Today’s Veterinary Practice July/August 201150

Welfare & Ethics in Veterinary Shelter Medicine

Sherry Loveless

PEEr rEViEWEd

Animal behavior and

welfare scientists,

veterinarians, and

researchers from

disciplines, such

as physiology,

psychology, and

ethics have made

ardent strides in

understanding and

improving the lives

of animals in zoos,

laboratories, shelters,

agriculture, and

domesticity.

July/August 2011 Today’s Veterinary Practice 51

Welfare & eThics in VeTerinary shelTer Medicine |

Animal welfare is complex, encompassing practi-

cal aspects of housing, nutrition, and care, as

well as ethical constructs of right and wrong.1

To effectively address this topic, welfare science must

be multidisciplinary and attempt to understand both

the objective dimensions of animal health and the sub-

jective lives of captive animals through observation

and inference of physiological and behavioral data.

The significance of this information is most effectively

considered in light of the natural history, environmen-

tal conditions, and individual variation to which each

animal is inextricably linked.2

Animals have diverse natural histories, with

distinctive biological, psychological, and envi-

ronmental needs that must be addressed and

regarded. Taken together, these factors can

provide insight into the needs of individual

animals, and must be incorporated into the

development of appropriate shelter environ-

ments. Accurate accrual, interpretation, and

dissemination of such data helps to:3,4

• Advance understanding of shelter animals

• Develop practical enrichment methods

• Inform and develop guidelines and poli-

cies.3,4

The 3 Rs & 5 FReedoms

In 1959, Russell and Burch conducted research

examining humane experimental methods

that raised concerns about determining what

is, and is not, humane and how to promote

humanity without compromising scientific

and clinical aims.5 Their work led to the development

of the 3 R’s of experimental research:5

•Replace the use of animals with alternative tech-

niques or avoid the use of animals altogether.

•Reduce the number of animals used to a mini-

mum, to obtain information from fewer animals,

or obtain more information from the same num-

ber of animals.

•Refine experimental methods to improve welfare

and minimize animal pain and suffering.

In 1965, the Brambell Report was developed in

response to investigations into farm animal welfare.

The Farm Animal Welfare Council refined the report’s

concepts into the Five Freedoms.6 These freedoms are

defined as ideal states, as opposed to basic standards:6

1. Freedom from thirst, hunger, and malnutrition

2. Freedom from discomfort

3. Freedom from pain, injury, and disease

4. Freedom to express normal behavior

5. Freedom from fear and distress

deFining WelFARe

According to the literature, animal welfare can be defined

as concerns, intentions, and actions that arise from,

and are aligned with, an ethical responsibility to:7-10

• Minimize and/or alleviate animal suffering

• Maximize each animal’s physical and psychologi-

cal well-being

• Improve animals’ ability to cope with the chal-

lenges of captive environment

• Recognize animals’ ability to express species-

typical behaviors

• Sustain animals’ ability to maintain some mea-

sure of control over their environment.

There has been some contention with definitions of

welfare, attributable mainly to the subjective nature of

psychological well-being, and the inherent difficulty

of appreciating the lived experience of “an other.”

Concepts, such as ability to cope and discerning levels

of suffering, are difficult to objectively measure, and

individual animals may vary in the extent of environ-

mental control required for well-being. Moreover, sub-

jective experiences and states are not always easily

defined or assessed. In this light, it is often suggested

that a multifaceted approach of behavioral, physical,

psychological, and physiological measures is required

for an authentic evaluation of animal welfare.4,7,8,10

meAsuRing WelFARe

Welfare measures are numerous and include physi-

ological, psychological, health, and behavioral compo-

nents. They are used as indicators of poor quality of

life, inclusive of stress, pain, and/or suffering.10,11

stress

Stress becomes a welfare issue when an animal’s

inability to cope with the challenges of the shelter

environment jeopardizes its health and well-being.10,12

Inappropriate environmental conditions and poor

welfare may compromise immune function and

increase susceptibility to disease, which endangers

shelter populations.

Stress can be measured through the use of biological

and psychological markers, such as cortisol, reproduc-

| Welfare & eThics in VeTerinary shelTer Medicine

Today’s Veterinary Practice July/August 201152

tive hormone levels, heart rate, body temperature, and

immunological markers.4,13 It can sometimes be miti-

gated by providing captive animals with some measure

of real or perceived control over their environment.

Unfortunately, most animals entering the shelter envi-

ronment experience stress due to the unfamiliarity of

surroundings, situation, and social factors of a novel

environment.

suffering

Suffering has been defined as prolonged or intense

negative emotional states, such as pain, fear, anxiety,

or frustration, occurring independently or concur-

rently.14,15 An animal can be in “good health” and

still be suffering. Thus, suffering is often differently

experienced and expressed across species and indi-

viduals.16

A primary goal of welfare is to decrease/alleviate

suffering. Marian Dawkins has posited that 2 core ques-

tions should be posed relevant to alleviating suffering

and increasing welfare: First, can animals’ health be

improved? Second, are the animals being provided

something they need and/or want?2,13 Need and/or want

can be approached by providing animals the ability to

perform species-specific behaviors as well as affording

animals some measure of choice and control in their

environment.

Welfare assessment can be challenging

because it is interpretive and relies, in part,

on human valuation.16 Thus, it becomes

clear that questions about welfare are

fundamental, yet difficult to address and

resolve.

developing WelFARe

progress & innovations

Animal shelters have made great progress since the

1800s, when their function was primarily to dispose of

unwanted animals.17,18 Modern animal shelter veterinar-

ians and staff work to ensure the animals’ physical and

psychological health, incorporate welfare innovations,

and provide humane care.

Goals and services of shelter veterinary health and

welfare practices have expanded to include:17,18

• Humane care, handling, and/or housing of

unwanted, homeless animals

• Adoption services

• Animal behavior/training

• Individual and population animal health/disease

management

• Overpopulation management

• Emergency disaster response

• Public health protection (eg, zoonoses)

• Veterinary forensics

• Active community outreach and partnerships.

Challenges

Shelter veterinary medicine yields some challenges

distinct from clinical veterinary practice. For example,

shelter veterinarians are in the unique position of

An EthicAl issuE: Pound sEizurE

In addition to concerns regarding health and

welfare, shelters have had their share of ethical

controversies.

One example is pound seizure—the procure-

ment of animals from pounds/shelters for use

in research. Shelters remain a subideal welfare

situation for many animals despite welfare

and care improvements. Shelters face challenges of overcrowding, and long-term confinement of unadoptable

animals, or euthanasia. It has been argued that these unwanted/unclaimed animals should be used to assist “the

good of humanity” through research.21

However, a portion of the American public does not approve of the resale of shelter animals for research.21

Increasing public awareness and disapproval of these practices helped lead to the referral of the Pet Safety and

Protection Act of 2009 to the House Committee on Agriculture to more strictly regulate procurement practices to

help assuage public discontent.21

While society may help determine what is ethically acceptable, organizational efforts, such as those of

the American Veterinary Medical Association, Association of Shelter Veterinarians, American Society for the

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Animal Welfare Institute, Universities Federation for Animal Welfare, and Humane

Society of the United States, are important in the development of research and education to inform the public and

policy makers to promote responsible practices and management guidelines.

July/August 2011 Today’s Veterinary Practice 53

Welfare & eThics in VeTerinary shelTer Medicine |

being required to practice both individual and popu-

lation medicine; however, the health and welfare of

the shelter population takes precedence.19

Impediments to population welfare often stem

from the fact that shelters must maximize welfare

within a limited environmental space, with limited

funding, while still allowing for healthy animal pop-

ulation dynamics and interaction with the public.19

Additionally, stringent regulatory standards for shelter

animal care are lacking, which, if coupled with inad-

equate resources and poor staff training, can further

complicate the goals of optimal care and welfare.4,19,20

Other welfare challenges arise from:4,19,20

• Housing and environmental conditions

• Diet/nutrition

• Restriction of space and/or movement constraints

• Lack of environmental control

• Lack of social contact

• Discordant social groupings

• Inability to hide and/or express anti-

predator behavior

• Chronic fear

• Individual animal considerations,

such as medical or behavioral prob-

lems.2

Shelter veterinary medicine plays an

essential role in addressing these chal-

lenges by evaluating and maintaining the

physiological, behavioral, and psychologi-

cal health of shelter animals.

implemenTing WelFARe

Behavior

Evolutionary history influences the behav-

ior of a given species and leads to species-

specific behaviors.2 These motivations

persist even when the captive environ-

ment prevents animals from performing such behav-

iors, resulting in frustration for the animal.2 Behavioral

considerations include reasons for behavioral displays

and the performance of these behaviors. For shelter

animals, it must be determined which behaviors cannot

be executed, why they cannot be performed, and what

effect this has on the animal.4 In other words, how does

the animal respond when highly motivated species-

specific behaviors are not possible?

Frustrated motivations and lack of control can yield

numerous changes in behavior. 5, 22-24

• Displacement behavior is purposeful activity

apparently unrelated to the frustrating stimulus

(eg, grooming when denied access to food).

• Aggression can occur when behavioral frustration

leads to increased hostility toward conspecifics.

• Vacuum behaviors are actions performed in the

absence of a stimulus.

• Stereotypic behaviors can be generally defined

as maladaptive, repetitive, and abnormal move-

ments and actions, such as pacing, weaving,

circling, excessive barking; all of which can have

negative consequences on the adoptability of shel-

ter animals.24-26

• Other abnormal behaviors include self-harming,

regurgitation, and ingestion.

The causes of behavior change must be evaluated

with caution, as they may arise from psychological

causes, yet often signal an underlying health issue.23

In particular, stereotypic behavior can suggest com-

promised welfare when related to frustration, inability

to cope, and/or brain dysfunction.24,25 However, while

stereotypes may be a viable measure of stress in many

captive species, not all express these behaviors. It has

also been theorized that stereotypic behaviors may

serve as an important coping mechanism for shelter

animals and it is important to view these behaviors

within a more broadly-based assessment of welfare.25-26

enrichment

Environmental enrichment is an ongoing process that

is species, and perhaps individually, variant over time.

Variables from the species’ natural history and the

captive environment must be carefully evaluated for

enrichment implications.20 Enrichment implementa-

tion, such as group animal housing, is not without risk

for injury, illness, or harm; thus, safety evaluation and

monitoring is crucial.4

Enrichment can be divided into 5 categories:27,28

1. Food-based

2. Physical habitat

3. Sensory (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile)

4. Social (human/nonhuman interaction)

5. Cognitive (problem solving).

Providing confined animals with some measure of

control over their environment by providing them

the ability to choose enrichments has been shown to

improve welfare:28

•Innovative feeding enrichment devices, such as

feeding enrichment toys, enable control and help

| Welfare & eThics in VeTerinary shelTer Medicine

Today’s Veterinary Practice July/August 201154

stimulate cognitive and sensory aspects of enrich-

ment.

•Pheromone spray can incorporate olfactory inter-

est into an environment sterilized to minimize

disease transmission.

•Music can provide auditory stimulation and visual

sense can be enhanced through windows/screens

in habitat space.

•Training and human–animal bonding can be

cognitively and socially stimulating for animals

that enjoy human contact, and are important to

increasing adoption rates.

WelFARe As oRgAniZATionAl goAl

Concerns for shelter animal welfare have fostered

considerable efforts to improve conditions in shelter

management programs. However, budgetary con-

straints and/or knowledge gaps can limit the extent to

which welfare concerns can be met.19

Shelter animal care and management programs

designed to produce high levels of welfare should

engage in:4,27-29

• High-quality veterinary care

• Enrichment for the animals

• Shelter staff training and education

• Research and education related to updated stan-

dards of care, management, and advocacy issues

• Leadership implementation and improved com-

munication

• Establishing a system of planning, accurate and

consistent documentation, evaluating, and regu-

lating shelter care and management.4,29

Shelter veterinarians play an important role in devel-

oping and evaluating management and enrichment

methods. The needs of each animal should be evalu-

ated, and balanced in accordance with population

requirements and enrichment programs tailored to

accommodate changing needs over time. In light of

this, successful health care and welfare management

requires collaboration and communication among

shelter veterinarians, staff, behaviorists, trainers, and

researchers.4,29

ensuRing WelFARe

Modern shelters are fulfilling an increasing role

in society due to their expertise, outreach, and

health management programs. As a whole, their mis-

sions focus upon humane care and public protec-

tion. However, scientific research, education, and

enhanced shelter programs are improving the welfare

of shelter animals and contributing to the overall body

of knowledge about shelter species, animal behavior,

welfare, and companion animals.

Education and public participation in activities raise

awareness of the difficulties faced by shelters and

shelter animals. It is important to cultivate reverence

for these animals, and the educational opportunities

and interactions within the shelter and community

should incorporate this goal, as it is our duty to ensure

the humane care and wellbeing of the animals in our

charge. ■

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful for the intellectual insight of

Drs. Sheila Chase and Joseph Barber.

References

1. Webster AJ. What use is science to animal welfare?

Naturwissenschaften 1998; 85(6):262-269.

2. Dawkins MS. Evolution and animal welfare. Q Rev Biol 1998;

73(3):305-328.

3. Mason G, Clubb R, Latham N, Vickery S. Why and how

Sherry Loveless is an

interdisciplinary scholar,

ethologist, and artist

whose work focuses

on animal welfare

and ethical and social

responsibility. She is

currently affiliated with

the Animal Behavior

and Conservation

Program of Hunter College, City University of

New York and the Potomac Institute for Policy

Studies in Arlington, Virginia. Ms. Loveless is

also the artistic director and managing editor

of Synesis: A Journal of Science, Technology,

Ethics and Policy and managing editor of

Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine.

Her specific research interests include feline and

equine behavior; animal cognition; animal use

and welfare in research, sport, and public life;

and human responsibility in these areas. Ms.

Loveless’ experience as a lifelong equestrian

has provided a hands-on education and living

laboratory that afforded insights into animal (and

human) behavior and the importance of science

and ethics to inform guidelines, policies, and

laws to insure animal safety and well-being.

should we use environmental enrichment to tackle stereotypic

behaviour? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2007; 102(3-4):163-188.

4. Barber J. Programmatic approaches to assessing and improving

animal welfare in zoos and aquariums. Zoo Biol 2009; 28:1-12.

5. Russell WMS, Burch RL. The Principles of Humane Experimental

Technique. London: Methuen & Co, 1959.

6. Five Freedoms. London: Farm Animal Welfare Council, 2010

(fawc.org.uk).

7. Broom DM. A history of animal welfare science. Acta

Biotheoretica 2011:1-17.

8. Brydges NM, Braithwaite VA. Measuring animal welfare: What

can cognition contribute. Annu Rev Biomed Sci 2008; 10:T91-

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‘inextricable connection.’ Anim Welfare 1995; 4(2):103-117.

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Anim Sci 1991; 69(10):4167.

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12. Veissier I, Boissy A. Stress and welfare: Two complementary

concepts that are intrinsically related to the animal’s point of

view. Physiol Behav 2007; 92(3):429-433.

13. Mason G, Mendl M. Why is there no simple way of measuring

animal welfare? Anim Welfare 1993; 2(4):301-319.

14. Dawkins MS. The science of animal suffering. Ethology 2008;

114:937-945.

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care. Neuroethics 2010; 3(1):89-94.

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Thomson Delmar Learning, 2008.

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Staff. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.

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available at sheltervet.org.

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PD, et al (eds): The Encyclopedia of Applied Animal Behaviour

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23. Hansen BK, Jeppesen LL, Berg P. Stereotypic behaviour in

farm mink (Neovison vison) can be reduced by selection. J Anim

Breed Genet 2010; 127(1):64-73.

24. Mason G. Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: Fundamentals and

Applications to Welfare. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cabi,

2006.

25. Houpt KA. Domestic Animal Behavior for Veterinarians and

Animal Scientists. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.

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a reliable animal welfare indicator? Anim Welfare 2004;

13(Supplement 1):57-69.

27. The shape of enrichment. Enrichment.org (accessed February

2011).

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Resources

AVMA Animal Welfare Principles, 2011. Available at avma.org/issues/

animal_welfare/default.asp

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