Western CivilizationWestern CivilizationHIS 102 HIS 102

Europe on the Threshold of Modernity,1715-1789

There were several revolutions that took place during this time period, and not all involved violence and bloodshed

The first was a revolution in thought – in politics, economics, social justice, and religion

It was the notion that human beings, using rational thinking, could understand nature and be able to transform society

The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment

These ideas appealed to the public and also to some rulers

This revolution in thought was called The Enlightenment and it was responsible for sparking other revolutions: economic, social, and political (American and French Revolutions)

The Enlightenment took hold in the 18th century

The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment

It was the result of Renaissance questioning, discoveries of the Scientific Revolution, and changes to agriculture

It began in FranceFrancois-Marie Arouet, better known as

Voltaire, inaugurated the European Enlightenment when he published his Philosophical Letters Concerning the English Nation

VoltaireVoltaire

Age of Reason/ EnlightenmentAge of Reason/ Enlightenment

This time was also called the Age of ReasonThe Enlightenment began at the end of

the17th century by those who wished to spread the ideas from the Scientific Revolution

These ideas gained popularity in the 18th century

Attempts were made to apply the scientific method to human behavior and social institutions – to look at it more objectively

The intellectuals tried to apply this scientific reasoning to ethics, politics, economics, and to society in general

The thinkers of the Enlightenment were for reform, change, and progress

The movement was centered in Western Europe

Southern and Eastern Europe were relatively un affected

It was initially limited to the elite of the urban aristocracy and the middle class

The ideas of the Enlightenment came to dominate “civilized” thinking for the next 2 centuries

The PhilosophesThe Philosophes

Intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known as Philosophes or thinkers

They asked questions that required reasoning like “How do we discover truth?”

The intellectuals were not usually formally trained

They were more literary than scientifically trained

Often they discussed, applied, and popularized the ideas of others rather than coming up with new ideas

There were many who did write plays, histories, satires, novels, encyclopedia entries, or pamphlets

Most attended discussion groups called salons

The most famous was the salon of Madame Geoffrin

Salon of Madame GeoffrinSalon of Madame Geoffrin

Madame GeoffrinMadame Geoffrin

The philosophes came up with the philosophy of the Enlightenment and popularized it in Western Europe and in the American colonies

Voltaire was one of the leading philosophes◦Spent 2 years living in Britain after being

released from a French jail for his ideas◦Wrote and spoke of the superiority of the

British and their system of government

Voltaire said the British:◦practiced religious toleration◦were not directly under the thumb of the clergy◦valued their people for what they did, not for who

they were by birth◦government controlled and limited the power of the

King◦highly respected scientists, poets, and philosophers

Voltaire also attacked the French clergy, nobility, and monarch

Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters went through 5 editions the very first year

It went through 10 editions in 10 yearsIt was officially banned and burned which

helped its popularityAnd it started the Enlightenment

There were other important philosophes

Other Enlightenment FiguresOther Enlightenment Figures

Adam Smith (1723-1790)◦Scottish economist◦Wrote The Wealth of Nations◦Advocated a laissez-faire economy that meant

no government intervention, leave it alone

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)◦Italian◦Legal reformer◦Said laws are to promote happiness in society◦Laws must be equitable for criminal and victim◦Punishment should act as a deterrent to crime,

not revenge◦Advocated the end to torture to gain

confessions, the end of capital punishment, and wanted rehabilitation of prisoners

Cesare BeccariaCesare Beccaria

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)◦German◦Philosopher◦Said, “Have the courage to use your own

intelligence.”◦In other words, Question

David Hume ( 1711-1776)◦Scottish◦Had a love of moral philosophy◦Wrote Treatise of Human Nature in 1739 and An

Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding in 1748, his greatest work

◦Said neither matter nor mind could be proven to exist with any certainty; only perceptions existed

◦Said if human understanding was based on perception rather than reason, then there could be no certainty in the universe

Hume also attacked established religions saying, “If things aren’t certain, then the Christian religion can have no basis.”

Religion grows out of hope and fearHume was the most penetrating of all

Enlightenment thinkersHe was the greatest of all British

philosophers

David HumeDavid Hume

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)◦French◦One of the most original thinkers of his day◦Crusaded for a return to nature – the pure, the

beautiful, the simple◦Became popular with many who were tired of

the strict rules of etiquette and corrupt bureaucracies

◦Queen of France liked his ideas

◦Some subjects he dealt with were: free love and uninhibited emotion natural rearing and education of children let children do what they like and teach them

practical knowledge

Politically, Rousseau is seen as the father of the theory of modern democracy

Said people are all equalHe said to restore lost freedoms, people

join in an agreement – surrendering their individual liberty for the good of the whole

He assumed the individual would be free by being part of the general will

Rousseau broke with the philosophes in 1750s because he felt people should stay closer to nature and placed more faith in emotion, feeling, and intuition than in reason

Baron de Montesquieu, also called Charles-Louis de Secondat ◦Wrote Persian Letters in 1721 satirizing Parisian

morals showing the absurdity of French customs

Baron de MontesquieuBaron de Montesquieu

Analyzed political systemsAdmired the English government and its

Glorious RevolutionSaid England was the only state in Europe

where liberty could be foundWrote how liberty could be achieved and

despotism avoided

For Montesquieu, a successful government is one in which the powers are separated and have checks and balances

He advocated law codes be reformed to mainly regulate crimes against persons and property

He said the punishment should fit the crimeHe was for the abolition of torture

John Locke (1632-1704)◦Died in 1704, but his ideas had a great impact

on the Enlightenment◦Said the mind was blank at birth◦Said governments have a powerful tool to mold

and shape its citizens◦Said 2 things shape humans:

Experiences: what they get through their senses School and institutions: teach ideas to citizens

Locke described good and evil as pleasure and pain: we do what is pleasurable and try to avoid pain

He felt the natural rights of human beings are life, liberty, and property

To safeguard rights, people gave some of their sovereignty to governments

These governments were limited in powerNo government could violate an

individual’s rights

If it does, the people have the right to overthrow it

This thinking greatly influenced the American and French Revolutions

These ideas are reflected in the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson who had spent time in Paris during the Enlightenment and in the American Constitution

John LockeJohn Locke

EncyclopediaEncyclopedia

The Encyclopedia was a 17-volume compendium of knowledge, criticism, and philosophy from the Enlightenment

Edited by Denis DiderotA collaborative effort of philosophesSummary of their thoughts and philosophyIt expressed the critical, rational, and

empirical viewsIt showed the practicality of science and

importance of knowledge in general

Main Message: Almost anything could be discovered, understood, or clarified through reason

It was a threat to the status quoIt was censored and its publication haltedThe first volume was a big hit and sold a

lot of copies

Philosophes attacked:◦war and military values◦traditional aristocracies◦social distinctions

Philosophes wanted freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and science applied to economics

By the end of the 1770s, philosophes were quarreling amongst themselves

Their debates were about how far Enlightenment concepts could be taken

Some philosophes began to specialize and laid the foundations for our present-day social sciences: criminology, penology, & economics, for example

The Social ContextThe Social Context

Paris was the heart of the EnlightenmentGatherings were held in salons like that of

Madame GeoffrinThey were attended by wealthy Parisians,

aristocratic women, and those who wished to debate the new ideas

The women who attended wrote to their friends in France or other countries about what they heard

These women played an important role in the spread of these ideas

For example, Madame Geoffrin corresponded with Catherine the Great of Russia

During the Enlightenment, there was an increase in literacy rates and access to books

This led to a more informed public

Reading rooms cropped up: for a small fee, one could enter and read the latest news or novels

In France they were called salle de lectureThese reading rooms were the forerunner

to lending librariesIdeas from the Enlightenment enticed

others to read, and this interest led to other areas of study: art, music

Art, Literature, TheatreArt, Literature, Theatre

Theatres opened to the publicOnce a year there was an exhibition of art

in one section of the Louvre PalaceArt auctions began as did the art critic --

a new role for some to fulfill Some art remained religiousOther art explored emotions (Baroque

style or the cult of sensibility)Emotion was also looked at in literature

NovelsNovels

Novels explored social problems and human relationships

◦Example: Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe

Published in 1717

Music and ArchitectureMusic and Architecture

There was a revival in classical architecture

This was especially true in the United States at the end of the 18th century

Why?There was a classical movement in music,

as well – emotional music◦Franz Josef Haydn◦Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Wrote symphonies and sonatas

Haydn and MozartHaydn and Mozart

European States in the Age of European States in the Age of EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Those of the Enlightenment hoped for education and social reform that would lead to change and progress

Some rulers were affected by the Enlightenment, to varying degrees◦Wanted to govern more effectively◦Tried to reform laws, the economy, and

governmentMany were beginning to see themselves as

servants of their states. That was a big change for traditional elites

FranceFrance

AutocraticEducated elitesFor scientific researchCultured court lifeIntellectual curiosityInternational languageVery Catholic with papal influenceProblems facing France in 18th century were

a huge debt from foreign wars and the strength of the privileged elite

FranceFrance

Parlements (courts) could object to royal policy

Public opinion wished to remove privilegeLouis XV, grandson of Louis XIV, took the

throne in 1715 at the age of 5◦essentially lazy◦debt made him dissolve the parlement and create

his own courts◦died in 1774 ◦his grandson, 20-year old Louis XVI, took over

Louis XV and Louis XVILouis XV and Louis XVI

FranceFrance

Louis XVI restored the parlement and called the Estates General in 1788 because of money problems

The Estates General had last been called in 1614

There was mistrust of the CrownThere was no significant change in France

until the outbreak of revolution

EnglandEngland

After William ( d. 1702) and Mary died (d. 1694) , Mary’s sister Anne took the throne of England (r. 1702-1714)

The crown then passed to relatives in Hanover, Germany because Anne’s children did not outlive her

George I of Hanover took the throne (1714-1727)

George II followed (r. 1727-1760)George III (r. 1760-1820)

Queen AnneQueen Anne

George I and George IIGeorge I and George II

George I did not speak EnglishHe was considered mediocreHis claim to the throne was challenged by

the descendents of James IIGeorge remained

George II’s claim to the throne was challenged by Bonnie Prince Charlie (James II’s family) in 1745 -- failed effort

George I, George II, & George IIIGeorge I, George II, & George III

Protestants OnlyProtestants Only

The Act of Settlement passed in Parliament years earlier had settled Anne’s claim to the throne

It said only Protestants could sit on the throne of England

There seemed to be more cooperation between Parliament and the monarchy in the 18th century

ParliamentParliament

Parliament was becoming stronger and more sophisticated

There were 2 political parties◦Tories

begun during the time of Charles II staunch Anglicans favored isolationism in foreign affairs honored King’s authority represented interests of gentry and traditional

landholding concerns

◦Whigs had resisted Charles II’s pro-French, pro-Catholic

policies favored an aggressive foreign policy, especially

against France represented the interests of the great aristocrats,

wealthy merchants, and wealthy gentry were dominant in government in the 18th century

up to 1770

Prime Minister◦Robert Walpole established this position◦chose to keep peace abroad◦disengaged King George I◦King’s Privy Council became Cabinet◦Prime Minister headed Cabinet

Prime Minister and cabinet are from dominant party in Parliament

ParliamentParliament

Parliament was not representative of the British people◦Positions held by those of traditional, landed

wealth◦1760s reform pressed to bring in Professionals

like doctors, lawyers, and merchants◦Many of the unrepresented felt a kinship with

the Americans◦Most in Parliament did not wish to give civil

rights to Catholics

Enlightened DespotsEnlightened Despots

Some European rulers learned from the Enlightenment and tried to make some reforms◦Frederick, Crown Prince of Denmark

1784, he began to govern for mentally ill father Applied Enlightenment principles to Denmark’s

economic problems◦Encouraged free trade◦Tried to improve lives of peasants by allowing them to

own land; productivity increased

◦Gustav III of Sweden (r. 1772-1796) Took crown in a coup in 1772 and overturned Diet Made reforms to government

◦Torture abolished◦Trade restrictions eased◦Reformed law

◦Frederick II of Prussia (r. 1740-1786) Also known as Frederick the Great

◦Made military reforms◦Tried to modernize agriculture and improve lives of

peasants◦Abolished serfdom◦Tried to stimulate economy◦Tried to codify law

He said that a ruler has a moral obligation to work for the betterment of the state

He saw himself as the “first servant” or steward of the state

◦Maria Theresa of Austria (r. 1740-1780) Streamlined and centralized the administration,

finances, and defense Set new tax laws Limited exploitation of serfs Made primary school universal and compulsory –

not fully implemented by time of her death

◦Joseph II of Austria (r. 1780 -1790) Succeeded his mother, Maria Theresa Added freedom of the press, freedom of religion ,

and the abolition of serfdom to a growing list of reforms

◦Leopold II of Austria (r. 1790-1792) Enforced the reforms of his mother, Maria Theresa

and his Brother, Joseph II

◦Catherine the Great of Russia (r. 1762-1796) Empress of Russia She was Sophia of Germany until she married Peter III

in 1745 Peter III was brutal and quite possibly mentally ill Catherine engineered a coup which killed her husband She then reigned for 30+ years She extended Russian territory She secularized church lands She set up publishing houses and allowed for a press She made legal reforms: abolished torture and capital

punishment

Catherine had an educational system set up for both the sons and daughters of the elite

Not much was done for the serfs and serf rebellions continued

Widening Scope of Commerce and Widening Scope of Commerce and WarfareWarfare

Warfare continued and new states arose to dominate European politics in the 18th century◦England, France, and Austria in the West◦Prussia and Russia in the East

They had effective armies and overseas trade, territories, or colonies

Armies took volunteers but also drafted citizensOther were placed in army by courts: criminals,

the poor

The treatment of soldiers was rough because many were criminals

There were new types of guns which made war more brutal and easier to win for those with these new weapons

Warfare was becoming more professionalIn the fight for the Baltic Coast: Sweden

vs. Russia with Russia winning

In mid-18th century, Prussia was equal to Austria after Maria Theresa was placed on the throne of Austria

In the Seven Years’ War, Frederick the Great was in an alliance with England who fought the French in alliance with Maria Theresa (gets complicated)

TradeTrade

Slave Trade, begun by the Portuguese who took slaves from West Africa to the New World

Other European nations participated This involved the Triangular Trade RouteMap, p. 627In the New World the French in Canada

traded in furs while the English of the American colonies dealt in tobacco, rice, and indigo

Triangular Slave TradeTriangular Slave Trade

Triangular Slave TradeTriangular Slave Trade

The British won out in North America over the French, Swedes, Dutch, and Spanish

Back to EuropeBack to Europe

The Urban Elites or Bourgeoisie◦As commerce and trade expanded, so did the

bourgeoisie (middle class)◦Middle class increased in numbers and in power◦There economic activities centered on trade,

exchange, and service◦The bourgeoisie was stronger in northern and

western Europe than in the south and east◦Bourgeoisie was 15% of British population but

less than 2% of those in Hungary and Russia

The upper levels were involved in an ever-expanding international trade

They made great profitsThey seemed to merge with the nobility

because of their great wealthThe lower levels – the petit

bourgeoisie- were the shopkeepers, craftsmen, and industrial employees and seemed to merge with the artisans and laborers

Other members of the bourgeoisie were the professionals in medicine, law, education, and government bureaucracy

The wish of many of these was to be seen as noble

However, they were scorned by the aristocracy and envied by the lower class

Charm of the BourgeoisieCharm of the Bourgeoisie

Eager to imitate the nobilitySo became actively involved in the

“culture of consumption, tourism, and commercialized leisure”

They paid for their entertainment : patronized theatres, concert halls, and resort towns like Bath and Brighton in England

Socializing was central to their culture: salons or academies

Tearooms, coffee houses, and clubs became the preserves of men who would sit, talk, and read together

There were magazines and not all for men; ladies had theirs◦The Ladies’ Diary (1704-1787)

gave advise taught manners emphasized morality, sexual fidelity, and obedience Women were generally allowed to participate in

intellectual endeavors

Family LifeFamily Life

Domesticity transformed the values of noblemen and the bourgeoisie in the 18th century

As always, economics held the family together◦All pitching in to make ends meet◦Or father as breadwinner with mother taking

care of children and the home

Something new had been added: emotion

Romance and sexual attraction had become important factors in choosing a marriage partner

The role of parents and matchmaking had diminished

Compatibility was the central goal of married life

Desire for privacy followed; a need for doors and hallways

Family size was being limitedAttitudes towards children changed as

well – more closeness allowedChildhood was being seen as a distinct

stage of life that shaped the character of the individual

Education became more important

Books and games were now designed specifically for children

There were shops designed just for children

The affluent could afford such thingsNot so for the poor; the new cult of

domesticity was out of their reach

The MassesThe Masses

The 18th century saw an increase in both economic opportunity and economic problems for the lower classes, the masses

Some benefited from the spread of literacy and new jobs in trade

Others suffered from the misery associated with the explosion of population, poverty, and landlessness that marked the period

There was a steady growth in population beginning in the 1740s

And there was no crisis like war, famine, or disease to lower it

No checks on population as outlined by clergyman Thomas Malthus with his preventive and positive checks

Population rose from 120 million in 1700 to 180 million a century later – in Europe

Fertility increased◦Earlier marriages by women◦Greater dependence on wet nurses◦Increased sexual activity outside of marriage

Death rates decreased because there were fewer wars and epidemics

Increased fertility and decreased death rates led to an increase in population

FoodFood

Even with an increase in size of population, famine was not prevalent in the 18th century

New crops such as maize and potatoes added to the European diet

There was slow starvation for someImprovements in agriculture helped

European farmers produce more food ◦3-field crop rotation system◦Planting of clover for nutrients for the soil◦Planting of winter crops

These changes were first adopted in Britain and Holland and more than doubled their yields

Others couldn’t participate because of the costs

In Eastern Europe, most grains came from the cultivation of new lands rather than from new technologies

They just kept taking down trees to make farmland

Specialization of crops beganSurplus sent to marketImprovements made in the exchange of

goods: better transportation and communication

There was also a moderate warming trend in Europe’s climate which helped agriculture

The PoorThe Poor

The most basic social fact of the 18th century in Europe was an explosion of poverty, concentrated in urban areas

Chronically poor comprised 10% - 15% of the population or about 20 million

Another 40% of the population either had no land or steady employment

Population growth caused the cost of living to go up because of scarce goods and wages to fall

In the late 18th century◦France: cost of living rose 60% and wages rose

only by 25%◦Spain: cost of living rose 100% and wages

rose 20%◦Britain: was almost even

Landholdings shrank in size as land became more valuable and taxes rose

Fewer people could make a living off the land

People had to move to find jobs and work for wages

Males were seen as more valuable than women

There was female infanticidePeople moved from country to city looking

for workMany worked in factoriesSome left their countries and went to

America

So many had moved to cities that poverty seemed extreme there

Some sought out charity but there wasn’t enough to go around

Many gave up children to foundling hospitals

In Paris, 15% of children survived their first year of life

Distinctions were made among the poor by officials:◦The deserving poor were those physically or

mentally incapacitated◦The unworthy poor were those impoverished

by social and economic circumstances

Institutions like hospitals, work houses, and prisons were established to discipline and punish the rising numbers of rootless people flooding the cities

Popular CulturePopular Culture

Even though times looked bleak at the end of the 18th century, many agreed times were better than before

Communities offered some outlets to alleviate the distress of its people◦Festivals◦Village fairs◦Religious holidays◦Books available for those who could read

There were sporting events: soccer matches

There were blood sports: dog and cat fights, bearbaiting, bull running, bull fights, fox hunting

There were taverns and public houses◦Increased use of alcohol◦Increase in gambling

Conclusion:◦Although the 18th century saw new

opportunities for social mobility, a class system still governed Europe

◦The dividing line between paupers, the bourgeoisie, and the landed elite became sharper even with the Enlightenment challenging the old ways, both socially and politically