ELSEVIER Applied Animal Behaviour Science 49 (I 996) l-8

APPLIED ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

SCIENCE

Welfare of extensively fanned animals: principles and practice

A.B. Lawrence a7*, M.C. Appleby b a Genetics and Animal Behauiour Sciences, SAC Edinburgh, Bush Estate, Penicuik EH26 OQE, UK

b Institute oj’Ecology and Resource Manugement, Uniuersity of Edinburgh, West Mains Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK

Abstract

In September 1994 a meeting was held in Edinburgh, UK, on the welfare of extensively farmed animals and this paper is an overview of that meeting including summaries of the discussions, workshops and conclusions. First the general principles involved were considered, and then the practice in two contrasting areas: the European Community and New Zealand. Workshops then considered Theoretical frameworks, Zoo and wild animals, Socio-economic pressures and Disease and parasitism, the last of these giving rise to recommendations on research and policy. Specific subjects were approached with emphasis on the need for interdisciplinary collaboration: Genetics and the environment, Neonatal survival and Fear and Stress. Lastly, conclusions were drawn on implications of extensive systems for animal welfare, on approaches to minimising the risks involved and on general priorities for research and policy.

Keywords: Environment; Extensive farming; Policy; Research; Welfare

1. Introduction

There are a number of forces encouraging the extensification of animal production systems in the European Union (EU). For this reason a meeting was organised in September 1994 on the welfare of extensively farmed animals, as a satellite to the conference 45th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production (EAAP) in Edinburgh, UK, supported by the EU and the Scottish Centre for Animal

* Corresponding author.

016% I .591/96/$15.00 Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights resewed.

SSDl 016%1591(95)00662-1

2 A.B. Lawrence, M.C. Appleby/Applied Animal Behaviour Science 49 (1996) 1-8

Welfare Sciences (SCAWS). The main objective of the meeting was to extend the discussion of animal welfare issues to animals kept under such extensive conditions. It was addressed by examining the different scientific approaches relating to the welfare of intensively and extensively farmed animals, by considering the effect of socio-eco- nomics on extensive animal welfare and by discussing in detail the scientific and technical areas which are of specific relevance to extensive animal welfare. The meeting was designed to raise concepts as much as data, and to maximise discussion time through the use of general discussion sessions following the various sections and workshops and a final plenary discussion. This article presents an overview of the meeting, including points which were emphasised in the discussions and workshops.

2. Principles and practice

The initial session started by examining the different scientific perspectives that apply to intensive and extensive animals (Appleby, 1995; Deag, 1995). Studies of intensive animals have dealt with the short-term causation of behaviour and have emphasised concepts such as motivation, emotions and feelings. In contrast extensive animal studies have been influenced by behavioural ecology and have focused on the longer-term functional basis of behaviour. It is common for animals in behavioural ecology to be viewed rather as ‘machines’ making decisions programmed by evolution. It was concluded that both views have value to the animal welfare debate, but that greater progress would result through unification of the approaches. Topics which would particularly benefit from such an approach include study of factors affecting home range behaviour such as food availability and territoriality, social needs of animals, cultural transmission of knowledge and the importance of unpredictability in the lives of animals. It was emphasised that such collaboration would also benefit studies within the different disciplines; for example, improved understanding of cognition-which has received much attention from applied studies- is increasingly important in behavioural ecology.

The session continued by considering relationships between welfare and production under extensive conditions, comparing an EU perspective (Waterhouse, 1995) with one from very different circumstances-New Zealand (Matthews, 1995). This emphasised the constraints that reduce options for change and the very tight economic margins that operate under extensive conditions. To increase margins, producers can increase the number of animals per unit of labour or employ part-time staff. Both options have considerable implications for animal welfare. In the first instance the stockperson’s ability to monitor the animals regularly, already made difficult by low stocking densities, topography and adverse weather, is further reduced. In the second option the skill base and vocational attitude of the stockperson could be eroded. In New Zealand, where the level of direct subsidy is low, the emphasis has been on low-input systems. For example, to combat the reduced monitoring of the animals there has been an increase in the use of ‘easycare’ systems where there is active selection against animals failing to produce surviving offspring. There is a continuing emphasis on the use of science to support a successful agricultural industry.

A.B. Lawrence, M.C. Appleby/Applied Animal Behuviour Science 49 (1996) 1-8 3

3. Workshops

Workshops on Theoretical frameworks, Zoo and wild animals and Socio-economic pressures generated considerable discussion and brief summaries of the most important principles follow. The fourth workshop was different in kind, in considering the practical issues of Disease and parasitism, and a fuller report is given in the next section.

The workshop on Theoretical frameworks found great contrast between different delegates’ views of welfare, and consequently emphasised the relevance of framing widely accepted welfare criteria. It was pointed out that while some people define welfare solely in terms of animals’ feelings, others contest the idea that non-humans have feelings. Similarly, although techniques are available for identifying positive or negative preferences of animals, short-term preferences can lead to long-term problems. So as well as using preferences we should also use other means of measuring responses to environmental problems such as physiological measures, injury, growth and be- haviour. The group considered that methods used for assessing the welfare of intensive livestock are often appropriate for extensive livestock, so as there is currently a lack of scientific information specifically on extensive animal welfare, research should be established to extend such assessment to extensive conditions.

The second workshop pointed out that information from field studies has been relatively little used in optimising housing conditions for zoo animals: such studies suggest what might be tried in more confined conditions, but ideas generated in this way are not always the most successful. Nevertheless, experience with zoo and wild animals may provide considerable information which is relevant to extensive animal welfare. The following areas are especially promising: handling and transport, adaptation to changing environments, social structure, parent-offspring interactions, development of behaviour and feeding and foraging.

The workshop on Socio-economic pressures emphasised the role of consumer prefer- ences and the issue of how accurate is the information guiding their conclusions. For example, there is a common impression that more extensive systems are better for animal welfare, which is not always true. Extensive systems are often barely viable; this suggests the need for research to reduce production costs and increase sustainability. The group also stressed the need to take a holistic approach and consider environmental as well as welfare issues, and to include other possible sources of income such as tourism. At a policy level two extreme approaches are possible; subsidies could be withdrawn following the New Zealand model or increased to support properly the maintenance of the whole ‘rural garden’.

4. Disease and parasitism

4.1. Case studies

An overview of sheep farming in New Zealand with respect to health, disease and welfare indicated that extensive farming reduced the incidence of infectious (contagious) disease and was favourable for animal health and hence animal welfare. However, it was

4 A.B. Lawrence, M.C. Appleby/Applied Animal Behaviour Science 49 (1996) I-8

not possible to extrapolate from the unique situation in New Zealand to Northern European conditions as the low incidence of disease in New Zealand may be due to having animals outside for 12 months of the year with continuous grass growth, or to strict border controls on importation of animals. Trace mineral deficiency was identified as a problem in New Zealand extensive systems: in particular Cu, Se, Co deficiencies.

By contrast, an important observation was made in relation to farming of sheep and goats in Greece. This was extensive until 30 years ago, when the farming went intensive with a consequent significant increase in disease incidence: so much so that farmers are now reverting to extensive systems to reduce disease incidence.

4.2. Issues

Disease in both intensive and extensive systems is of major importance for animal welfare and productivity but research on diseases is not considered to be a productive area for research by many welfare researchers. It cannot be denied that research into metabolic, infectious, parasitic and deficiency diseases is important and should be directed at the most prevalent problems. Thus the discussion highlighted the importance of anthelmintic programmes to control gastrointestinal parasites and it was agreed that a vaccination programme was important to control infectious disease. It was expected that perinatal mortality would increase in extensive systems and that the transport of animals would increase stress. Elimination of trace mineral deficiencies should also be an important animal welfare consideration. Although in maximally extensive systems, disease risks generally decrease, extensification frequently leads to poorer welfare for certain individual animals (even if these are perhaps fewer than in intensive systems). For example, health problems such as mastitis and lameness may fail to be detected and treated at an early stage. It is the individual that matters: we have responsibility for every animal under our care.

There was discussion of animals’ ability to select for themselves diets which compensate or treat for disease or deficiencies, for example eating particular plants which help resist parasites, boost the immune response or increase protein intake. On the other hand many problems are caused by inappropriate diet selection, as in ragwort, bracken and ergot poisoning.

Discussion also highlighted the occurrence of stress-related diseases and the need to provide adequate nutrition and shelter when required in an extensive system of farming.

4.3. Tackling the issues

Incidence of disease and emergence of new diseases should be clearly recorded in extensive systems. Farmers should be encouraged to make dead and dying animals from any significant outbreak available for diagnosis by statutory veterinary services. There should be continuing support for veterinary services to perform such functions. Diseases which provide a significant problem should be studied and prevention/eradication schemes developed and instituted under national/international programmes.

To reduce the incidence of disease in extensive systems, there should be a policy for matching livestock to the environment available, with reference to their natural ecology

A.B. Lawrence, M.C. Appleby/AppliedAnimaI Behauiour Science 49 (19961 1-8 5

and evolution, as well as managing the environment to make it suitable for particular species, by control of predators, supplementation of mineral content and adjustment of plant species. Where such manipulation is not possible, it is even more important to find animals with biological traits appropriate to the environment or to adapt them by genetic selection (and perhaps also genetic engineering): emphasis needs to be placed on traits such as maternal ability as well as parasite and general disease resistance.

More attention also needs to be given to keeping disease out of flocks and herds by, for example, quarantine for incoming stock, prohibition of access and control of vectors.

4.4. Recommendations for policy and research

A research programme should be established to quantify the disease and parasite problems which affect extensive systems, with regard to regional variation in the EC. This should include consideration of mineral deficiencies, subclinical disease and diseases which cause no apparent economic loss.

Management and husbandry programmes should be developed which minimise the impact of these diseases and breeding programmes established to develop animals with greater disease resistance and which are more adaptable to the extensive environment.

Vaccination programmes should be developed to treat infectious diseases and parasite infection.

Welfare Codes of Practice should be provided for extensive systems for cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry.

A public education programme is needed in relation to animal welfare, health and extensive systems.

5. Interdisciplinary contributions

The meeting then moved on to consider specific subject areas, concentrating on the concepts involved and on the contributions which may be made by interdisciplinary collaboration. The first session was Genetics and the Environment. This session opened with a paper on genetic selection for harsh environments (Simm et al., 1995). The importance of successful adaptation for welfare was emphasised and the possible breeding options available to enhance adaptation were discussed. It was concluded that little objective selection has taken place under extensive conditions, and that this should be reversed by choosing important traits and developing appropriate means of measuring these traits. The following paper (Mormede, unpublished) indicated the complexity of the problem, however, by suggesting that there was often multi-gene control of behaviour and associated physiology. There could be danger therefore in restricting attention to single, simple measures of a particular trait. In discussion it was pointed out that many traits may be involved: even a measure of welfare as simplistic as survival is affected by, among other factors, foraging, food utilisation, shelter seeking, nest building, other maternal behaviour and milk production. This may mean, in effect, that selection for adaptation (especially behaviour) has to be combined with that for production (e.g. for weight gain, reproduction and milk yield) as well as with natural

6 A.B. Lawrence, M.C. Appleby/Applied Animal Behoviour Science 49 (1996) l-8

selection. The question was raised, though, of whether extensively farmed animals must in fact be competitive in productivity with those in intensive farming for the systems to be viable. This must vary between systems and between countries.

The next session was on Neonatal Survival. Large numbers of lambs die every year in the EU posing both a large welfare issue and also a threat to the sustainability of production. The first paper (Nowak, 1995) summarised some of the findings from behavioural research. It indicated the importance of: ewes remaining on the birth site, the effects of nutrition in late pregnancy on ewe behaviour, ewe variability in colostrum production and the use of foods to increase colostrum production. The second paper (Dwyer and Lawrence, unpublished) dealt with recent advances in our understanding of the neuroendocrine control of maternal behaviour. This research had opened up the possibility of quite specific manipulations to improve fostering of lambs or selecting for maternal behaviour. Discussion returned to the fact that in extensive systems only a very basic indication of welfare is often available, namely survival. This raises the question of what the long-term consequences are of investment in offspring survival. For example, if welfare of both mother and offspring is considered, is it actually better to have one strong or two weak offspring? Clearly more detailed knowledge of welfare is needed.

The last session of papers was on Fear and Stress. The first paper (Le Neindre et al., 1995) considered the important role of human-animal interactions and raised the possibility that adverse responses to humans from extensively kept animals could be overcome by a regime of handling during an early (‘sensitive’) period of behavioural development. The second paper (Diverio et al., 1995) considered the use of tranquillis- ing drugs to restrain infrequently handled animals. A major problem with the use of such drugs is the subsequent use of the meat for human consumption. The last paper (Manteca and Ruiz de la Torre, 1995) considered problems associated with transporting extensive animals particularly where these animals were handled infrequently. One of the issues is the potentially different reactions of social and non-social species. Discus- sion on this topic was wide-ranging and it was clear that much work remains to be done on appropriate techniques. For example, exposure to humans does not necessarily result in increased docility: context and age of the exposure will be important. Major problems may result from handling animals which have had little human contact, but doubt was expressed by many of the delegates about the ethics of using tranquillisers for routine operations.

6. Conclusions

The meeting ended with a plenary discussion covering all the sessions. From this the following conclusions were drawn. First and foremost, the meeting was felt to have been useful and the broad range of topics and areas that had been covered was helpful. However, there was a problem over defining the extensive systems of interest. Much of the meeting was about extreme examples of extensive farming systems (e.g. Scottish hill sheep); there was rather less discussion of the extensive system developed for pigs and

A.B. Lawrence. M.C. Appleby/Applied Animal Behauiour Science 49 (1996) 1-8 7

Many implications are apparent for the welfare of extensively farmed animals. The move into the new era of extensification opens up the possibility of fuller interaction between relevant disciplines (animal science, genetics, psychology) and within this meeting there were encouraging indications of integration. An important need for such integration is the derivation of criteria for welfare (or successful adaptation), because these range from basic survival and growth to reduction of disease and finally to psychological well-being. The delegates expressed varied views as to whether these should be treated in some order of priority (e.g. starting with survival) or in a more integrative manner.

Approaches to minimising welfare risks include selection, which could be used to improve survival (selecting for traits such as maternal behaviour and grazing behaviour), to improve disease resistance and to optimise general behavioural reactivity. Husbandry methods could be used to provide better assessment of the animals’ state (e.g. pregnancy diagnosis), to provide appropriate shelter and to improve handling procedures. Training and education are, as always, essential to animal welfare, but the skills and effort needed by stockpersons in extensive farming are often different to those in intensive systems. Finally it is clear that enforcement of animal welfare legislation under extensive conditions is very difficult.

Research priorities include recognition of the fact that in general there is a marked lack of research in this area. Selection for improved adaptation should be emphasised, which involves development of objective, practical and reliable measures of adaptation (welfare). Understanding the nature of adaptive mechanisms should be a major aspect of this work.

Policy considerations are complex. They can be perceived in terms of incompatible alternatives: for example, it might be possible to increase subsidies in order to maintain non-viable extensive systems and reduce welfare problems, or to terminate subsidies and allow market forces to remove such unsustainable systems. However, a balance between such extremes is more likely to be maintained. It is to be hoped that such a balance can be part of an open decision making process by governments and that once established it can be seen as stable rather than labile. Subsidies have been justified on a number of grounds: support for rural communities, influencing land use and landscape quality, improving agricultural efficiency and reducing the cost of food. The way in which they are determined can also affect animal welfare. Open debate will help both those farmers involved in decisions about adopting or increasing extensive systems, and also those interested in research into related topics including implications for welfare.

Acknowledgements

This meeting was supported by the European Commission and we are particularly grateful for help from J. Connell of the Directorate General for Agriculture and Rural Development. Preparations for the meeting were considerably assisted by the organisers of the EAAP conference, especially J. Darling and M. Black. Other members of the Scottish Centre for Animal Welfare Sciences were also involved, including the coordina-

8 A.B. Lawrence, M.C. Appleby/AppliedAnimal Behuviour Science 49 (1996) l-8

tor Professor C. Roberts and the secretary Dr M. Cockram. This report depends on the contributions of all the delegates and particularly the speakers, rapporteurs and those who chaired the sessions, workshops and discussions and we are very grateful for their input.

References

Appleby, M.C., 1995. Can we extrapolate from intensive to extensive conditions? Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. Deag, J.M., 1995. Behavioural ecology and the welfare of extensively farmed animals. Appl. Anim. Behav.

Sci. Diverio, S., Goddard, P.J. and Gordon, I.J., 1995. The physiological and behavioural responses of red deer to

some management practices. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. Le Neindre, P., Boivin, X. and Boissy, A., 1995. Handling of extensively kept animals. Appl. Anim. Behav.

Sci. Manteca, X. and Ruiz de la Terre, J.L., 1995. The transport of extensively kept animals. Appl. Anim. Behav.

Sci. Matthews, L., 1995. Animal welfare and sustainability of production under extensive conditions: a non-EC

perspective. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. Nowak, P. 1995. Mother-offspring interactions: contributions from neuroscience. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. Simm, G., Conington, J., Bishop, SC., Dwyer, CM. and Pattison, S., 1995. Genetic selection for extensive

conditions. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. Waterhouse, 1995. Animal welfare and sustainability of production under extensive conditions-an European

perspective. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.