Welding Handbook.pdf

7/27/2019 Welding Handbook.pdf

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CHAPTER 1



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Personal Protective

Equipment



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ACCIDENT THEORY

Work Methods

Personal ProtectiveEquipment

PPE: Last line of defense

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Guidelines in Selecting PPE

1. Identify the hazard

2. Understand the effect

3. Recommend the proper equipment

4. Train on proper usage and maintenance



5

Different occupations expose workers to the possibility of injury,illness or even death due to the various hazards present in theworkplaces. These hazards, though in some ways minimized, cannot be entirely eliminated by both engineering and administrativecontrol measures. There is still a need for another form ofprotection that will serve as a barrier against workplacehazards…the Personal Protective Equipment .

Personal protective equipment or PPE is not a mere substitutefor engineering and/or administrative controls. Rather, it should beused in conjunction with these controls to better provide foremployee safety and health in the workplace. In this light, PPE thatis made available for workers’ use must be appropriate and ofapproved type.

Personal Protective Equipment:

Worker’s Last Line of Defense Personal ProtectiveEquipment

Eye & Face ProtectionEye & Face Protection

Respiratory ProtectionRespiratory Protection

Head ProtectionHead Protection

Hearing ProtectionHearing Protection

Hand & Arm ProtectionHand & Arm Protection Foot ProtectionFoot Protection

Fall ProtectionFall ProtectionTorso ProtectionTorso Protection

HEAD PROTECTION

Hard Hat or

Safety Helmet

A rigid device that is worn

to provide protection forthe head and which is held

in place by a suitable

suspension.

Parts of a Hard Hat

1. The suspension system includes the headband and straps

on the inside of the hat. This system absorbs and

distributes the force of impact.

2. The hard outer shell protects the head from sharp objects,

such as falling tool. It also absorbs part of the force of

impact, since it’s somewhat flexible.

3. The chin strap secure the hard hat to the wearer’s head.

4. The brim redirects the direction of the falling object.





7

Personal Protective Equipment

1.Safety Spectacles

2.Eye Goggles

3.Face Shields

Eye and Face Protection

(ANSI Z87.1 – 1989)

Safety Spectacles or Glasses are

primary protective devices intended to shield thewearer’s eyes from flying and striking objects,

glare and injurious radiation hazards.

Sideshield is an integral device or an accessory

attached to spectacles that provides side exposure

protection to the eye.

Goggles are primary protective devices intended

to fit the face immediately surrounding the eyes.

Unlike safety glasses, goggles provide a secure shield around the

entire eye area. Chemical goggles protect eyes from splashes and

flying particles. Shop goggles protect against flying particles and

should be used instead of glasses when there is the potential for

objects to be flying from all directions.


Face Shield is a protective device intended to

shield the wearer’s face, or portions thereof from

striking objects or chemical, heat and glare

hazards.



8

Welding shieldis a protective

device intended to shield the eyes and

face from optical radiation and impact.

Characteristics of a Good Quality

Spectacles, Goggles and Face Shields

•Provide adequate protection against the particular

hazards for which they are designed

•Be reasonably comfortable when worn under the

designated conditions

•Fit snugly without interfering with the movements or

vision of the wearer•Be within tolerable refractive power

•Be durable

•Be capable of being disinfected

•Be easily cleanable


Use of Eye and Face Protections

"A a general rule, face shields should be

worn over suitable basic eye protection."

- National Safety Council

Hearing Protection

Welding shieldis a protective

device intended to shield the eyes and

face from optical radiation and impact.









•Be durable











•Be durable




Use of Eye and Face Protections

"A a general rule, face shields should be

worn over suitable basic eye protection."

- National Safety Council

Hearing Protection



9

The Need for Ear Protection and

Prevention of Excessive Noise Exposure

Exposure to high noise levels can cause

hearing loss or impairment. It can create

physical and psychological stress. There is

no cure for noise-induced hearing loss, so

the prevention of excessive noise exposure

is the only way to avoid hearing damage.

Types of Hearing Protectors

Earplugs

Hearing protectors placed inside the ear

to block out noise. To work effectively,

they should fit snugly into the ear canal.


Earmuffs

A device composed of a headband with two cushioned

ear cups that form a seal around the outer ear, covering

it completely and blocking out the noise.

Selection

• proper fit

• the employee’s noise exposure

• the employee’s hearing ability

• communication needs

• other constraints specific to job tasks


Earplugs

Hearing protectors placed inside the ear

to block out noise. To work effectively,

they should fit snugly into the ear canal.


Earmuffs

A device composed of a headband with two cushioned

ear cups that form a seal around the outer ear, covering

it completely and blocking out the noise.

Selection

• proper fit

• the employee’s noise exposure

• the employee’s hearing ability

• communication needs

• other constraints specific to job tasks



10

ARMARM’’S LENGTH RULES LENGTH RULE ““If two people (with no hearingIf two people (with no hearing

impairment) have to raise their voices orimpairment) have to raise their voices or

shout to be heard in a distance of lessshout to be heard in a distance of less

than an armthan an arm’’s length from each other,s length from each other,

the sound level is potentiallythe sound level is potentially

hazardous.hazardous.””

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ARMARM

’’S LENGTH RULES LENGTH RULE

““If two people (with no hearingIf two people (with no hearing

impairment) have to raise their voices orimpairment) have to raise their voices or

shout to be heard in a distance of lessshout to be heard in a distance of less

than an armthan an arm’’s length from each other,s length from each other,

the sound level is potentiallythe sound level is potentially

hazardous.hazardous.””

*+,-*



11

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

Filtration respirator

Chemical respirator

Air-supplying respirator

FILTRATION RESPIRATORS

or Mechanical Respirators screen

out dust, fume, mist and smoke.

Such Filters need to be replaced

at frequent intervals.

CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE

DEVICES remove contaminantsby passing the tainted air

through material that traps the

harmful portions. There are

specific cartridges for specific

contaminants.

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• 1. Temperature extremes

• 2. Chemical exposures and splashes

• 3. Sharp objects

• 4. Fire

• 5. Abrasive materials

• 6. Live Electrical Conductors

Hand and Arm Hazards

Common Hand & Arm Injury

• Burns

• Bruises

• Abrasions

• Cuts

• Punctures

• Fractures

• Amputations

• Electrocution

Skin Protection

The job of protective clothing

is generally to protect the skin

against chemicals, cuts,

bruises, and extremes of

temperatures. It is therefore,

important to choose the right

material for hands protection

and arms protection.

• 1. Temperature extremes

• 2. Chemical exposures and splashes

• 3. Sharp objects

• 4. Fire

• 5. Abrasive materials

• 6. Live Electrical Conductors

Hand and Arm Hazards

Common Hand & Arm Injury

• Burns

• Bruises

• Abrasions

• Cuts

• Punctures

• Fractures

• Amputations

• Electrocution

Skin Protection

The job of protective clothing

is generally to protect the skin

against chemicals, cuts,

bruises, and extremes of temperatures. It is therefore,

important to choose the right

material for hands protection

and arms protection.



13

GLOVES continued…

GLOVES continued…

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Reminder !

Common Foot and Leg Injury

• Fractures• Punctures

• Burns

• Cuts

• Amputations

• Electrocution

Reminder !

Common Foot and Leg Injury

• Fractures• Punctures

• Burns

• Cuts

• Amputations

• Electrocution



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Safety Shoes and Boots

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FOOT PROTECTION

Safety Shoes

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FALL PROTECTION

• Body Belt -

Used to restraint

a worker’s movement

to a certain area

FALL PROTECTION

Full-body Harness

(BS: 1397:1979)



17

LIMITATIONS OF PPE

1. The hazard still exists.

2. A defective PPE offers no protection

3. The PPE may introduce additional hazard.

4. Most PPE are not for continuous use.

5. Improper wearing may not give maximumprotection.

6. It may transfer hazard to another location.

OSHSRULE 1080:

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT & DEVICES

1081 General Provisions:

1081.01 Every Employer:

1) Shall at his own expense furnish his workers withprotective equipment for the eyes, face, hands and feet,protective shields and barriers whenever necessary by

reason of the hazardous nature of the process orenvironment, chemical or radiological or other mechanicalirritants or hazards capable of causing injury orimpairment in the function of any part of the body throughabsorption, inhalation or physical contact.

1081.02

All protective equipment shall be of approved design and constructionappropriate for the exposure and the work to be performed.

1081.03

The employer shall be responsible for the adequacy and propermaintenance of personal protective equipment used in his workplace.

1081.04

No person shall be subjected or exposed to hazardous environmentalcondition without protection.



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CHAPTER 3



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CHAPTER 4



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Dip soldering………… DS

Furnace soldering……..FSInduction soldering……IS

Infrared soldering……..IRS

Iron soldering………....INSResistance soldering….RS

Torch soldering…….....TS

Ultrasonic soldering…..USSWave s oldering………..WS

Electron beam welding....EBW-high vacuum………EBW-HV

-medium vacuum.....EBW-MV

-nonvacuum…….....NBW-NVElectroslag welding…….ESWFlow welding…………...FLOW

Induction welding………IWLaser beam welding…….LBW

Percussion welding……..PEW

Thermite welding……….TW

Gas metal arc welding…………...GMAW

-pulse arc…………….GMAW-P

-short circuiting arc….GMAW-SGas tungsten arc welding………...GTAW

-pulse arc…………….GTAW-PPlasma arc welding………………PAWShielded metal arc welding……...SMAW

Stud arc welding…………………SW

Submerge arc welding…………...SAW-series………………. .SAW-S

Atomic hydrogen welding…….AHW

Bare metal arc welding…….….BMAW

Carbon arc welding…………...CAW-gas…………...….. CAW-G

-shielded……….….CAW-S-twin………...…….CAW-T

Electro gas welding………...…EGW

Flux cored arc welding……….FCAW

Coextrusion welding………….CEWCold welding………………....CW

Diffusion welding…………….DFW

Explosion welding…………....EXWForge welding………………...FOWHot pressure welding…………HPW

Roll welding…………………..ROWUltrasonic welding…………....USW

Block brazing……………….BB

Braze welding……...……….BW

Diffusion brazing…......……CABDip brazing………...……….DB

Exothermic brazing………...EXBFlow brazing……………….FLB

Furnace brazing…………….FBInduction brazing…………..IB

Infrared brazing…………….IRB

Resistance brazing………….RBTorch brazing……………….TB

Twin carbon arc brazing……TCAB

Arc spraying……………….ASPFlame spraying…………….FLSP

Flux cutting………………....FOC

Metal powder cutting……….POC

Oxyfuel gas cutting………....OFC-oxyacetylene cutting….. OFC-A

-oxyhydrogen cutting…...OFC-H-oxynatural gas cutting….OFC-N-oxypropane cutting……..OFC-P

Oxygen arc cutting…………..AOC

Oxygen lane cutting…………LOC

Air carbon arc cutting…………...CAC-ACarbon arc cutting……………….CAC

Gas metal arc cutting…………….GMAC

Gas tungsten arc cutting………….GTACPlasma arc cutting………………...PACShielded metal arc cutting………..SMAC

Electron beam cutting……………EBC

Laser beam cutting……………….LBC

-air…………………….LBC-A-evaporative…………...LBC-EV

-insert gas……………...LBC-IG-oxygen………………...LBC-O

Flash welding…………….FW

Projection welding……….PW

Resistance seam welding..RSEW-high frequency………..RSEW-HF

-induction……...............RSEW-IResistance spot welding…RSWUpset welding……………UW

-high frequency………...UW-HF

-induction……………….UW-I

Air acetylene welding………..AAW

Oxyacetylene welding………..OAW

Oxyhydrogen welding………..OHW

TABLE A



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6. CABLE ASSEMBLY

7. SHIELDING GAS FROM CYLINDER

8. WELDING CONTACTOR CONTROL

9. POWER CABLE

10. PRIMARY INPUT POWER



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Flux coating

Core wire

Gaseous shield

Slag

Weld metal

Weld pool

Parent metal /

Base metal

Arc stream

Molten metal



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Welding positions Coating composi-

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current



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Condition of heat

treatment in which

test were conducted

“A” as welded “P” for

postweld heat treated.

X E

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Classification of the

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depositing the weld

metal



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90

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CHAPTER 8



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Weld face

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Fusion

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122

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Laminations are flat, generally elongated, planar base metal discontinuitiesfound near the center of rolled products. Laminations are formed when gas voids

in the shrinkage cavity in the ingot are rolled flat, but are not subsequently welded

under the pressure of hot rolling. They generally run parallel to the surface of the

rolled product and are most commonly found in structural shapes and plates.

Laminations most often appear near the centerline of the material thickness.Because it would open as a sandwich, metal containing laminations cannot relia-

bly carry stress in the through—thickness direction.

" ++%

undercut

overlap



123

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LEGEND:

1. Crater crack

2. Face crack

3. Heat-affected zone

crack

4. Lamellear tear

5. Longitudinal crack

6. Root crack

7. Root surface crack

8. Throat crack

9. Toe crack

10. Transverse crack

11. Underbead crack

12. Weld interface crack

13. Weld metal crack



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Types of Stress

TENSILE BENDING

COMPRESSIVE SHEARING

TORSIONAL



139

TENSILE STRESS

EQUAL FORCE EQUAL FORCE

AXIAL LINECROSS - SECTIONAL

AREA

INCREASEDFORCE

INCREASEDFORCE

OBJECT ISSTRETCHED

CROSS - SECTIONAL

Where:

St = tensile stress in pounds per square inch (lb/sq in.)P = force in pounds (lb)A = area in inches squared (sq in.)

What is the tensile stress of a 12,000 lb force applied to a piece of flat stock with a cross-sectionalarea of .75 sq in.?

St = St = St = 16,000 lb/sq in.

!

12,000.75

PA



140

COMPRESSIVE STRESS

EQUAL FORCE EQUAL FORCE

AXIAL LINECROSS - SECTIONAL

AREA

OBJECT ISCOMPRESSED

INCREASEDINCREASED

FORCE

CROSS - SECTIONALAREA INCREASED

Where:

Sc = compressive stress in pounds per square inch (lb/sq in.)P = force in pounds (lb)A = area in inches squared (sq in.)

What is the compressive stress of a 10,000 lb force applied to a piece of flat stock with a cross-sectional area of .75 sq in.?

Sc = Sc = Sc = 16,000 lb/sq in.

PA

10,000.75

!



141

Where:

Ss= shearing stress in pounds per square inch (lb/sq in.)P = force in pounds (lb)A = area in inches squared (sq in.)

What is the shearing stress of a 40,000 lb force applied to a piece of flat stock with a cross-sectional area of .75 sq in.?

Ss=

Ss=

Ss = 53,333.33 lb/sq in.

SHEARING STRESS

PA

40,000.75

!

INCREASEDFORCE

OBJECT ISSHEARED

CROSS-

SECTIONAL AREAOFFSET

INCREASED

FORCE

EQUAL AND PARALLEL FORCE

EQUAL AND PARAL-

LEL FORCE

CROSS-

SECTIONAL AREA



142

BENDING STRESS

McZ

1200 x 0.750.053

"

#

OBJECT ISBENT

INCREASED PERPEN-DICULAR FORCE

REACTION FORCE

PERPENDICULARFORCE

Where:Sb= bending stress in pounds per square inch (lb/sq in.)M= maximum bending moment in inch-pounds (in-lb)c = distance from neutral axis to farthest point in cross section in inches (in.)Z = section modulus in cubic inches (cu in.)

What is the bending stress of a 1” square solid shaft subjected to a bending moment of a 1200 in-lb? From the neutral axis to the cross-sectional area c is 0.75”, and the section modulus is 0.053.

Sb = Sb= Sb = 16,981.1321 = 16, 981 lb/sq in.



143

$X

Where:T= torque in inch-pounds (in-lb)P= force in pounds (lb)L= distance in inches (in.)

What is the torque of a 240 lb force applied over a distance of 16”?

T = P x L

T = 240 x 16

T = 3840 in-lb

TORSIONAL STRESS

OBJECT ISINCREASEDCLOCKWISE

CLOCKWISE

CYLINDRICAL SHAFT

COUNTERCLOCKWISEFORCE



144

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145

Metal Melting Points and other Temperature

-273.18

-78

-390

232

419660

10831539

1870

1890

280034103500

6020

Absolute zero

Dry ice vaporizes

Mercury melts

Ice melts

Tin melts

Aluminum melts

Zinc melts

Copper melts

Iron melts

Natural gas burner

Chromium melts

Oxyhydrogen flame

Tungsten melts

Oxyacetylene flame

Welding arc

°C °F

-459.72

-110

-38-32

449

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3360

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PLATE MORE THAN 3/16” SHEET LESS THAN 3/16”

STANDARD FLATTENED

PERFORATED SHEET

EXPANDED SHEETS

STANDARD METAL SHAPES



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1 ONE

2 TWO 3 THREE

4 FOUR

5 FIVE

6 SIX

7 SEVEN

8 EIGHT 9 NINE

7 8 9 , 6 4 3 , 5 4 9 , 2 7 6 , 8 /5 1

H u n d

r e d s P l a c e

T e n s

P l a c e

U n i t s P l a c e

H u n d

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T r i l l i o n s P e r i o d

B i l l i o n s P e r i o d

M i l l i o n

s P e r i o d

T h o u s a

n d s P e r i o d

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7 6 3

THREE ONES

SIX TENSSEVEN HUNDREDS

DIGITS

ARABIC NUMERALS

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199

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PROCESS:

• Multiply multiplicand by multiplier to get product.

CHECK:

• Reverse multiplicand and multiplier and multiply again to get product.

12

X 8

96MULTIPLIER

ARRANGE NUMBERS

IN COLUMNS

PRODUCT

TENSMULTIPLICAND

UNITS

TIMES SIGN



200

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PROCESS:

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CHECK:

• Multiply divisor by quotient to get dividend.

1 2 8

32

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DIVIDEND

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201

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202

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203

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204

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205

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206

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207

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208

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209

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MIXED NUMBER BY A WHOLE NUMBER

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WHOLE NUMBER BY A FRACTION

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$/•?•3•D•D



210

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211

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219

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220

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225

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