco to enter intoformal negotiations on the plan but hemet with rejection The new kingMohammed VI of Morocco opposesany referendum on independence andhas said Morocco will never agree to

one We shall not give up one inch of our beloved Sahara not a grain of its sand[20]

Western Sahara 6

Instead he proposes through an appointed advisory body Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS) aself-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco His father Hassan II of Moroccoinitially supported the referendum idea in principle in 1982 and in signed contracts with Polisario and the UN in1991 and 1997 thus engaging to a referendum However no major powers have expressed interest in forcing theissue and Morocco has historically showed little real interest in an actual referendumThe UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II and renewed fighting has been raisedas a possibility In 2005 former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan reported increased military activityon both sides of the front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortificationsMorocco has repeatedly tried to get Algeria into bilateral negotiations based on its view of Polisario as the cats pawof the Algerian military It has received vocal support from France and occasionally (and currently) from the UnitedStates These negotiations would define the exact limits of a Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule butonly after Moroccos inalienable right to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks The Algeriangovernment has consistently refused claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of thePolisario FrontDemonstrations and riots by supporters of independence andor a referendum broke out in the Moroccan-controlledparts of Western Sahara in May 2005 and in parts of southern Morocco (notably the town of Assa) They were metby police Several international human rights organizations expressed concern at what they termed abuse byMoroccan security forces and a number of Sahrawi activists have been jailed Pro-independence Sahrawi sourcesincluding the Polisario have given these demonstrations the name Independence Intifada while most sources havetended to see the events as being of limited importance International press and other media coverage has beensparse and reporting is complicated by the Moroccan governments policy of strictly controlling independent mediacoverage within the territoryDemonstrations and protests still occur after Morocco declared in February 2006 that it was contemplating a planfor devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory but still explicitly refused any referendum onindependence As of January 2007 the plan has not been made public even if the Moroccan government claims thatit has been more or less completed[21] [22]

Polisario has intermittently threatened to resume fighting referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as abreach of the cease-fire terms but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without the green lightfrom Algeria which houses the Sahrawis refugee camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movementIn April 2007 the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity through the Royal AdvisoryCouncil for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS) should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for WesternSahara The project was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007 The stalemating of the Moroccanproposal options has led the UN in the recent Report of the UN Secretary-General to ask the parties to enter intodirect and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution[23]

In October 2010 Gadaym Izik camp was set up near Laayoune as a protest by displaced Sahrawi people about theirliving conditions It was home to more than 12000 people In November 2010 Moroccan security forces enteredGadaym Izik camp in the early hours of the morning using helicopters and water cannon to force people to leaveThe Polisario Front said Moroccan security forces had killed a 26-year-old protester at the camp a claim denied byMorocco Protesters in Laayoune threw stones at police and set fire to tires and vehicles Several buildings includinga TV station were also set on fire Moroccan officials said five security personnel had been killed in the unrest[24]

On 15th November 2010 the Moroccan government accused the Algerian secret services of orchestrating andfinancing the Gadaym Izik camp with the intent to destabilize the region The Spanish press was accused ofmounting a campaign of disinformation to support the Saharwi initiative and all foreign reporters were eitherprevented from travelling or else expelled from the area [25] The protest coincided with a fresh round of negotiationsat the UN [26]

Western Sahara 7

Politics

Police checkpoint at suburbs of Laayoune

The legal status of the territory and the question of itssovereignty remains unresolved the territory iscontested between Morocco and Polisario Front It isconsidered a non self-governed territory by the UnitedNations

The government of Morocco is a formallyconstitutional monarchy under Mohammed VI with abicameral parliament The last elections to the lowerhouse were deemed reasonably free and fair byinternational observers Certain powers such as thecapacity to appoint the government and to dissolveparliament remain in the hands of the monarch TheMorocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces treated as integral parts of thekingdom The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes the Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fueland related subsidies to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants from loyalist Sahrawi and othercommunities in Morocco proper[27]

The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-partyparliamentary and presidential system but according to its constitution this will be changed into a multi-partysystem at the achievement of independence It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria which itcontrols It also claims to control the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan Wall known as the FreeZone This area has a very small population estimated to be approximately 30000 nomads[28] The Moroccangovernment views it as a no-mans land patrolled by UN troops The SADR government whose troops also patrol thearea regard it as the liberated territories and have proclaimed a village in the area Bir Lehlou as SADRs provisionalcapital

Human rightsThe Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe human rights abuses most notably the displacement of tens ofthousands of Sahrawi civilians from the country the expulsion of tens of thousands of Moroccan civilians by theAlgerian government from Algeria[29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] and numerous casualties of war and repressionDuring the war years (1975ndash91) both sides accused each other of targeting civilians Moroccan claims of Polisarioterrorism has generally little to no support abroad with the USA EU AU and UN all refusing to include the groupon their lists of terrorist organizations Polisario leaders maintain that they are ideologically opposed to terrorismand insist that collective punishment and forced disappearances among Sahrawi civilians [37] should be consideredstate terrorism on the part of Morocco [38] Both Morocco and the Polisario additionally accuse each other ofviolating the human rights of the populations under their control in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Saharaand the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria respectively Morocco and organizations such as France Liberteacutes considerAlgeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory and accuse the country of having beendirectly involved in such violations[39]

bull Morocco has been repeatedly criticized for its actions in Western Sahara by international human rightsorganizations such asbull Amnesty International[40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50]

bull Human Rights Watch[51] [52]

bull World Organization Against Torture[53] [54] [55]

bull Freedom House[56]

Western Sahara 8

bull Reporters Without Borders[57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63]

bull International Committee of the Red Crossbull UN High Commissioner for Human Rights[64]

bull Derechos Human Rights[65]

bull Defend International[66] [67]

bull Front Line[68] [69] [70] [71]

bull International Federation of Human Rights[72] [73] [74] [75] [76]

bull Society for Threatened Peoples[77] [78]

bull Norwegian Refugee Council[79]

bull POLISARIO has received criticism from the French organization France Libertes [80] on its treatment ofMoroccan prisoners-of-war[81] and on its general behaviour in the Tindouf refugee camps in reports by theBelgian organization ESISC [82] or European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center[83] A number of formerPolisario officials who have defected to Morocco accuse the organisation of abuse of human rights andsequestration of the population in Tindouf[84] [85]

Regions

Three Moroccan regions overlap theterritory of Western Saharabull Guelmim-Es Semara ndash also includes

Moroccan territory outside of WesternSahara

bull Laacircyoune-Boujdour-Sakia El Hamrabull Oued Ed-Dahab-LagouiraMorocco controls territory to the west of theberm (border wall) while the Polisario Frontcontrols territory to the east (see map onright)

Dispute

The Western Sahara was partitionedbetween Morocco and Mauritania in April1976 with Morocco acquiring the northerntwo-thirds of the territory[86] WhenMauritania under pressure from Polisarioguerrillas abandoned all claims to its portion in August 1979 Morocco moved to occupy that sector shortlythereafter and has since asserted administrative control over the whole territory[86] The official Moroccangovernment name for Western Sahara is the Southern Provinces which indicates Riacuteo de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra

Not under control of the Moroccan government is the area that lies between the border wall and the actual borderwith Algeria (for map [87] see external links) The Polisario Front claims to run this as the Free Zone on behalf ofthe SADR The area is patrolled by Polisario forces[88] and access is restricted even among Sahrawis due to theharsh climate of the Sahara the military conflict and the abundance of land mines[89] Still the area is traveled andinhabited by many Sahrawi nomads from the Tindouf refugee camps of Algeria and the Sahrawi communities inMauritania[90] United Nations MINURSO forces are also present in the area The UN forces oversee the cease-firebetween Polisario and Morocco agreed upon in the 1991 Settlement Plan[91]

Western Sahara 9

The Polisario forces (of the Sahrawi Peoples Liberation Army SPLA) in the area are divided into seven militaryregions each controlled by a top commander reporting to the President of the Polisario proclaimed Sahrawi ArabDemocratic Republic[92] The total size of the Polisarios guerrilla army present in this area is unknown but it isbelieved to number a few thousand men despite many combantants being demobilized due to the cease-fire[93]

These forces are dug into permanent positions such as gun emplacements defensive trenches and undergroundmilitary bases as well as conducting mobile patrols of the territory[94]

Tifariti 2005

Major Sahrawi political events such as Polisario congresses andsessions of the Sahrawi National Council (the SADR parliament inexile) are held in the Free Zone (especially in Tifariti and Bir Lehlou)since it is considered politically and symbolically important to conductpolitical affairs on Sahrawi territory In 2005 MINURSO lodged acomplaint to the Security Council of the United Nations for militarymaneuvers with real fire which extends to restricted areas byMorocco[95] A concentration of forces for the commemoration of theSaharawi Republicrsquos 30th anniversary[96] were however subject tocondemnation by the United Nations[97] as it was considered anexample of a cease-fire violation to bring such a large force

concentration into the area In late 2009 Morocco do military maneuvers on Umm Dreiga in the exclusion zoneviolating the cease-fire Both parties have been accused of such violations by the UN but to date there has been noserious hostile action from either side since 1991

Annual demonstrations against the Moroccan Wall are staged in the region by Sahrawis and international activistsfrom Spain Italy and other mainly European countries These actions are closely monitored by the UN[98]

During the joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control of the area the Mauritanian-controlled part roughly correspondingto Saquia el-Hamra was known as Tiris al-Gharbiyya

CommunicationsDue to lack of international recognition the International Telecommunications Union does not assign call signprefixes for broadcast experimental or amateur communications As such amateur radio operators have adopted SOslashas a call sign prefix rather than one from either of the CNA-CNZ or 5CA-5GZ prefix blocks assigned toMorocco[99] SOslash is unassigned by the ITU DX-peditions composed of Spanish Italian and Russian amateurs havetraveled to Tifariti in the Western Sahara desert near the Mauritania border in 2003 2006 and 2009 operationing asSOslash5X SOslash1R and SOslash4R respectively

GeographyWestern Sahara is located in Northern Africa bordering the North Atlantic Ocean between Mauritania andMorocco It also borders Algeria to the northeast The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planetbut is rich in phosphates in Bou Craa

EconomyAside from its rich phosphate deposits and fishing waters Western Sahara has few natural resources and lackssufficient rainfall for most agricultural activities There is speculation that there may be rich off-shore oil and naturalgas fields but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited and if this would belegally permitted due to the non-decolonized status of Western Sahara (see below)Western Saharas economy is centred around nomadic herding fishing and phosphate mining Most food for the urban population is imported All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government

Western Sahara 10

The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving subsidies and price controls on basicgoods These heavy subsidies have created a state-dominated economy in the Moroccan-controlled parts of WesternSahara with the Moroccan government as the single biggest employerDue to the disputed nature of Moroccan sovereignty over the territory the application of international accordsWestern Sahara is highly ambiguous and political leadership of trade agreement signatories such as the United States(US-Morocco Free Trade Agreement) and Norway (European Free Trade Association trade accord) have madestatements as to its these agreements non-applicability although practical policy application is ambiguous[100] [101]

[102]

Exploitation of natural resources

Satellite image of Western Sahara generatedfrom raster graphics data supplied by The Map

Library

After reasonably exploitable oil fields were located in neighbouringMauritania speculation intensified on the possibility of major oilresources being located off the coast of Western Sahara Despite thefact that findings remain inconclusive both Morocco and the Polisariohave signed deals with oil and gas exploration companies US andFrench companies (notably Total and Kerr-McGee) began prospectingon behalf of the Moroccan Office National de Recherches etdrsquoExploitations Petroliegraveres (ONAREP)[103]

In 2002 Hans Corell Under-Secretary General of the United Nationsand head of its Office of Legal Affairs issued a legal opinion on thematter[103] The opinion was rendered following an analysis of relevantprovisions of the Charter of the United Nations the United NationsGeneral Assembly resolutions the case law of the International Courtof Justice and the practice of States[103] It concluded that while the existing exploration contracts for the area werenot illegal if further exploration and exploitation activities were to proceed in disregard of the interests and wishesof the people of Western Sahara they would be in violation of the principles of international law[103] Afterpressures from corporate ethics-groups Total SA pulled out in late 2004[104]

In May 2006 the remaining company Kerr-McGee also left following sales of numerous share holders like theNational Norwegian Oil Fund due to continued pressure from NGOs and corporate groups[105] Despite the UN report and the development regarding the exploration of oil the European Union wants to exploitfishing resources in waters outside Western Sahara and has signed a fishing treaty with MoroccoIn a previously confidential legal opinion (published in 23 February 2010 although it was forwarded in July 2009)the European Parliamentrsquos Legal Service opined that fishing by European vessels under a current EU - Moroccofishing agreement covering the Western Sahararsquos waters is in violation of international law[106]

Western Sahara 11

Demographics

Town in Western Sahara

The indigenous population of Western Sahara isknown as Sahrawis These areHassaniya-speaking tribes of mixedArabndashBerber heritage effectively continuationsof the tribal groupings of Hassaniya speakingMoorish tribes extending south into Mauritaniaand north into Morocco as well as east intoAlgeria The Sahrawis are traditionally nomadicbedouins and can be found in all surroundingcountries War and conflict has led to majordisplacements of the population

As of July 2004 an estimated 267405 people(excluding the Moroccan army of some 160000)lived in the Moroccan-controlled parts ofWestern Sahara Many people from parts ofMorocco outside of the Southern Provinces have come to live in the area and these latest arrivals are today thoughtto outnumber the indigenous Western Sahara Sahrawis The precise size and composition of the population is subjectto political controversy

The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren This area has a very small population estimated to beapproximately 30000 in 2008[107] The population is primarily made up of nomads who engage in herding camelsback and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania However the presence of mines scattered throughout theterritory by the Moroccan army makes it a dangerous way of life

The Spanish census and MINURSOA 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition toapproximately 20000 Spanish residents) but this number is likely to be on the low side due to the difficulty incounting a nomad people even if Sahrawis were by the mid-1970s mostly urbanized Despite these possibleinaccuracies Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on using the Spanish census as the basis for voter registrationwhen striking a cease-fire agreement in the late 1980s contingent on the holding of a referendum on independenceor integration into Morocco

Western Sahara 12

El Mchaouar square at El Aaiuacuten Western Sahara

In December 1999 the United NationsMINURSO mission announced that it hadidentified 86425 eligible voters for thereferendum that was supposed to be heldunder the 1991 Settlement plan and the 1997Houston accords By eligible voter the UNreferred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of agethat was part of the Spanish census or couldprove hisher descent from someone who wasThese 86425 Sahrawis were dispersedbetween Moroccan-controlled Western Saharaand the refugee camps in Algeria with smallernumbers in Mauritania and other places ofexile These numbers cover only Sahrawisindigenous to the Western Sahara during theSpanish colonial period not the total numberof ethnic Sahrawis (ie members of Sahrawi tribal groupings) who also extend into Mauritania Morocco andAlgeria The number was highly politically significant due to the expected organization of a referendum onself-determination

The Polisario has its home base in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria and declares the number of Sahrawipopulation in the camps to be approximately 155000 Morocco disputes this number saying it is exaggerated forpolitical reasons and for attracting more foreign aid The UN uses a number of 90000 most vulnerable refugees asbasis for its food aid program

CultureThe major ethnic group of the Western Sahara are the Sahrawis a nomadic or Bedouin tribal or ethnic groupspeaking the Hassānīya dialect of Arabic also spoken in much of Mauritania They are of mixed Arab-Berberdescent but claim descent from the Beni Hassan a Yemeni tribe supposed to have migrated across the desert in the11th centuryPhysically indistinguishable from the Hassaniya speaking Moors of Mauritania the Sahrawi people differ from theirneighbors partly due to different tribal affiliations (as tribal confederations cut across present modern boundaries)and partly as a consequence of their exposure to Spanish colonial domination Surrounding territories were generallyunder French colonial ruleLike other neighboring Saharan Bedouin and Hassaniya groups the Sahrawis are Muslims of the Sunni sect and theMaliki fiqh Local religious custom (urf) is like other Saharan groups heavily influenced by pre-Islamic Berber andAfrican practices and differs substantially from urban practices For example Sahrawi Islam has traditionallyfunctioned without mosques in the normal sense of the word in an adaptation to nomadic lifeThe originally clan- and tribe-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975 when a part of thepopulation was forced into exile by the Polisario and settled in the refugee camps of Tindouf Algeria where theyremain sequestrated till now Families were broken up by the dispute For developments among this population seeSahrawi and Tindouf Province

Western Sahara 13

Notes and references[1] Regions and territories Western Sahara (http news bbc co uk 2 hi africa country_profiles 3466917 stm) BBC 2010-11-09

Retrieved 25 November 2010[2] QampA Western Sahara clashes (http www bbc co uk news world-africa-11712267) BBC 2010-11-08 Retrieved 25 November

2010[3] Jensen Erik (2005) Western Sahara Anatomy Of A Stalemate (http books google com booksid=vYLuOGyDBjsCamp lpg=PA48amp

dq=western sahara capitalamp pg=PP1v=snippetamp q=capital of western saharaamp f=false) International Peace Academy Occasional PaperSeries Lynne Rienner Publishers p 48 ISBN 1588263053

[4] Western Sahara (http www britannica com EBchecked topic 640800 Western-Sahara) Encyclopaeligdia Britannica Online 2010 Retrieved 25 November 2010

[5] Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009) (PDF) World Population Prospects Table A1 (http www unorg esa population publications wpp2008 wpp2008_text_tables pdf) 2008 revision United Nations Retrieved 2009-03-12

[6] Whitfield Teresa Friends Indeed The United Nations Groups of Friends and the Resolution of Conflict 2007 page 191[7] MINURSO United Nations mission for the Referendum in The Western Sahara - 1991 to today (http www un org spanish Depts dpko

minurso MINURSOamp 911amp 93 pdf)[8] France is Moroccos leading trade partner and the leading source of public development aid and private investment It also endorses

Moroccos autonomy plan for Western Sahara (http www unhcr org refworld countryESH456d621e249705f97c0 html)[9] Baehr Peter R The United Nations at the End of the 1990s 1999 page 129[10] Arab League supports Moroccos Territorial Integrity (http www arabicnews com ansub Daily Day 990108 1999010849 html)

Arabic News Morocco-Regional Politics January 8 1999 Retrieved August 24 2006[11] Arab League Withdraws Inaccurate Moroccan maps (http www arabicnews com ansub Daily Day 981217 1998121758 html)

Arabic News Regional-Morocco Politics December 17 1998 Retrieved August 24 2006[12] Handloff Robert The West Sudanic Empires (http www shsu edu ~his_ncp WestSud html) Federal Research Division of the

Library of Congress Retrieved 3 September 2009[13] ICE Conflict Case ZSahara (http www1 american edu ted ice sahara htm)[14] Tomaacutes Baacuterbulo La historia prohibida del Saacutehara Espantildeol Destino Imago mundi Volume 21 2002 Page 292[15] http www nato-pa int archivedpub trip as79gsm993-morocco asp[16] United Nations Security Council S-2000-461 (http www undemocracy com S-2000-461Documentamp 32) on 22 May 2000 (retrieved

2007-08-10)[17] CountryWatch - Interesting Facts Of The World (http www countrywatch com facts facts_default aspxtype=textamp topic=SEWSA)[18] Shelley Toby Behind the Baker Plan for Western Sahara (http www merip org mero mero080103 html) Middle East Report Online

August 1 2003 Retrieved August 24 2006[19] Western Sahara Baker Resigns As UN Mediator After Seven Years (http allafrica com stories 200406141270 html)[20] (http www timesnews co ke 04apr06 insight ins4 html)[21] http www map ma eng sections politics king_informs_governm view[22] http www afrol com articles 18964[23] Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara (13 April 2007) (http daccessdds un org doc UNDOC

GEN N07 299 28 PDF N0729928 pdfOpenElement)(ped) UN Security Council Retrieved on 2007-05-18[24] Deadly clashes as Morocco breaks up Western Sahara camp (http www bbc co uk news world-africa-11710400) BBC 2010-09-11

Retrieved 2010-11-13[25] Black Ian (First published 2010-Nov 15) New expulsions of Spanish citizens from Western Sahara (http www ) (in

English) (PDF) El Pais English edn circulated with Herald International Retrieved 2010-Nov 15[26] cite web |last = |first = |title = Deadly clashes stall western Sahara-Morocco peace talks |url=http www guardian co uk world 2010

nov 12 western-sahara-peace-talks-stall |authorlink = |coauthors = |work = |publisher = Guardian Newspapers UK |language= English |date =First published 2010-Nov 12 |format = HTMLPHP |accessdate = 2010-Nov 15

[27] Thobhani Akbarali Western Sahara Since 1975 Under Moroccan Administration Social Economic and Political Transformation EdwinMellen Press ISBN 0773471731

[28] http www nrc no arch _img 9258989 pdf Norwegian Refugee Council Report Western Sahara Occupied country displaced people2008

[29] MarocAlgeacuterie Bluff et petites manœuvres (http www telquel-online com 189 couverture_189_1 shtml) Telquel not in English[30] Aljazeeranet (http www aljazeera net news archive archiveArchiveId=316911) not in English[31] La Reacutepudiation massive de lrsquoAlgeacuterie des colonels (http www lagazettedumaroc com articles phpr=7amp sr=959amp n=409amp

id_artl=5975) La Gazette Du Maroc February 28 2005 not in English[32] Jugement Dernier (http www maroc-hebdo press ma MHinternet Archives_435 html_435 jugement html) Maroc Hebdo

International not in English[33] Le Drame des 40000 (http cinemanageria ifrance com cine_maroc films_marocains 82 htmdrame) cinemanageriaifrancecom not

in English

Western Sahara 14

[34] Mohamed Elyazghi au Matin du Sahara Solution politique au Sahara et refondation de nos relations avec Alger (http www usfp maarticle phpt=4amp id=46) USFP not in English

[35] La mal-vie des Marocains dAlgeacuterie (http web archive org web 20071013180223 http minorites org article phpIDA=7531)Minoriteacutesorg

[36] Revue de Presse des Quotidiens (http www ambafrance-ma org presse index cfmpjour=1amp jr=20060728)[37] http web amnesty org web ar2001 nsf webmepcountries MOROCCO+ AND+ WESTERN+ SAHARAOpenDocument[38] http www arso org akhbar2 htm[39] Moroccos Memorandum to UN unveils Algiers responsibility in Sahara conflict political parties (http www arabicnews com ansub

Daily Day 040929 2004092916 html) Arabic News Morocco-Algeria Politics September 29 2004[40] MoroccoWestern Sahara Broken Promises The Equity and Reconciliation Commission and its Follow-up (http www amnesty org en

library info MDE29 001 2010 en)[41] MoroccoWestern Sahara No more half measures Addressing enforced disappearances in Morocco and Western Sahara (http www

amnesty org en library info MDE29 005 2009 en)[42] Morocco Western Sahara Further Information on UA 1608 - Fear of unfair imprisonment Prisoners of conscience Health concern (http

www amnesty org en library info MDE29 004 2008 en)[43] Morocco Western Sahara Three yearsrsquo imprisonment for putting a profile of Prince Moulay Rachid on Facebook (http www amnesty

org en library info MDE29 005 2008 en)[44] MoroccoWestern Sahara New arrests and allegations of torture of Sahrawi human rights defenders (http www amnesty org en library

info MDE29 004 2005 en)[45] MoroccoWestern Sahara Justice must begin with torture inquiries (http www amnesty org en library info MDE29 003 2005 en)[46] MoroccoWestern Sahara Torture of detainees must end (http www amnesty org en library info MDE29 008 2004 en)[47] MoroccoWestern Sahara Torture in the anti-terrorism campaign - the case of Teacutemara detention centre (http www amnesty org en

library info MDE29 004 2004 en)[48] MoroccoWestern Sahara Briefing to the Committee against torture (November 2003) (http www amnesty org en library info

MDE29 011 2003 en)[49] MoroccoWestern Sahara reports of secret detention and torture on the rise (http www amnesty org en library info MDE29 001

2003 en)[50] Morocco and Western Sahara Human Rights (http www amnestyusa org all-countries morocco-and-western-sahara page

doid=1011203)[51] MoroccoWestern Sahara Activists Need Fair Trial (http hrw org english docs 2005 12 10 morocc12183 htm)[52] WESTERN SAHARA KEEPING IT SECRET - THE UNITED NATIONS OPERATION IN THE WESTERN SAHARA (http www

hrw org reports 1995 Wsahara htm)[53] http www omct org base cfmpage=articleamp num=6130amp consol=closeamp kwrd=OMCTamp cfid=4407045amp cftoken=75311945[54] http www omct org base cfmpage=articleamp num=5983amp consol=closeamp kwrd=OMCTamp cfid=4407045amp cftoken=75311945amp

SWITCHLNG=ES[55] http www omct org base cfmpage=articleamp num=6233amp consol=closeamp kwrd=OMCTamp cfid=4407045amp cftoken=75311945amp

SWITCHLNG=FR[56] Western Sahara [Morocco] (2006) (http www freedomhouse org template cfmpage=22amp year=2006amp country=7106)[57] Swedish photographer expelled from Western Sahara a day after his arrest (http en rsf org spip phppage=articleamp id_article=21059)[58] Journalist assaulted in the name of Moroccan control of Western Sahara (http en rsf org spip phppage=articleamp id_article=13920)[59] Journalists working in Western Sahara face assaults arrests and harassment (http en rsf org spip phppage=articleamp id_article=14119)[60] Western Sahara government corruption and palace life are all off-limits for the press (http en rsf org spip phppage=articleamp

id_article=13197)[61] Two Norwegian journalists threatened with expulsion (http en rsf org spip phppage=articleamp id_article=10696)[62] Morocco puts US censorship busting site Anonymizercom on its black list (http en rsf org spip phppage=articleamp id_article=15809)[63] Appeal court upholds exorbitant damages award against Journal Hebdomadaire (http en rsf org spip phppage=articleamp

id_article=17166)[64] Report of the OHCHR to Western Sahara amp the refugee camps in Tindouf 2006 (http www arso org OHCHRrep2006en pdf)[65] Human rights in Morocco amp Western Sahara (http www derechos org human-rights mena moro )[66] Wave of arrests in Western Sahara (http www defendinternational com index phpoption=com_contentamp task=viewamp id=191amp

Itemid=126)[67] Morocco Protect And Preserve Mass Grave Sites (http www defendinternational com index phpoption=com_contentamp task=viewamp

id=153amp Itemid=126)[68] Western Sahara UPDATE - Human rights defenders on hunger strike in protest at continued arbitrary detention (http www

frontlinedefenders org node 2436)[69] Western Sahara Severe beating of human rights defender Mr Mohammed al-Tahleel by security forces (http www frontlinedefenders

org node 2154)[70] Western Sahara Torture and solitary confinement of human rights defender Mr Yahya Mohamed el Hafed Aaza (http www

frontlinedefenders org node 1932)

Western Sahara 15

[71] Western Sahara Systematic repression of human rights defenders (http www frontlinedefenders org node 1585)[72] Arrestation de M Duihi Hassan (http www fidh org Sahara-occidental-Arrestation-de-M-Duihi-Hassan) (French)[73] Harcelement a lencontre de Mme Elghalia Dijim et M Duihi Hassan (http www fidh org

Harcelement-a-l-encontre-de-Mme-Elghalia-Dijim-et) (French)[74] Deacutetentions arbitraires - Poursuites judiciaires - Mauvais traitements (http www fidh org

Detentions-arbitraires-Poursuites-judiciaires3433)[75] Nouvelle condamnation dun militant sahraoui (http www fidh org Nouvelle-condamnation-d-un-militant-sahraoui) (French)[76] Apregraves linterdiction de trois hebdomadaires au Maroc RSF et la FIDH deacutenoncent une deacutecision inique et inacceptable (http www fidh

org Apres-l-interdiction-de-trois-hebdomadaires-au) (French)[77] EU ignores violations of human rights in Morocco and West Sahara (http www gfbv de pressemit phpid=2204amp stayInsideTree=1)[78] Almost 700 arrested in the year 2006 (http www gfbv de pressemit phpid=807amp stayInsideTree=1)[79] Occupied Country Displaced People (http www nrc no did=9258996)[80] http www france-libertes fr[81] The Conditions of Detentions of the Moroccan POWs Detained in Tindouf (Algeria) (http web archive org web 20051211175842

http www freethemnow org FranceLiberte pdf)[82] http www esisc org[83] THE POLISARIO FRONT AND THE IRA Two approaches to the process of negotiation (http www esisc net en p

aspTYP=TEWNamp LV=187amp see=yamp t=37amp PG=TEWN EN detail_osamp l=8amp AI=1840)[84] Quatregraveme Commission Le Maroc rest attacheacute au plan de regraveglement et a la tenue dun reacutefeacuterendum transparent au Sahara Occidental (http

www un org News fr-press docs 1996 19961010 CPSD108 html)[85] http www arabicnews com ansub Daily Day 991105 1999110536 html Report Clan wars and unavoidable scission in Tindouf

defectors][86] https www cia gov library publications the-world-factbook geos wi html CIA The World Factbook 2006 lsquoWestern Sahararsquo 266[87] http www un org Depts Cartographic map dpko minurso pdf[88] http www newint org issue297 wall html Up Against the Wall Chris Brazier New Internationalist Magazine (297) December 1998

bull Land Mine Report Western Sahara http www icbl org lm 2006 western_sahara htmlLandmine Action UK undertook preliminary survey work by visiting the Polisario-controlled area of Western Sahara in October 2005 andFebruaryndashMarch 2006 A field assessment in the vicinity of Bir Lahlou Tifariti and the berms revealed that the densest concentrations ofmines are in front of the berms Mines were laid in zigzags up to one meter apart and in some parts of the berms there are three rows ofmines[15] There are also berms in the Moroccan-controlled zone around Dakhla and stretching from Boujdour including Smara on theMoroccan border[16] However mine-laying was not restricted to the vicinity of the berms occupied settlements throughout thePolisario-controlled areas such as Bir Lahlou and Tifariti are ringed by mines laid by Moroccan forces

bull Landmine Action UK (http www landmineaction org resources aspitem=research )ldquoExplosive Ordnance Disposal and technicalsurvey in Polisario-controlled areas of Western Saharardquo Project proposal February 2006 pp 2ndash4 quoted in Land Mine Report WesternSahara footnote 15 and 17

[90] http www nrc no arch _img 9258989 pdf Norwegian Refugee Council Report Western Sahara Occupied country displaced people2008

[91] http www un org Depts dpko missions minurso mandate html MINURSO homepage - mandate Accessed May 21 2006

bull http www arso org bhatia2001 htm Western Sahara under Polisario Control Summary Report of Field Mission to the SahrawiRefugee Camps (near Tindouf Algeria) by Michael Bhatia 2001

bull http www newint org issue297 wall html Up Against the Wall Chris Brazier New Internationalist Magazine (297) December1998

[93] http www arso org bhatia2001 htm Western Sahara under Polisario Control Summary Report of Field Mission to the Sahrawi RefugeeCamps (near Tindouf Algeria) by Michael Bhatia 2001

bull http www guardian co uk Archive Article 04273413221300 html Saharan rebels stranded in camps casualties of the stalematebetween Morocco and the Algerian-backed Polisario rebels 100000 refugees subsist on aid by Rory Carroll in Tifarity GuardianWednesday February 7 2001

bull http www newint org issue297 wall html New Internationalist Chris Brazier Up Against the Wall New Internationalist Magazine(297) December 1998

[95] http www canariasahora com documentos 8119b2af172030e86f14c5f746e9347d pdf MINURSO complaint to the UN SecurityCouncil (Spanish)

[96] http www spsrasd info sps-e270206 html Commemoration of the Saharawi Republicrsquos 30th anniversary in liberated territories ofWestern Sahara Sahara Press Service February 27 2006

[97] United Nations Security Council S-2006-249 (http www undemocracy com S-2006-249Documentamp 32) on 19 April 2006 (retrieved2007-08-10)

[98] http www un org Docs journal asp ws aspm=S 2006 249 Secretary Generals report to Security Council on Western Sahara 19April 2006 (pdf file)

[99] Table of Allocation of International Call Sign Series (http life itu ch radioclub rr ap42 htm)

Western Sahara 16

[100] Rep Pitts lauds protection of Sahrawis in Morocco trade pact (http www house gov pitts press releases 040722r-FTAwsahara htm)[101] Western Sahara excluded from EFTA-Morocco free trade agreement (http www spsrasd info en detail phpid=11569) SPS

12-05-2010 Retrieved 13-05-2010[102] Western Sahara not part of EFTA-Morocco free trade (http www afrol com articles 36091) Afrol news 13-05-2010 Retrieved

14-05-2010[103] United Nations Security Council S-2002-161 (http www undemocracy com S-2002-161Documentamp 32) on 12 February 2002

(retrieved 2007-08-10)[104] Upstream Online Total turns its back on Dakhla block 2004 (http www wsrw org index phpcat=193amp art=1500) Western Sahara

Resource Watch 03-12-2004 Retrieved 02-09-2010[105] Last oil company withdraws from Western Sahara (http www afrol com articles 19029) Afrol News 02-05-2006 Retrieved

01-10-2010[106] (http www wsrw org index phpparse_news=singleamp cat=105amp art=1348)[107] http www nrc no arch _img 9258989 pdf Norwegian Refugee Council Report Western Sahara Occupied country + displaced

people 2008

Further readingbull Hodges Tony (1983) Western Sahara The Roots of a Desert War Lawrence Hill Books ISBN 0882081527bull Pazzanita Anthony G Hodges Tony (1994) Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara Scarecrow Press

ISBN 0810826615bull Shelley Toby (2004) Endgame in the Western Sahara What Future for Africas Last Colony Zed Books

ISBN 1842773410bull Jensen Erik (2005) Western Sahara Anatomy of a Stalemate International Peace Studies ISBN 1588263053

External linksGeneral informationbull Country Profile (http news bbc co uk 1 hi world africa country_profiles 3466917 stm) from BBC Newsbull CIA World Factbook Western Sahara (https www cia gov library publications the-world-factbook geos wi

html)bull Western Sahara (https www cia gov library publications the-world-factbook geos wi html) entry at The

World Factbookbull Western Sahara (http www dmoz org Regional Africa Western_Sahara ) at the Open Directory Projectbull Wikimedia Atlas of Western Saharabull Western Sahara travel guide from WikitravelUnited Nationsbull The United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) (http www minurso unlb

org )bull MINURSO Deployment map (http www un org Depts Cartographic map dpko minurso pdf) as of

February 2009bull Reports of the UN Secretary General (http www un org depts dpko missions minurso reports html)Human Rightsbull Amnesty International (http www amnesty org en region moroccowestern-sahara) Human rights in

Morocco and Western-Saharabull Human Rights Watch (http www hrw org en middle-eastn-africa morocco western-sahara) Human rights in

Morocco and Western-Saharabull The Sahrawi Association of Victims of Grave Human Rights Violations Committed by the Moroccan

State(ASVDH) (http asvdh net english )bull Association for the Families of Sahrawi Prisoners and the Disappeared (AFAPREDESA) (http www

afapredesa org index php)

Western Sahara 17

Otherbull News headline links (http allafrica com westernsahara ) from AllAfricacombull Western Sahara Project (http www cru uea ac uk ~e118 WS wsahara htm) archaeology and past

environmental change in Western Saharabull The largest prison in the world landmines walls UXOs and the UNs role in the Western Sahara (http www

genevacall org news in-the-press f-in-the-press 2001-2010 2007-17apr-gees pdf) Pablo San Martiacuten amp JoannaC Allan GEES 2007

bull Western Sahara Landmine Monitor Report 2008 (http lm icbl org index php publications displayurl=lm2008 countries western_sahara html)

bull Jacob Mundy - Seized of the Matter The UN and the Western Sahara Dispute (http muse jhu edu journalsmediterranean_quarterly v015 15 3mundy pdf)PDF On the Baker Plan debate

bull Association de soutien agrave un reacutefeacuterendum libre et reacutegulier au Sahara Occidental a multilingual resource (http www arso org )

bull Western Sahara Online (pro-Morocco) (http www westernsaharaonline net )bull Western Sahara - A Forgotten Country (http dspace dial pipex com suttonlink 334ws pdf)PDF (998 KiB)bull Sahara Press Service (http spsrasd info ) Official Sahrawi press agencybull Sahara Update (http groups yahoo com group sahara-update ) Newsbull Western Sahara Resource Watch (http www wsrw org)bull Sahara Occidental (http saharaoccidental blogspot com) News in English French Spanish and Germanbull Moroccan Forces Raid Protest Camp in Western Sahara Thousands Demonstrate in Madrid (http www

democracynow org 2010 11 15 moroccan_forces_raid_protest_camp_in) - video report by Democracy Now

Article Sources and Contributors 18

Article Sources and ContributorsWestern Sahara Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphpoldid=410492300 Contributors -- April 1717 A Jalil A-giau A314268 ACW Aaker Abdel Noor Acelor AdamBMorganAdrianbrodal Aesopos Ahkond Ahuskay Akanemoto Alagemo Alan Liefting AlefZet AlgeriaLove Alinor Andre Engels Andy Marchbanks AndySimpson Angela Angr AntandrusAnthere Aris Katsaris Arre Art LaPella Asterion Atitarev Avala Axeman89 AzaToth B00P Baronnet Baseball Watcher Behemoth Beland Bender235 Big Adamsky Biruitorul BjarteBjoslashrsvik Bkell Bkonrad Blahma Blessthishouse Blisco Bobblewik Bokpasa Bradtcordeiro Briaboru Brian Boru is awesome Brianski Bryan Derksen Buffadren Bumm13 Cajamarcaexpress CambridgeBayWeather Cantus Caponer Carusus Causteau Cburnett Cdc ChanochGruenman Che829 Chipmunkdavis Collounsbury CommonsDelinker Conte di CavourConversion script Corvus13 Courcelles Credema Cuaks Curps Cwolfsheep Cybercobra D6 DBaba DabMachine Danno uk Danny Dante Alighieri Dark Shikari Dark side DarwinekDaryou David Kernow David spector Davidme DeadEyeArrow Deflective Delirium Demicx Den fjaumlttrade ankan Deror avi Descendall Dexcel Dietlind DivineIntervention DmacDocendoDiscimus Dominic Domino theory Donald Albury Doprendek Drbug Drumguy8800 Dtrebbien Dvd Avins E Pluribus Anthony Eagle1075 Ecksemmess Ed Poor EffeietsandersEl C ElNuevoEinstein Electionworld ElectricEye Ellsworth Emdanith EncycloPetey Enviroboy Esn Espetkov Ewlyahoocom FayssalF Fibonacci Finngall Fjmustak Flatterworld FoobarFrancisTyers Frangibility Frankie816 Friedfish Frontlinefilm Fuhghettaboutit Gadfium Gaius Cornelius Gidonb Gilliam Giraffedata Glane23 Goatchurch Gogo Dodo Golbez GoodOlfactory GrandfatherJoe Greatestrowerever Green Giant Grenavitar Gribeco Grm wnr Guest9999 HCPUNXKID HXL49 Hadal Hairy Dude Hashar HeartofaDog HibernianHihellowhatsup Hu12 IJA Ian Pitchford Icairns Iceshark7 Idont Havaname Ilyacadiz Immunize Inkypaws Iokseng Iridescent IronGargoyle Itai Jraxis J04n JLaTondre JacobjoseJahangard Jalal nali JamesR Jayjg Jimp Jklamo JoSePh Joaoleitao John Vandenberg Jojit fb Jonathanskt Jorunn Joseph Solis in Australia Joy Jtkiefer Jusdafax Jw6aa Kafka1 KaldariKarl-Henner Kelisi Kf4bdy Khalid hassani Kimse Kintetsubuffalo Kmusser Knorpel Knutux Koavf Kolins Kostya Wiki Kotkoto Kotniski Koyaanis Qatsi KoyaanisQatsi KralizecKwamikagami L Kensington Laduqesa LailaKes Larry Mudd Laufey Lexicon LiDaobing Librarian2 Lilac Soul Livajo Lucas(CA) Lucinos Lusanaherandraton MJCdetroit MSGJMaartenvdbent Mabuhelwa Magicus69 Mahmudmasri Malhonen Manicsleeper ManuelGR Marrakech 2007 Mashford Mauls McDogm Mentifisto Merenta Mfv2 Miaow Miaow MicMichael Hardy Milkbreath Mingshey Mitch1981 Mnmazur Modulatum Mokonono Morwen Moszczynski Mr Minchin Murraybuckley Mustafaa Mzmadmike NawlinWiki NburdenNeilN Nickbrooks Night w Nine999999999s Nlu NoGringo Northumbrian Notheruser Nyttend Ohnoitsjamie Olegwiki Omar-Toons Omelet4th Open2universe Oreo PriestOwnlyanangel PBP PDH Palmpilot900 Panarjedde Pascal Patrick Patrick-br Pechke Pgan002 Pigman Pinethicket Pokrajac Polaron Profoss Puddhe Purpleturple Pylambert PzalmsRnB RG2 Radon210 Ramirez72 Rarelibra Raymond Cruise Rd232 Red King Redking7 Redthoreau Reisio Rettetast Rich Farmbrough Ricky81682 Rjwilmsi Rlquall Robdurbar RobertK S Rockfang Roke Roleplayer Romanm RookZERO Royalmate1 Rwv37 S710 S711 SU Linguist Saberwolf116 Saforrest Sam Hocevar Sam benji SamEV Samantha555SantiRelloVarona Scaife Sdownard Seanhoyland SeanMack Secfan SelfQ Seth Ilys Shanes Shaskouri SimonP Slashme SophisticatedPrimate Speedboy Salesman Spike Wilbury StanShebs StarbucksFreak Stephen G Brown Str1977 SunCreator Sunray Super-Magician Suruena Susvolans Sven70 Swikid THB TUF-KAT Tahaex Tallal Tannin Tashfine Techman224Template namespace initialisation script The Anome The Giant Puffin The Thing That Should Not Be The Transhumanist The darkman ali TheEgyptian Thecurran Thedavid ThehelpfuloneTimc Timpo Tjmayerinsf Tobias Conradi Toussaint Treyw Twas Now Twinxor Undeponte Vague Rant Valenciano Van der Hoorn Varag Vardion Viajero VirtualDelightVis-a-visconti Vital component Vlma111 Vsmith WHATaintNOcountryIeverHEARDofDOtheySPEAKenglishINwhat Waggers Waldir Wandermahet WhisperToMe Wik Wikima WillBeback Auto Willem Tijssen Wmahan Xiquet Yohan euan o4 Yom Yst Yyy Zazaban Zeno Gantner Zer0fighta Zero Gravity Zigger Zscout370 Zundark 436 anonymous edits

Image Sources Licenses and ContributorsFileLocationWesternSaharasvg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileLocationWesternSaharasvg License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 25 ContributorsUserVardionImageWi-mappng Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileWi-mappng License Public Domain Contributors Dubaduba Electionworld Kintetsubuffalo Ras67ImageWestern sahara walls moroccanpng Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileWestern_sahara_walls_moroccanpng License GNU Free Documentation License Contributors UserRokeImageWestern sahara landscape (north)jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileWestern_sahara_landscape_(north)jpg License GNU Free Documentation License Contributors UserStAnImageLaayoune-miltary checkpointjpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileLaayoune-miltary_checkpointjpg License GNU Free Documentation License ContributorsUserStAnImageWesternsaharamappng Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileWesternsaharamappng License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 25 Contributors EcemamlKmusser 1 anonymous editsImageTifariti 2005jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileTifariti_2005jpg License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 25 Contributors AlbertoDVHCPUNXKID Juiced lemon Masen 2 anonymous editsImageWestern_Sahara_satpng Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileWestern_Sahara_satpng License unknown Contributors Cwolfsheep Lokal Profil Martin HImageEmpty Town Western SaharaJPG Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileEmpty_Town_Western_SaharaJPG License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 30 Contributors UserDexcelImageLayounejpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileLayounejpg License Public Domain Contributors UserIfni95

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 30 Unportedhttp creativecommons org licenses by-sa 3 0