WELCOME FROM DIRECTOR OF STATE POLYTECHNIC OF

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Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014 i

WELCOME FROM THE ORGANIZING COMMITEE

AssalamualaikumWrWb

We pray to Allah SWT for all His grace and gift He has given to us all so that the International Seminar on the Results of Researches and Community Services can today be conducted.

This international annual seminar (ASAIS 2014) is aimed to provide a dissemitaion forum for the results of researches and community services. This is expected to be a forum for information exchanges, discussion involving many parties: scholars, practitioners, and government. Interaction among different perspectives could become a medium to create technology development and sustainability accurately applicable in industry and society to enhance and support their autonomy in this modern era.

The ASAIS 2014 Program cover a broad spectrum of topics ranging from Technology, Commerce and Environment, following the reseachers/authors from Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapura, and Thailand.

We would like to take opportunity to thank all those who have contributed to the technical program in particular, all the participant for submitting their works and we hope you enjoy the progam

Finally, we look forward to suggestions and iriticism so that we can carry out the next international seminarin 2015 better.

WassalamualaikumWrWb

ASAIS 2014 Organizing Commitee

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ii Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014

WELCOME FROM DIRECTOR OF STATE POLYTECHNIC OF JAKARTA

Assalamu’alaikumWrWb,

We pray to Allah SWT for all His grace and gift He has given to us all so that today we can attend the International Seminar on the Results of Researches and community Services under the theme of ”Creative industry based research and community services to encourage community autonomy”, as a basis of knowledge and research development in higher education, both national and international which can be conducted by Research and Community Service Center in State Polytechnic of Jakarta.

The purpose of conducting this seminar is to provide knowledge and concepts exchange opportunity for multidiciplinary scientists to put forward their perspectives in national and state problems under the three defined sciences. Beside that, this forum can also be used to strengthen relationship of researchers from both national and international institutions.

In this instance we would like to thank:

1. The Minister of Culture and Education of the Republic of Indonesia 2. Prof. OumSaokosal , NPIC – Cambodia 3. Associate Profesor, Dr. WipaweeHatagam , Suranaree University of

Technology NakhonRatcasima Bangkok 4. Presenters 5. All boards of committee who have made this happens

We hope that this academic activity can be conducted regularly and the spirit of the research will always sustain and give valuable contribution to the welfare and the development of the nation.

We thank you and hope you gain valuable benefits from the seminar.

Wassalamu’alaikumWrWb,

Jakarta, 12 November 2014

Director of state Polytechnic of Jakarta

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Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014 iii

ASAIS 2014 COMMITTEE

Executive Board Director of PNJ Head of P3M PNJ General Chairs NiningLatianingsih Vice Chairs Iis Mariam

Managing Commitee PuteraAgungMahaAgung Agus Edi Pamono Belyamin A. TossinAlamsyah AnisRosyidah DewiWinarni Budi Damianto Gun Gun RamdlanGunadi Mawarta Onida Sri Danaryani Muryeti

Publication Yogi Widiawati Darna MaharAzhari Administration Staf Nurmalisna Sugianto

Contact Address Pusat Penelitian dan Pengabdian kepada Masyarakat (P3M) Gedung Q, Lantai 2, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta, Kampus Baru UI Depok, Tlp. 021 7270036 ext 236, www.asais-pnj.org; [email protected]

http://www.asais-pnj.org/�

mailto:[email protected]�

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iv Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014

PREFACE

This proceedings contain sorted papers from Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014. ASAIS 2014 is the second annual international event organized by PusatPenelitiandanPengabdian (P3M) PoliteknikNegeri Jakarta Indonesia. This event is a forum for researchers for discussing and exchanging the information and knowledge in their areas of interest. It aims to promote activities in research, development and application on Technology, Commerce and Environment.

We would like to express our gratiture to all technical commite members who have given thirefforst to support this seminar. We also would like to express our sincere gratitude to Higher Education Republic of Indonesia, NPIC Cambodia , Suranaree University of Technlogy (SUT) RankonRatchasima Bangkok Thailand and the our sponsor National Instrument and, PT. PanairsanPratama.

Finally we also would to like to thank to all of the keynote speakers, the authors, the participant and all parties for the success of ASAIS 2014.

Editorial Team.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

WELCOME FROM THE ORGANIZING COMMITEE ...................................................................... i WELCOME FROM DIRECTOR OF STATE POLYTECHNIC OF JAKARTA ................................ ii ASAIS 2014 COMMITTEE ................................................................................................................iii PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... v TITLES OF TECHNOLOGY PAPER ................................................................................................ vi

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vi Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014

TITLES OF TECHNOLOGY PAPER

Kode Titels Researcher Page

TEC-01 Selection the Failure Criterion of Lateral Movement on Fractured Rock Mass

Putera Agung M, A; Pramusandi, S; Ardianto, A

1

TEC-02 Electrical Energy Potential of Undersea Current Power Plant in the Manado Bay North Sulawesi

Parabelem T.D. Rompas, Jenly D.I. Manongko

11

TEC-03 Optimazation of Battery Waste Carbon Quantity on Design of Cathode in Electrocoagulation Process Tank to Reducing Metal Content in Waste Water

Sutanto, DanangWidjajanto 19

TEC-04 Developing of Multi-Parametric Bioelectric Signal Acquisition System

C. BambangDwiKuncoro 27

TEC-05 Effect of Granular Elastic Column on the Swelling Characteristic of Expansive Clay

Gerard Aponno, DandungNovianto, Yunaefi

35

TEC-06 Effect OfPropeller TurbineBladeAngleTypeФ125 On Efficiency MhpSystemOfHead2And3Meters

Paulus Sukusno, Fachruddin, P Jannus

43

TEC-07 Design Wireless Power Transfer Base on Copper (Cu) and Aluminium (Al) Rings Loop Magnetic Coupling

Toto Supriyanto, Asri Wulandari, Teguh FirmansyahIEEE Member, Suhendar, Erick Immanuel

51

TEC-08 Effect of Testing Speed on Tensile Behavior of Kenaf Fiber

AnggitMurdani, Maskuri, ProfiyantiHerminSuharti

57

TEC-09 The Design of Parking System Based on Rfid And Databaseto SuccesfulEnviromentally Program

SugengMulyono, B.S.RahayuPurwanti

65

TEC-10 Precast Concrete Panel with Substitution of Fine Agregate Mining Gold Tailing Pongkor

Amalia,AgusMurdiyoto 73

TEC-11 Variations in Temperature on Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Resilient Modulus

Eva AzhraLatifa, NuzulBarkahPrihutomo,Mulyono

83

TEC-12 Effect of Chitosan in Deinking Process on the Optical Properties of Paper

Muryeti, Estuti Budi Mulyani, Teddy Tapianto, EfnytaMuchtar

91

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Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014 vii

Kode Titels Researcher Page

TEC-13 Green Product of Liquid Fuel from Plastic Waste by Pyrolysis at 900 OC

D.Mustofa Kamal, FuadZainuri 99

TEC-14 The Characteristic of BantakAgregate as Main Materials on Marshall Test

FaqihMa’arif, Buntara S. Gan, Imam Muchoyar, Effendie T, Sumarjo H

105

TEC-15 Design of Broadband MetamaterialMicrostrip Filters for WiMAX Applications 2.3 GHz and WiFi 2.4 GHz

TriPrijooetomo,Toto Supriyanto 113

TEC-16 Compressive and Shear Strength Behaviour of Masonry Wall With Pumice Breccia as Mortar

FaqihMa’arif, Buntara S. Gan, SlametWidodo, AgusSantoso, Sumardjo H

121

TEC-17 Analysis of Color Conversion Model of Hue, Saturation, Brightness on Digital Image

WiwiPrastiwinarti, Noorbaity, Zulkarnain

129

TEC-18 Developing a Penstock for Micro Hydro Power Plant of Waterwheel Type

Gun Gun Ramdlan G, Jusafwar, Adi Syuriadi, Fachruddin, Dianta Mustofa Kamal, Agus Sukandi and Candra Damis Widiawaty

137

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Selection the Failure Criterion of Lateral Movement on Fractured Rock Mass

Putera Agung MA1; Pramusandi S2; Ardianto A3

Civil Engineering Department, State Polytechnic of Jakarta, Indonesia E-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

Paper concerns some consideration in determining a constitutive model of fracture rock mass. In lateral movement analysis using both failure criterions (Hoek – Brown and Mohr – Coulomb) shows that the Hoek – Brown criterion are more suitable than the others. Study analysis was used to analysis the reinforcement system of shaft during excavation and determine safety factor. From several analyses, it should be considered to use the failure criteria of Hoek – Brown material. Keywords: lateral movement; failure criteria; reinforcement system; safety factor 1. INTRODUCTION During the feasibility and preliminary design stages of a project, when very little detailed information is available on the rock mass and its stress and hydrologic characteristics, the use of a rock mass failure criterion scheme can be of considerable benefit. The failure criterion can be used to build up a picture of characteristics of a rock mass to provide initial estimates of support requirements, and to provide estimates of the strength and deformation properties of the rock mass. However, after the classification analysis, the selection of failure criterion would be very important before the strength analysis.

For the analysis of wall structure for water channel of hydroelectric power plant or gate shaft structure. One case study was concerned for a back stability analysis of lateral movement the gate shaft power waterway in Jatigede dam construction, Sumedang, West Java, Indonesia (Fig. 1). Gate shaft was applied to place the emergency and regulator sluice gate for hydroelectric power generation, where it was made from reinforced concrete structures.

Excavation of the gate shaft was designed with using the temporary

reinforcement system. Some stability analyses during excavation works are required to predict stress and strain of soil or rock layers around the gate shafts during excavation. When the soil or rock is not able to resist load or deformation occurred, they were required to use some reinforcement system. Since the study area have some variations of soil and rock layers, the selection of critical state parameter is important to be discussed.

Fig. 1 Location of Jatigede Dam project


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2 Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS) 2014

( )( )( ) ( )

a-1b b 3n-1

a-1b b 3n

6am s + mσ''= sin

2 1+a 2+a +6am s+mσ'φ

3max3n

ci

σ'σ' =

σ

( ) ( ) ( )

( )( )( )( )

( )( )

ci b 3n b 3n

a-1b b 3n

σ 1+2a s + 1-a m σ' s+m σ'c'=

6am s + mσ'1+a 2+a 1+

1+a 2+a

2. FAILURE CRITERION OF ROCK MASS

Fig. 2 shows the diagram of stress – strain relationship for rock material. Theoretically, elastic deformation of rock requires the change of volume; plastic deformation usually occurs at the constant volume. Fig. 2 also shows an incremental stress – strain relation for elasto – perfectly plastic deformation process with and without hardening–softening considerations.

A constitutive behavior of fractured rocks masses as equivalent continua covers a non-linear material model. Deformation contributed by fractures is then assumed as plastic deformation of the equivalent continuum and the hardening–softening rules of plasticity are adopted to simulate similar behavior of fractured rocks. The elasto-perfectly plastic deformation are presented briefly in here using Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek–Brown criterion as the yielding functions, since these criteria are used widely in many discrete element method (DEM) models for rock block behavior.

Fig. 2 Stress – strain of rock (Moesdarjono, 2009)

Normally, the criteria of Mohr – Coulomb can be used for soil layers. Then, Hoek – Brown can be applied for rock layers. However, sometime the Hoek – Brown criteria must be determined by the Mohr – Coulomb criteria. Relationship between Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek–Brown criterias

can be applied wide applications, especially for fractured hard rocks, for both numerical modeling and rock classification. Both criterias can be transformed from one to another (Hoek and Brown, 1997).

Behavior of collapse for soil is mostly approached by the Mohr – Coulomb method. however, parameters of c’ and φ' determined by Hoek – Brown criteria also uses the Mohr – Coulomb method following the equation:

(1)

(2)

where σ’3max is the upper limit of confining stress predicted by relationship between Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek – Brown. Fig. 3 shows the correlation equation of σ’3max Hoek – Brown and Mohr – Coulomb (Hoek, 2002).

Fig. 3 Major and minor relationships based on the

principal stresses of the Hoek – Brown and Mohr – Coulomb (Hoek, 2002)

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-0,94

3max cm

cm

σ' σ'= 0,47

σ' γ H

cm2c'cos 'σ' =1-sin '

φφ

( )( )( )( )( )

a -1b b b

cm ci

m + 4s-a m -8s m 4+sσ' = σ

2 1+a 2+a

From Fig. 2, relationship between upper limit of confining stress (σ’3max) and strength of the rock mass (σ’cm) is:

(3)

where

From Fig. 2, c’ and φ' values were found by the interval of σt < σ3 < σci / 4 obtained from:

(4)

For this case study, all data obtained by laboratory and field using the undisturbed samples and the classification of the material is the intermediate material (soil – rock layers). So that the failure criteria must be selected when the material collapse occurred around the excavation shaft below the ground surface.

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK.

Rock formations at Jatigede dam area consist of Pliocene Breccia, claystone from upper Halang Formation, Breccia from lower Halang Formation, and claystone from Cinambo Formation. Rock formations are covered by layers of sand and clay. Bedrock layer of power shaft consists of claystone, volcanic breccia and local tuff breccia or lapilli tuff (Fig. 4). Typical of description of rock mass at Jatigede Dam area shows in Table 1 and Fig. 4 indicated by the core – box of rock material. Mostly all layers shows the intermediate material.

Fig. 4 Existing profile of the soil – rock mass

Based on Fig. 4, all the soil – rock layers can be classified into the fractured rocks and can be analyzed by the both failure criterions proposed by Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek – Brown. Table 1 shows typical description of fractured rock mass classes from field core – box (classification using CRIEPI, 1950).

Table 1 Typical of physical properties of rock

Depth (m) Description Rock class

0.0 – 2.0 No core, reaming concrete. 0.2 – 3.75 Concrete.

3.75 – 5.9

Volcanic breccia, slightly weathered, average RQD 60% - 95% Most core breaks are horizontal, filled by calcite.

CM

5.9 – 6.15 Claystone, dark grey, partly fractured, maximum core length 15 cm.

D

6.15 – 6.8 Claystone, light grey. max core length 50 cm CL

6.8 – 7.0

Claystone, light grey, fractured/fragments. Partly sheared. Soft rock. Mostly spontaneous cracking on storage.

D

7.0 – 8.0 Claystone - sandstone, light grey. maximum core length 50 cm. RQD 85%.

CM

8.0 – 9.4

Coarse sandstone, light grey. maximum core length 60 cm. RQD 45 - 80%. Medium hard. Mostly spontaneous cracking on storage.

CM

9.4 – 12.0

Fine sandstone, light grey, interbedded sandstone - siltstone. maximum core length 60 cm. RQD 45 - 80%. Soft rock. Some calcite veins about 1 mm. Average RQD : 10% - 95%.

CL

12 – 12.3 Claystone, light grey, broken rock. Soft rock. D

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Mostly spontaneous cracking on storage.

12.3 – 29.5

Mostly claystone interbeded with siltstone, light grey, some soft or sheared claystone layer, generally moderately weathered (dark grey color). Slickenside in some part.

CL partly

D

29.5 – 31.7

Coarse sandstone interbedded with siltstone, medium hard. Slightly weathered, maximum core length 60 cm.

CM

31.7 – 35.8

Mostly claystone interbedded with siltstone, light grey, some soft or sheared claystone layer, generally moderately weathered. Slickenside in some part.

CL partly

D

35.8 – 36.3

Coarse sandstone, medium hard. Slightly weathered (dark grey color), max core length 60 cm.

CM

36.3 – 38.4

Volcanic Breccia, medium hard. Slightly weathered, max core length 60 cm.

CM

38.4 – 39.4

Claystone, light grey, broken rock. Soft rock. Mostly spontaneous cracking on storage.

D

39.4 – 43

Fine sandstone, light grey, interbedded sandstone - siltstone. Maximum core length 60 cm. Partly soft rock of sheared claystone. Some calcite veins about 1 mm. Average RQD : 10% - 95%.

CL partly

D

From Table 1, average of RQD (Rock Quality Designation) value of 2 (two) bore hole can be classified according to Deere's classification system (1966), for rock mass with RQD values 40 – 95 % is classified into “fair to good rock” level, where the condition is assumed as the form of blocky and seamy rock as part as volcanic breccia (Fig. 5). Coefficient permeability (k) of rock mass was measured by the groundwater inflow through at join or discontinuities of rock mass. Fig. 5 also shows estimation values of coefficient of permeability.

Fig. 5 Coefficient permeability of rock

4. STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ROCK CONCLUSION

Deere and Miller (1966) describe the values of strength below of 250 kgf/cm2 for rock can be classified as “very low rock strength”. Since the characteristic of rock material exists between soil and rock or an intermediate material, so that the failure criterion has to be selected according with the conditions of the existing rock layers.

There are many constitutive models of rock fractures and rock masses for numerical modeling of the physical behavior of fractured rocks. However, it should be noted that it is difficult to determine the constitutive models are suitable to the intermediate material (soil – rock). Based on some references, theoretically one selected approximation should be determined by some observations in reality, based on certain assumptions according to the different theoretical principles and mathematical approaches adopted, and the material behavior observed in laboratory or field observations. Numerical analysis on this paper deals with the method of assessing the rock shaft excavation stability using the failure criteria from Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek – Brown material. Furthermore, the relationship will be applied to determine strength parameter of rock (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6 Typical analysis to determine the strength

parameter of volcanic breccia (a) and claystone (b) layers based on Hoek – Brown and Mohr – Coulomb using

RocLab analysis (Hoek, 2002)

5. SELECTION OF REINFORCEMENT

Rock reinforcement method is purposed to support two layers of rock mass, such as: volcanic breccia and claystone layers. Design for reinforcement system is required to minimize some deformations around the tunnel construction. The rock mass reinforcement system designed uses Q system (Grimstad & Barton, 1993).

Selection of rock reinforcement system for volcanic breccia and claystone layers is determined by Grimstad & Barton chart (1993) (Fig. 7), where volcanic breccia includes in the category (4) and claystone exists in the category (8), respectively. Shotcrete and concrete collar will be applied for both layers.

Fig. 7 Rock improvement system (Grimstad &

Barton,1993)

Then, construction method is selected by Fig. 7 and obtained that excavation works will use drilling and blasting methods. Depth of excavation works in one stage is around 1.5 m. For every stage will be installed the temporary construction included shotcrete with 20 cm in thickness, rockbolt with 6.0 m length and lattice arch for the wall side, and also concrete collar with 1.5 m in thickness from the top side of gate shaft. Distance of each rockbolt point is 1.5 m for vertical and 1.0 m in horizontal directions. Parameter of the selected improvement system can be considered by Table 2.

Table 2 Parameter of reinforcement system

Parameter Unit Value Rockbolt (as node to node anchor)

Diameter (d) m 0.025 Elastic modulus (E) kPa 2.00E+08 Area (A) m2 4.91E-04 EA kN 9.82E+04

Concrete collar (as a plate) Thickness (t) m 1.5 Elastic modulus (E) kPa 2.19E+07 Area (A) m2 1.5 Inertia moment (I) m4 2.81E-01 EA kN 3.29E+07 EI kNm2 6.16E+06

Grouting and geogrid EA kN 2.50E+02

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Simulation analysis uses axisymmetric model (2D and 3D) of gate shaft is shown by Fig. 8 for both layers (volcanic breccia and claystone).

Fig. 8. Typical of geometric model of gate shaft

6. SIMULATION ANALYSIS

RESULTS 2D and 3D models using PLAXIS (Brinkgreve, 2007), the staged excavation was conducted at every 1.50 m depth; installing of rock mass improvement system; and applying distributed loads at the surface around the gate shaft during excavation process are similar. Distributed loads or (A) were assumed to be 50 kN/m2. Figs. 9 and 10 show the construction plan before the assessment analysis, and fluctuation of groundwater table during construction. Fluctuation of groundwater table was due to influenced by every the staged excavation.

Fig. 9 Construction plan of gate shaft

Fig. 10 Groundwater level fluctuation

At initial condition during analysis, overall excavation and installation process of reinforcement system was not performed yet. On the first stage, there was not applying load and rock mass improvement system. However, on the next step, excavation was started to the depth of 1.5 meters and then followed by reinforcement system process installation. Distributed load on each stage of excavation process until to the depth of 45 m was 50 kN/m2. Fig. 11 shows the initial stress condition where there was not activity of works. Fig. 12 illustrates the process of excavation to the maximum depth and reinforcement process installation for each stage after initial condition.

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Fig. 11 Initial condition of gate shaft before

applied of distributed load and no reinforcement

Fig. 12 Process of excavation to the maximum depth and reinforcement process on staged

construction

Fig. 13 shows the typical of gate shaft deformation and the total displacement in element modeling of 2D after excavation process to the depth of 45 m and Fig. 14 shows the deformation in 3D analysis. Magnitude of total displacement was depended on the failure criterion of soil and or rock. From laboratory and field tests, it was difficult to select one constitutive model which was suitable with the existing condition at the site. Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek –

Brown materials were used to determine magnitude of lateral displacement.

Fig. 13 Typical deformed mesh on 2D gate shaft element with the reinforcement system

Fig. 14 Typical deformed mesh on 3D

7. EVALUATION USING INCLINOMETER

Inclinometer instrumentation was installed on collar concrete wall of the gate shaft. Position inclinometer points around the collar concrete wall (Elevation+ 295.500) was 1 (one) m depth from the top of excavated gate shaft. Number of installed inclinometer devices was 4 (four) points with code number of BH 1, BH 2, BH 3, and BH 4. The depth of installed inclinometer devices were between 44.0 and 56.0 m depth. Coordinates and depths of each inclinometer devices are shown on Fig. 15. Measurement of inclinometer

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was performed for 8 (eight) months continually according to the time interval and sequentially in accordance with the cycle excavation works from initial reading as described by the flowchart in Fig. 16. In 1 (one) cycle, each phase of excavation is performed 1.5 m depth, then followed by installation of temporary reinforcement namely: concrete collar, shotcrete, rockbolt and lattice arch.

Fig. 15. Position of inclinometer points

Fig. 16 Work excavation cycle of the gate shaft

8. DISCUSSION AND

RECOMMENDATION Based on results of the simulation data, horizontal displacement of gate shaft structure can be reduced significantly by reinforcement system. However, horizontal displacement determined by using 2D, and or 3D analysis was quite different. The difference of analysis results is caused by the difference approach of material constitutive models used in the simulation. Fig. 17 shows the

comparison between of horizontal displacement using Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek – Brown material, and also the existing maximum lateral movement measured inclinometer system during time observation.

From the Fig. 17, the lateral movement predicted by using Mohr – Coulomb material constitutive model is larger than Hoek – Brown. The results from inclinometer device show that the existing lateral movement measured is smaller than assessment results applied by the Hoek – Brown material failure criterion. From observation at the field during the inclinometer measurement, the lateral movements were more caused by the vibration during the excavation process using blasting method. The lateral movement on volcanic breccia layers initiated by the collapse of material composed of broken rock fragments varying in size. However, the lateral movements on claystone layers were started by the emerged of the fault or crack zones. The fault zone of claystone layers can be subjected to slumping and magnitudes of lateral movement were dominated by claystone layers.

When pore water pressure generated by the consolidation calculation using Mohr-Coulomb model will not be representative of those in – situ excess pore water pressures produced under an undrained loading condition, even though they involved consolidation or seepage condition according to the change of excess pore water pressure and mean effective stress. However, Elasto – perfectly plastic deformation using Hoek – Brown model is the non-linear computation carried out for loading stage during excavation process with varying applied loads. All steps of Plaxis has no

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consideration of time–dependent phenomena such as volumetric consolidation or pore pressure dissipation.

Fig. 17 Comparison between of maximum lateral

movement and horizontal displacement based on Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek – Brown failure criterion

Stability condition of claystone layers were more influenced by movements of volcanic breccia layers. Small movements of both layers could determine a large fall in the available shear strength and therefore can cause a large safety reduction. Some reinforcement systems (such as: concrete collar, shotcrete, and rockbolt) could reduce the both soil movement vertically and horizontally. From back analysis, safety factor without reinforcement system was existed between 0.98 - 1.03. And then, with using reinforcement systems were generated between 2.32 - 2.97 analyzed by constitutive model from Mohr – Coulomb and Hoek – Brown. However, the risk to a rock shaft during excavation is greater than that to a soil shaft, even though the two average designed safety factors are the same. Consequently, the analysis, it should be considered to use the failure criteria of intermediate material. Then, Plaxis also should be

developed for intermediate material, it can accomodate type soil and rock material.

9. REFERENCES [1] Brinkgreve, R. B. 2007. Plaxis.

Delft University of Technology and Plaxis b.v. Holland.

[2] Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), 1950. Rock Classification Report, Japanese National Committee on Large Dam and Standard for Geological Investigation of Dam Foundations.

[3] Deere, D.U., and Miller, R.P. 1966. Engineering classification and index properties for intact rock: Air Force Weapons Laboratory Technical Report AFWL-TR-65-116, 277 p.

[4] Grimstad E. and Barton N., 1993. Updating of the Q-system for NMT. International Symposium on Sprayed Concrete. Fagernes, Proc., pp. 46-66.

[5] Hoek, E., Carranza-Torres, C. and Corkum, B. 2002. The Hoek-Brown failure criterion – 2002 Edition. Proc. 5th North American Rock Mechanics Sym. and 17th. Tunneling Assn of Canada conf. pp. 267-271. Toronto:NARMS-TAC.

[6] Hoek, E. and Brown, E.T. 1997. Practical estimates or rock mass strength. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.g Sci. & Geomech. Abstr.. 34(8), 1165-1186.

[7] Hoek, E. 1994. Strength of rock and rock masses, ISRM News Journal, 2(2), 4-16.

[8] Hoek, E. and Brown, E.T. 1988. The Hoek-Brown failure criterion - a 1988 update. In Rock engineering for underground excavations, proc. 15th Canadian

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rock mech. symp., (ed. J.C. Curran), 31-38. Toronto: Dept. Civ. Engineering, University of Toronto.

[9] Hoek, E. 1983. Strength of jointed rock masses, 23rd. Rankine Lecture. Géotechnique 33(3), 187-223.

[10] Hoek E. and Brown E.T. 1980. Underground Excavations in Rock . London: Instn Min.Metall. 527 pages.

[11] Moesdarjono, S. 2009. Teknik Pondasi pada Lapisan Batuan. Surabaya, itspress.

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Electrical Energy Potential of Undersea Current Power Plant in the Manado Bay North Sulawesi

Parabelem T.D. Rompas1, Jenly D.I. Manongko2

1,2Mechanical Engineering Education Department, Faculty of Engineering, UNIMA UNIMA Fatek campus Tondano Minahasa, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

[email protected]

Abstract Electrical energy potential of undersea current power plant in the Manado bay, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia has been investigated. The objective of this research is to predict available renewable energy in the Manado bay. The method used a numerical model of the Navier Stoke’s equations through a approach of semi-implicit finite difference 3D where the pressure distribution on a vertical layer of sea water assumed hydrostatic. Energy was found underwater currents in the Manado bay potential for development of power generation turbine installation underwater currents which the maximum available power per m2 at seawater column of 1 m when high tide currents at debit 0.1 Sv is 2.1 kW/m2. Key Words: Renewable energy, undersea currents, semi-implicit, Manado bay 1. INTRODUCTION A semi-implicit finite difference method for the numerical solution of three-dimensional shallow water flows used to predict electrical energy potential of undersea current power plant in Manado bay. Several numerical methods with solution of shallow water equations are used in practical applications [3, 4, 7, 11]. Several existing numerical model for two and three dimensional shallow water flow simulations are based on an alternating direction implicit ADI method. In semi-implicit methods only the barotropic pressure gradient in the momentum equations and the velocity divergence in the continuity equation are taken implicitly. Each time step a linear five-diagonal system is solved in the new water surface elevations for the entire domain are the unknowns. The model is generally explicit with the exception that the vertical eddy viscosity terms are discretized implicitly. In the model formulation the governing system of equations is split into an external and an internal mode [2]. Momentum exchanges between vertical layers are expressed

in a set of tri-diagonal matrix equations relating the discrete horizontal velocities in each vertical level to the gradient of the water surface elevations [11]. A formal expression for the solution of these tri-diagonal systems can be written in terms of the barotropic pressure gradient. Substituting the formal solutions into the vertically integrated continuity equation gives rise to a linear five-diagonal system whose only unknowns are the water surface elevation over the domain of interest. Such a system is symmetric and positive definite and can be solved uniquely and efficiently by using a conjugate gradient method. By direct substitution of the barotropic pressure gradient known at the advanced time level, the horizontal velocity for each vertical layer can be computed. The vertical velocity component can be found by integration of the continuity equation. This paper is more majoring to study and know the availability of kinetic energy in the Manado bay. This study is intended for the installation of hydroliennes in the place more adapted strait in order to

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provide electrical current to the close environment.

The objective of this research is to predict available renewable energy in the Manado bay by the available power per horizontal unit of area of the strait from the numerical results.

The contributions of this study are to fulfill electric availability especially for residential and commercial demands in North Sulawesi, Indonesia and also the development of North Sulawesi, Indonesia, particularly in the field of industry which faces some constraints due to the limited electricity supply.

2. THEORY 2.1 Mathematical Model

The model of three-dimensional equations which developed from the Navier-Stokes equations after turbulent averaging and under assumption that the pressure is hydrostatic [2, 8], the density is constant, and free surface flows in estuarine embayments and coastal oceans. The model of equations become

vfzu

zyu

xu

xg

zuw

yuv

xuu

tu

t .2

2

2

2

+

∂∂

∂∂

+

∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

−=∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂ υµη

........................................................ (1)

ufzv

zyv

xv

yg

zvw

yvv

xvu

tv

t .2

2

2

2

+

∂∂

∂∂

+

∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

−=∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂ υµη

........................................................ (2)

0=∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

zw

yv

xu

............. (3)

where u(x,y,z,t), v(x,y,z,t), and w(x,y,,z,t) are the velocity components in the directions represent x, y, and z respectively, η(x,y,t) is the free surface, t is the time, µ and tυ are the eddy viscosity coefficients of

horizontal and vertical respectively, f is the Coriolis parameter, assumed to be constant, and g is the constant gravitational acceleration. The current computing power does allow taken into the account direct one by using the Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes Equations (RANS) [1].

A formula for turbulent viscosity is the standard form as defined from the mixing-length model with assuming

zvywyvxuzw ∂∂<<∂∂∂∂+∂∂<<∂∂ //,)/()/()/( 222 and zuxw ∂∂<<∂∂ // for shallow water flows where vertical velocity w is small was used by Stansby [9] and Cea [4]. The eddy viscosity is computed at each point from the horizontal and vertical component velocity gradients and length scales for horizontal and vertical motion, giving a formula for turbulent viscosity as:

∂∂

+∂∂

+

∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

= 2242224 )()()()(2)(2zv

zul

yu

xv

yv

xul vhtυ

........................................................ (4)

for lv = κ(z-zb), for (z-zb)/h < λ/κ; lv = λh, for λ/κ < (z-zb)/h < 1; and lh = β lv, for the horizontal length scale is larger; where κ is the von Karman's constant (κ = 0.41), λ is a constant (λ = 0.09), (z-zb) is the distance from the wall, h is the boundary layer thickness assumed to be equal to the water depth, lv and lh are the vertical and horizontal length scales, and the constant β has to be determined from comparison with experiment.

For the problem studied in this paper, some types of boundary conditions are required. These are imposed as follows: (i) the boundary conditions at the free surface are specified by the prescribed wind stresses of directions x and y, and a slip boundary

0// =∂∂=∂∂ zvzu . (ii) the boundary conditions at the bottom stress can be

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related to the turbulent law of the wall, a drag coefficient associated with using a Chezy formula [2,6]. (iii) the boundary conditions for velocity on a solid wall is a no-slip condition [6], and on the open boundary, we used principally two condition, the first is Neumann method and the second is a condition radiation which derived from Orlanski’s algorithm that developed by Treguier et al. [10].

The available power in the Manado bay per unit cross-sectional area, we can be obtaining from equation:

3310v21 −= ρP …...................(5)

where P in kW/m2, v is the velocity resultant of marine current (m/s) and ρ is seawater density (kg/m3).

2.2 Numerical Model Semi-implicit finite difference method for the numerical solution of the three-dimensional equations (1) and (2) was used by Casulli & Cheng [2], Stansby [8], Rodriguez et al [7], and Chen [5] in the computation of shallow water flows. The free surface flow equations can be derived in which the gradient of surface elevation in the momentum equations and the velocity can be discretized implicitly. The convective, Coriolis and horizontal viscosity terms in the momentum equations discretized explicitly, but in order to eliminate a stability condition due to the vertical

eddy viscosity, the vertical mixing terms discretized implicitly.

Pig 1. Schematic diagram of computational mesh and notations

Pic 1 shown that a spatial mesh which consists of rectangular cells of length Δx, width Δy and height Δzk is introduced. Each cell is numbered at its centre with indices i, j and k. The discrete u-velocity is then defined at half-integer i, j and k; v is defined at integers i, k, and half-integer j; w is defined at integers i, j, and half-integer k. Then η is defined at integers i and j. The water depth h(x,y) is specified at the u and v horizontal points. So that a general semi-implicit discretization of the momentum equations in equations (1) and (2) can be written in the more compact matrix form as

( ) nji

nji

nji

nji

nji

nji x

tg ,2/11

,1,1,2/1

1,2/1,2/1 +

++++

+++ −

∆∆

−= ΔZGUA ηη

....................................................... (6) ( ) n

jin

jin

jin

jin

jin

ji ytg 2/1,

1,

11,2/1,

12/1,2/1, +

++++

+++ −

∆∆

−= ΔZGVA ηη

........................................................(7)

where U, V, ΔZ, G and A are defined as:

,

:1

,,2/1

12,,2/1

11,,2/1

1,,2/1

1,2/1

=

++

+−+

+−+

++

++

nmji

nMji

nMji

nMji

nji

u

u

u

u

U

,

:1

,2/1,

12,2/1,

11,2/1,

1,2/1,

12/1,

=

++

+−+

+−+

++

++

nmji

nMji

nMji

nMji

nji

v

v

v

v

V

∆

∆∆∆

=∆ −

−

m

M

M

M

z

zzz

:2

1

Z

,

x

z

η

h

i,j

i ,j,k-1/2

i,j,k+1/2

i,j,k-1/2

i+ ,j,k1/2 i+ ,j,k1/2 i,j,k

i

W

W

U U (∆zu) (∆z)

∆x

z

xy

U

W

V

i,j,k+1/2

i ,j,k+1/2

i,j ,k+1/2

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∆

∆

∆

∆+∆

=

+

−+−

−+−

+

+

nmjim

nMjiM

nMjiM

wx

nMjiM

nji

Fuz

Fuz

Fuz

tFuz

,,2/1

2,,2/12

1,,2/11

,,2/1

,2/1

:

τ

G

,

∆

∆

∆

∆+∆

=

+

−+−

−+−

+

+

nmjim

nMjiM

nMjiM

wy

nMjiM

nji

Fvz

Fvz

Fvz

tFvz

,2/1,

2,2/1,2

1,2/1,1

,2/1,

2/1,

:

τ

G

( )

+∆+

∆∆

+∆∆

∆−

∆∆−

∆∆

+∆

∆+∆

∆∆−

∆∆−

∆∆

+∆

=

+

+

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

−

2

22

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/3

2/3

2/3

2/3

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/1

2/1

0

::::

0

Czvutg

ztz

zt

zt

zt

ztz

zt

zt

ztz

m

mm

m

m

M

M

M

M

M

MM

M

M

M

M

M

MM

νν

νννν

νν

A

where m and M denote the k-index of the bottom and the top finite difference stencil respectively, Cz is the Chezy's friction coefficient, w

xτ

and wyτ are wind stresses, and F is

non-linear finite difference operator and an explicit. Equations (6) and (7) are linear tri-diagonal systems. For determine the free surface 1

,+njiη can be

written in the matrix notation form

( ) ( )[ ]( ) ( )[ ]1

2/1,T

2/1,1

2/1,T

2/1,

1,2/1

T,2/1

1,2/1

T,2/1

1,,

1,,

+−−

+++

+−−

+++

++

−∆∆

−

−∆∆

−=

njiji

njiji

njiji

njiji

nji

nji

yt

xt

VΔZVΔZ

UΔZUΔZηη

.........................................................(8) We will be little algebra from equation (5) and equation of the available power in the Manado bay per unit cross-sectional area as follows:

331,, 10)v(

21 −+= n

kjiP ρ ..................... (9)

where P is the marine current power in the Manado bay in kW/m2 and

2221,, wvuv ++=+nkji is velocity

resultant with )(21u 1

,,11,,

++

+ += nkji

nkji uu ,

)(21v 1

,1,1,,

++

+ += nkji

nkji vv and

)(21w 1

1,,1,,

++

+ += nkji

nkji ww are scalars,

respectively. 3. METHODOLOGY The Manado bay is located between the Pacific ocean and the Sulawesi sea (Celebes sea) whose area is approximately 300 km2 (Pic 2), with an average width about 2.2 km and down to 79 meters deep (especially to numerical analysis area).

The three-dimensional current circulation in the Manado bay is simulated using the present model with a 174 x 318 finite difference mesh of equal Δx = Δy = 7 m. The numerical solutions have been achieved using four vertical layers and an integration time Δt = 0.4 sec, and inlet volume transports at sections Singkil river, North, and South of Manado bay (see Pic 2 and 3) are 0.1 Sv (1000000 m3/s).

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Pic 2. The position of Manado bay in Indonesia and the zone of numerical

Pic 3. The 3-D of the Manado bay with water depth

Pic 3 illustrates the 3-D of the Manado bay with water depth used for numerical simulation. The water depth distributions show the complex areas where maximum depth of 79 m.

4. ANALYSIS The distributions of the available power per m2 at seawater column of 1

m when high tide currents at debit of 0.1 Sv in the Manado bay are shown in pic 4. The available power per m2 when low tide current of 0-20 kW/m2. On the contrary, the biggest available power per m2 when high tide current is 0-105 kW/m2. It caused by fairly strong currents occur due to tidal currents.

(a)

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(B)

Pic 4. The available power per m2 distributions : (a) low tide current, (b) high tide current

We can see that available power per m2 when high tide current (see pic 4.b) at in front of the Singkil river (in the enter channel) where around 80-105 kW/m2 bigger than the other area in around that of 1-60 kW/m2. That thing caused by existence of manger and average depth in the place of ~5 m. Also, in West area, especially at center area where power availabilities around 16-20 kW/m2. Whereas in North area where available power per m2 still less unless in South area about 30-50 kW /m2. If we see in Westside (left hand) where there are power availabilities biggest around 10-15 kW/m2. Different with it, when low tide current (see pic 4.a) at in front of the Singkil river, East-North, and East-South, where around 15-20 kW/m2. Whereas at the enter channel in Singkil river of 0.5-8 kW/m2. It is caused due to the confluence of the river and the ocean currents, also, the flow of river water to move freely into the sea with an average depth of 2 m.

5. CONCLUSION Electrical energy potential of undersea current power plant in the Manado bay, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia has been presented. The maximum available power per m2 at seawater column of

20 m when high tide currents at debit 0.3 Sv is 2.1 kW/m2. The value will make it possible to choose a suitable place for installing the turbines adapted well for a future undersea currents electricity power plant in the Manado bay.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Broomans P (2003) Numerical

accuracy in solution of the shallow-water equations, Master thesis, TU Delft & WL, Delft Hydraulics.

[2] [Casulli V, and Cheng R.T (1992) Semi-implicit finite difference methods for three-dimensional shallow water flow, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, vol.15, p629-648.

[3] Casulli V, and Walters R.A (2000) An unstructured grid, three-dimensional model based on the shallow water equations, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, vol.32, p331-348.

[4] Cea L, French J.R, and Vazquez-Cendon M.E (2006) Numerical modelling of tidal flows in complex estuaries including turbulence: An unstructured finite

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volume solver and experimental validation, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, vol.67, 1909-1932.

[5] Chen X (2003) A free-surface correction method for simulating shallow water flows, Journal of Computational Physics, vol.189, p557-578.

[6] Hervouet J.M (2007) Hydrodynamics of free surface flows: Modelling with the finite element method, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Englang: cop, ISBN 978-0-470-03558-0 (HB), xiv-341p.

[7] Rodriguez C, Serre E, Rey C, and Ramirez H (2005) A numerical model for shallow-water flows: dynamics of the eddy shedding, WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development, vol.1, p280-287.

[8] Stansby P.K (1997) Semi-implicit finite volume shallow-water flow and solute transport solver with k-ε turbulence model, International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, vol.25, p285-313.

[9] Stansby P.K (2003) A mixing-length model for shallow turbulent wakes, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol.495, p369-384.

[10] Treguier A.M, Barnier B, De Miranda A.P (2001) An eddy-permitting model of the Atlantic circulation: Evaluating open boundary condition, J. Geophy. Res. Oceans, 106 (C10): 22115-22129, pp. 1-23.

[11] Zarrati A.R, and Jin Y.C (2004) Development of a generalized multi-layer model for 3-D simulation of free surface flows, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, vol.46, p1049-1067.

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Optimazation of Battery Waste Carbon Quantity on Design of Cathode in Electrocoagulation Process Tank to Reducing Metal

Content in Waste Water

Sutanto1, Danang Widjajanto2 1,2Electrical Engineering,State Polytechnic Jakarta

Jl Prof. Dr. G.A. Siwabessy ,Kampus Universitas Indonesia, Depok E-mail : [email protected]

Abstract

Metal Contet in uncontrolled industrial waste water can cause environmental pollution. To prevent environment destruction, The metal contents must be decreased to a safe treshold. The safe treshold of metal content in waste water was defined by a Resolution of Indonesian Environment Minister No.Kep-03/MENKLH/II/1991. This research implement electrocoagulation process using aluminium anode and cathode from battery waste carbon. 7 liters industrial waste water was flowing into electrocoagulation process tank sized 20 cm x 20 cm x 20 cm. 12V electric power was implementeed during 30 minutes. The experiment was conduted by varying the number of battery waste carbon cathode in electrocoagulation process, that are 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, and 70 rod. The carbon rod have height of 5.5 cm and diameter of 8mm. The copper content in wastewater was analyzed by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The results of 6 minutes process showed that copper content is reduced from 4.32 mg/L to 0.98 mg/L or equivalent of 77.31 %,, nickel content is reduced from 1.37 mg/L to 0.05 mg/L or equivalent of 96.35 % , chromium content is reduced from 1.76 mg/L to 0,01 mg/L or equivalent of 99.43 % , iron content is reduced from 1.41 mg/L to 0,17 mg/L or equivalent of 87.94 % Key Words: waste water, pollution, battery waste carbon cathode, electrocoagulation 1. INTRODUCTION Pollutants in industrial wastewater are found in the form of organic material or heavy metals. The organic pollutants include: dyes, residual carbohydrates, detergents, oils, fats, alcohol, phenol and so on. Whereas the heavy metal pollutants include lead, copper, zinc, arsenic, mercury, chromium, nickel, silver and iron. Sources of industrial waste water usually comes from the water used to wash contaminated chemical process equipment or waste water containing remnants of chemicals that are infeasible to be used.

Industrial waste water containing organic pollutants or heavy metals is quite high. The industrial waste water containing organic or heavy metal pollutants that exceeds the safe threshold must be processed first to meet the requirement threshold prior to discharge into the environment.

Unproperly handled waste water will result in environmental pollution and disturb the preservation of living things.

The Decree of the Minister of Environment No. Kep-03 / MENKLH / II / 1991 states that for environmental safety, they recommend maximum levels of pollutants in the wastewater are, respectively: 1 mg/L for iron (Fe), 0.5 mg/L for magnesium (Mg), 0.5 mg/L for manganese (Mn), 1 mg/L for barium (Ba), 1 mg/L for copper (Cu), 0.1 mg/L for chromium (Cr), 0. 01 mg/L for cadmium (Cd), 0.03 for lead (Pb), 0.1 mg/L for nickel (Ni), 0.2 mg/L for cobalt (Co), 1 mg/L for oil and 0.01 mg/L for phenol.

One method that was developed for wastewater treatment is the implementation of the electrolysis principle known as


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electrocoagulation process. In this research aluminium was used as anode material and carbon of waste water as anode material.

This research studied the impact of changing quantity of battery waste carbon cathode in decreasing the pollutants in waste water. The waste water that fulfill the regulation of Minister of Environment Decree No. Kep-03 / MENKLH / II / 1991 can be obtained in the certain process conditions and the use of a certain amount of carbon. The amount of carbon marks on the conditions determined as optimum conditions.

2. THEORY A methods to remove heavy metals in wastewater using electrocoagulation process have been done by Eiband et al (2014) [1]. A metal that have been studied is lead (Pb). This study reported that process efficiency can reach more than 90%. The advantage of electrocoagulation method compared with other methods is that it need not any chemical addition to bind metals and organic matter in the wastewater, so it doesn’t give negative effects or adverse effects on the environment.

Sutanto et al (2010) [2], stated that in the electrocoagulation process using the anode and cathode of the aluminum reaction are as follows :

reaksi pada anoda (oksidasi):

2AL 2Al+3 + 6 e-.............(1)

reaksi pada katoda (reduksi):

6H2O + 6 e- 6 OH - + 3H2 +..(2)

2Al+6 H2O 2 Al(OH)3+ 3H2 ....(3)

Equation (3) show how Al (OH)3 is formed. Al(OH)3 acts as a coagulant.

Al(OH)3 form clumps or floc that are precipitate easily. The working principle of the electrocoagulation process with anode and cathode of aluminum can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Electrocoagulatioan principles of Al All

Working principles of the electrocoagulation process using aluminum as anode and carbon as cathode can be explained by figure 2 (Carmona et al, 2006) [3]

Figure 2. Electroagulation piinciple of Al - C

When DC source is turned on an electric field is formed.and electrons e move from the anode towards the cathode. At the same time the metal L in wastewater decompose and form cations L+n. Due to the influence of the electric field, cations L+n move toward the cathode and are neutralized by electrons to form neutral metal L around the cathode

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surface. The mechanism of deposition of metal ions L+n (cations) in the wastewater can be explained as follows:

Anoda ( aluminium or Al) :

Al+3H2OAl(OH)3+3H++3e ........(4) Cathode (inert material carbon or C) :

(3/n) L +n +3e (3/n)L + ..(5)

Total reaction :

Al+3H2O+(3/n)L+nAl(OH)3+(3/n)L+3H+ ......................................................................................(6)

Equation (6) it shows that the electrocoagulation process is able to produce a coagulant compound Al (OH)3 that form lumps or flocs and bind metals that have been neutralized, so it is easily deposited on the bottom of the process tank.

According to Chen et al (2000) [4], a design equation was needed for design purposes related to the formation of metal ions Al3+ in electrocoagulation process. If the process is continue, then the equation of the residence time of water in the vessel is:

t = (s)(A)/Q ...................................(7)

with t: residence time of wastewater in the vessel (s), A: cross sectional area of the vessel (cm2), Q: discharge of waste water (cm3/s), S: vessel’s height (cm). The equation for the electrolysis process time according to Faraday's first law is:

t = [(96.500)(m)(n)]/[(ar)(I)] ........ (8)

with t: processing time (sec), m: mass of Al+3 released by the anode (g), n:changes in oxidation number, ar: relative atomic mass, I: electric current (ampere).

If Eq. (7) is inserted into Eq. (8), the resulted equation is:

(s)(A)/Q=(96.500)(m)(n)/[ar)(I)] ..(9)

So the equation for the mass of the metal ions Al+3 that is produced by electrocoagulation process are:

m=(s)(A)(ar)(I)/[(Q)(96.500)(n)...(10)

In this case n = 3 and ar = 27. Eq. (10) explained that increasing current on process, will cause increasing in the formation of Al (OH)3 . Consequently supplies coagulant Al (OH)3 increased, and so that the opportunity and speed of pollutants to precipitate in the waste water will be increase as well.

The equation for batch process is as follows :

m=(ar)(VA)(t)/[(96.500)(n)(ρL)]..(11)

With m: mass of Al+3 which is released by the anode (g), V: DC voltage source (V), ρ: specific resistance of solution (ohm.cm), L: distance between the electrodes (cm), A: cross sectional area of the electrode (cm2 ). For the electrocoagulation process that is run in "batch", the amount of ions Al+3 which is the coagulant compound-forming elements of Al(OH)3 are very dependent on four (4) parameters. These four parameters are: source voltage, the electrode cross-sectional area, processing time and the distance between the electrodes. The higher voltage, the more ions Al+3 formed; the longer the processing time; the shorter the distance between the electrodes, the more ions Al+3

formed. In this case the distance between the electrodes strongly influence the design model of electrocoagulation to process wastewater. This means that

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increasing quantity of cells in the process will shorter the time needed to reduce pollutants in the waste water. Due to the greater number of cells used will result in the shorter distance between the electrodes, so that the formation of Al (OH)3 becomes more and more.

In electrocoagulation study that apply continue process to wastewater containing pollutants Pb and 10.00 ppm, dissolved solids (TSS) of 200 ppm, Pb contents can be reduced to 99.16% and dissolved solids to 80.24%. The process conducted by apply 5.0 ampere current for 120 min at a flow rate of 1.5 liters/min. Electrodes used is aluminum. The content of Pb testing is done with AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer) and TTS content with gravimetric (Sutanto et al, 2011) [5].

The electrocoagulation treatment to wastewater from abattoir waste (RPH) using batch process by placing the waste liquid in the electrolysis cell have been done before. The process is run for a certain period to reduce levels of total suspended solids (TSS), total disolved solids (TDS), pH and turbidity. From the results, TSS and TDS levels are getting lower and the greater the efficiency of removal. This indicates that the sewage water has better quality (Bayramoglu et al, 2006) [6].

Decreasing in arsenic (As) in drinking water has been studied by electrocoagulation process using a combination of Al-Fe electrode-Al-Fe (anode-cathode-anode-cathode). Batch research result indicate that arsenic can be reduced to 96%. Initial content of arsenic is 150 mg/L with a pH 7 condition, the current density 2.5 A/m 2 and process duration of 1

minute. When process is run continuously at flow rates of 0.05 L/min for 3 minutes, a decline of arsenic content from 150 mg/L to 5.9 mg/L. The content of arsenic in drinking water can cause pain, uncontrolled hypertension, liver damage, hardening of the skin and so on (Kobya et al, 2013) [7].

An electrocoagulation study using four electrodes the made from aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) shows that the process requires a shorter operating time and achieve better efficiency in removing TDS and DD than if merely using two electodes. It takes 70 minutes with the removal of TSS and TDS ability to reach 99% for the process that used four electrodes, while for the process that merely use two electrodes, it takes 90 minutes with the ability of TSS and TDS removal reaches a maximum of only 98% (Ardhani et al, 2007) [8 ]. and so on (Kobya et al, 2013) [7].

3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 MATERIAL Aluminum electrodes (HTC 16-35) , the cathode of carbon (C) former ABC brand battery with SNI code 04-2051.2-2004, R20SIEC / UM-1 / D-shaped cylinder with a length of 5.5 cm and a diameter of 8 mm, and industrial wastewater by physical and chemical conditions as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Physical condition of waste water

Parameter Measurement Result

Copper (Cu) 4.32 mg/L Nickel (Ni)) 1.37 mg/L Chromium (Cr) 1.76 mg/L Iron (Fe) 1.41 mg/L pH (acidity degree) 7.64 Turbidity 44.10 NTU Oil and Fat 27 mg/L

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3.2 SUPPORTING TOOLS Water pump, Multi meter, Turbidity meter and AAS

3.3 EXPERIMENT LOCATION Electronic laboratory, Electronic Department – Politeknik Negeri Jakarta

Affiliate chemistry laboratory, Science faculty – Indonesian University

3.4 SERIES OF RESEARCH TOOL

The Sketch of research tools series can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Series of research tools

The tool consists of a DC source, Avometer, waste water tank, electrocoagulation process tank, precipitation waste tank and reservoirs to accomodate processed water. An adapter with a voltage between 0 to 30 V is used as a source of DC current. The sizes of waste water tank are 40 cm length, 40 cm width and 40 cm height. Square-shaped tank for electrocoagulation process is composed of two and three cells. Two cell type tank has 10 cm length and 20 cm height. For three cells types tank has 6.7 cm width and 20 cm length. Each tanks was

equiped with anode of aluminum 2.5 mm x 19 cm x 19 cm and 60 cathode made from the batteries waste carbon with diameter of 8 mm and a length of 5.5 cm. The Precipitation waste tank have square shape with the size height of 50 cm, length of 50 cm and width of 50 cm. Reservoir of processed water have cuboid shape with 50 cm side length.

3.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF RESEARCH

Execution of the research sequence carried out as follows:

a. As cathode 5 battery waste carbon rod was arranged in parallel on surface of a piece of acrilic.

b. Installing prepared anode cathode in the electrocoagulation process tank.

c. 7 liter industrial waste water were flowed to the electrocoagulation tank.

d. Apply 12 volt DC voltage source to the electrodes , read the current value on the installed amperemeter.

e. DC source was turned off after 30 minutes.

f. All the water from the electrocoagulation tank were flowed into precipitated tank to separate impurities.

g. Metal content analysis by AAS and turbidity by turbidimetry.

Next study will used various number of waste battery carbon, i.e. 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70 and 72 stems. Experimental observation time every 10 minutes ANALYSIS

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Table 1 mentioned that after processed the metal after content of copper (Cu) was 4:32 mg/L, nickel (Ni) was 1:37 mg/L, the chromium (Cr) was 1.76 mg/L, and iron (Fe) is 1:41 mg/L. Based on the regulation of the Minister of Environment No. Kep 03 / MENKLH / II / 1991 all of those metal content is not eligible to be discharged into the environment.

Because they were far higher than the minimum requirements recommended. This means that the content of all metals must be reduced to comply with the rules of the Minister of Environment No. Kep 03 / MENKLH / II / 1991. Results of measurement of metal pollutants and turbidity levels in the waste water process results can be seen in Table 2.

Table 2 Results of measurements of the metal content in the waste water industry after experiencing electrocoagulation process (voltage 12 V, retention time 30 minutes)

The amount of ex-battery carbon Copper (Cu), mg/L Nickel (Ni),

(mg/L) Chromium (Cr), mg/L

Iron (Fe), mg/L

5 4.21 1.31 1.62 1.39 10 3.87 1.22 1.41 1.31 15 3.43 1.11 1.22 1.23 20 2.92 0.99 1.09 1.01 25 2.76 0.78 0.94 0.98 30 2.24 0.59 0.69 0.80 35 2.11 0.38 0.47 0.71 40 1.98 0.26 0.32 0.60 45 1.45 0.11 0.18 0.52 50 1.12 0.09 0.07 0.32 55 0.98 0.05 0.01 0.17 60 0.76 0.01 Ttd 0.11 65 0.45 Ttd \ttd ttd 70 0.21 Ttd Ttd ttd

Table 2 indicated that increasing number of waste batteriy carbon will decrease metal content and increasing the process speed as well. Use of 10 carbon rods cause copper content in the waste water decreased from 4.32 mg/L to 3.87 mg/L, nickel from 1:37 mg/L to 1.22 mg/L, chromium from 1.76 mg/L to 1.41 mg/L, iron (Fe) in the waste water decreased from 1.41 mg/L to 1.31 mg/L. Increase in the amount of waste battery carbon cause increase additional surface area on the cathode. Based on the electricity theory, it can be explained that increasing surface area of electrodes will decrease resistance between the electrodes. Decreasing of solution resistance decreased will cause increase of electric current Increasing in electric current. Curent increase will increasing flow will result in an increase in the formation of Al (OH) 3 which acts as a coagulant. With the

increasing number of coagulant formation of Al (OH) 3 will lead to the increasing number of pollutants that can be adsorbed copper and easily deposited. As result, the content of metal pollutants in the waste water dereased. Thus it can be concluded that that use of 70 pieces of carbon will have better performance than when the amount of carbon that is only 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10 or 5.

The regulation of the Minister of Environment No. Kep 03 / MENKLH / II / 1991 said that the maximum metal content in waste water was as follows : 1 mg/L for copper, 0.1 mg/L for nickel, 0.1 mg/L for Chromium, and 1 mg/L for iron. From Table 2 we can see that in order to get 1 mg/L or less copper content in wastewater the process should be run with a minimum of 55 pieces of waste

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battery carbon. In these conditions the copper content has reached 0.98 mg/L. In order to get the content of nickel in waste water 0.1mg/L or less the process should be run with a minimum of 50 pieces of waste battery carbon. In these conditions the nickel content has reached 0:09 mg/L. In order to get the content of Chromium in waste water 0.1 mg/L or less the process must be run with a minimum of 50 pieces of used carbon. In these conditions the copper content has reached 0:07 mg/L. In order to obtain the content of iron in the waste water of 1 mg/L or less the process must be run with a minimum of 25 pieces of used carbon. In these conditions the iron content has reached 0.98 mg / L

To ensure that the waste water that has been processed for 30 min electrocoagulation safe for the environment, then the process should be carried out by using a waste battery carbon cathode minimum 55 pieces. Due to the condition of the entire metal pollutants in the waste water has to meet the requirements as stated in the Minister of Environment No. Kep 03 / MENKLH / II / 1991. In this case the copper content can be decreased from the 4.32 mg / L to 0.98 mg / L, the content of nickel can be decreased from the 1.37 mg / L to 0.05 mg/L, the content of Chromium can be decreased from 1.76 to 0.01 mg/L, and the iron content can be decreased from 1,41 mg/L to 0.17 mg/L.

Design model of cathode that made by the waste battery carbon can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Example of the design model of cathode from

waste battery carbon

4. CONCLUSION To become environmentally safe the sampled industrial waste water should that be processed by electrocoagulation process during 30 minutes, and voltage of 12 volts should use minimum 55 pieces of waste battery carbon as cathode. In these conditions the copper content can be decreased from the 4:32 mg/L to 0.98 mg/L, equivalent to 77.31%, nickel content can be decreased from the 1:.7 mg/ Lto 0.05 mg/L, equivalent to 96.35%, chromium can be decreased from the 1.76 mg/L to 0.01 mg/L, equivalent to 99.43% and iron content can be derived from the 1.41 mg/L to 0.17 mg/L, equivalent to 87.94%.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Eiband,M.M.S.G.,Trindade,K.C.D

.A., Gama,K. Melo, J.V.D., Huitle, C.A.M.and

[2] Ferro, S (2014) Elimination of Pb2+ Through Electrocoagulation: Applicability of Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry for Monitoring The Lead Concentration During its Elimination. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. Vol.1, No 1, Pp. 1-8

[3] Sutanto, Widjajanto, D dan Hidjan (2010 ) Pembuatan Air Bersih dari Air

[4] Limbah Menggunakan Proses Elektrokoagulasi dan Fotokatalitik Secara Simultan dengan Pengaktif Tenaga Surya.

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Jurnal Teknologi, Vol 1,No 2, pp. 93-108

[5] Carmona M, Khemis M, Leclerc J P and Lapicque F (2006) A Simple Model to

[6] Predict the Removal of Oil Suspensions from Water Using the Electrocoagulation Technique. Chemical Engineering Science, Vol 61, pp.1237–1246.

[7] Chen X, Chen G and Yue P L (2000) Separation of Pollutants from Restaurant

[8] Wastewater by Electrocoagulation. Sep. Purif. Technol., Vol 19, pp. 65–76.

[9] Sutanto, Widjajanto D (2011) Penurunan Kadar Logam Berat dan Kekeruhan

[10] Kekeruhan Air Limbah Menggunakan Proses Elektrokoagulasi. Jurnal Elite Elektro, Vol 2,No 1, pp. 1-8

[11] Bayramoglu M, Eyvaz M, Kobya M and Senturk E (2006) and Economic

[12] Analysis of Electrocoagulation for the Treatment of Poultry Slaughterhouse Wastewater. Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 51, pp. 404

[13] Kobya, M., Akyol, A., Demirbas, E and Oncel, M.S. (2013). Removal of

[14] Arsenic from Drinking Water by Batch and Continuous Electrocoagulation

[15] Processes Using Hybrid Al-Fe Plate Electrode. American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog.,Vol 33, No 1. Pp.131- 140

[16] Ardhani A F dan Ismawati D (2007) Penanganan Limbah Cair Rumah

[17] Pemotongan Hewan dengan Metode Elektrokoagulasi. Makalah Penelitian, Jurusan Teknik Kimia, Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang.

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Developing of Multi-Parametric Bioelectric Signal Acquisition System

C. Bambang Dwi Kuncoro

Electrical & Instrumentation Laboratory, Politeknik Negeri Bandung Jl. Gegerkalong Hilir, Ds. Ciwaruga, Bandung 20012, Indonesia, Ph./Fax:+6222-

2013789/2013889 email: [email protected]

Abstract

Although diagnostic medical instruments have been widely used, measurement system which can acquire bioelectric signal is still needed to achieve the purpose of physiological treatment or other biomedical applications. A multi-parametric bioelectric signal acquisition system has been developed as described in this paper. The system can acquire several bioelectric phenomenons, such as: ECG, GRS, PPG, and respiration rate. It is based on the Arduino Uno R3 platform, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) and low-power components, and the Graphical User Interface (GUI) on the recording terminal. The experimental evaluations show the system is able to acquire the signal with quality and more precise. Key Words: biosignal, ECG, PPG, GSR, respiration rate 1. INTRODUCTION Today, in the global engineering community, the modern uses of biosignals have become an increasingly important topic of study, and shows that the biosignals are clearly a growing field of interest. Biosignal is a generic term that encompasses a wide range of continuous phenomena related to biological organisms. It is not exclusive to humans, and can be measured in animals and plants. The term of biosignal refers to the signals that are bio-electrical in nature, and that manifest as the change in electrical potential across a specialised tissue or organ in a living organism [1]. During the last decade, biological signals acquisition were enabled several medical applications designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring or treatment of several medical conditions, and became the basis of scientific advances on biomedical engineering.

In order to to identify valid parameters of biosignal for physiological treatment or other

biomedical applications, it is necessary to build a measurement system able to acquire these simultaneously, easy, real time, long time, and low cost in everyday life environment. Therefore it needs developing a multi-parameter bioelectric signal acquisition system, acquiring, identifying, and registering signals such as Electrocardiography (ECG), Photoplethysmography (PPG), Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), and respiration rate.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows: - Section 2 discusse biosignal parameters and process in the living organism, and in Section 3, the global system architecture, the hardware, firmware and software are detailed; Section 4 presents experimental results obtained with this system. Finally, Section 5 outlines the main conclusions.

2. BIO SIGNAL In the following section, the different bioelectric signal parameters will be described in more details.

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ECG

Electrocardiography has developed to represent the electric activity of the heart. The heart is composed of a cardiac muscle, called myocardium [2]. It consists of four compartments: the right and left atria and ventricles. Its main function is to pump blood to the systemic and pulmonary circulation. When the heart muscle cells are contracted then it generates the electrical current. These cells have the capability of self-stimulation, which generates the cardiac rhythm, normally a regular sequence of heart beats. The typical ECG waveform is characterized by P-QRS-T-U complexes as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The ECG waveform

GSR

The Electrodermal Activity (EDA) or Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) refers to all electrical phenomena in skin, and it changes measured at the surface due to the variation of the perspiration [3]. It is regulated by the Sympathetic Nervous System, which is directly related to emotional variations and can be a good indicator of arousal, and associated with sweat gland activity. When the body comes under stress, then sweat production increases, and thus the sweat ducts fill. Increased sweat production creates several low resistance pathways across the surface of the skin. A subject under stress will produce more sweat, having a lower electrical resistance in the skin, while

a relaxed subject with drier skin will have a higher electrical resistance.

PPG

Photoplethysmography (PPG) refers to the blood volume changes in the microvascular bed of tissue. It is often used non-invasively to make measurements at the skin surface [4], and comprises a pulsatile (‘AC’) physiological waveform attributed to cardiac synchronous changes in the blood volume with each heart beat. Any movement of the PPG relative to the tissue causes change in the baseline transmittance that is many times larger than the pulsation signal. The PPG waveform is superimposed on a slowly varying (‘DC’) baseline with various lower frequency components. Its fundamental frequency is typically around 1 Hz, depending on heart rate.

Respiration rate

The electric impedance of the thoracic cavity changes with breathing movements and can be sensed in order to monitor ventilatory activity, and thus it reflects the respiration rate. The respiratory rate is a vital sign with an under appreciated significance that can, in acute situations, prognosticate patients’ mortality rate and need for invasive ventilation. The respiratory system delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide to tightly regulate the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Normal tidal breathing is comprised of inspiratory and expiratory phases and occurs with the synchronous movement of the thorax and abdomen [5, 6, 7].

3. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE The proposed bioelectric signal acquisition system allows a long-time,

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non-invasive, low-power, and real-time monitoring of some bioelectric parameters such as ECG, PPG, GSR, and respiration rate. The measured signals are collected by a signal acquisition and are then sent to notebook or laptop through Bluetooth transceiver are subsequently online post processed and saved by a GUI application. The overall architectur of the system is shown in Figure 2.

This system has two main parts: hardware and software. The hardware is consist of two parts: measurement device and recording terminal. In this particular work, the measurement device is composed by several sensors, sensor interfaces, the microcontroller, and Bluetooth transceiver. While the recording terminal is composed by notebook or laptop and Bluetooth transceiver.

Biosignals‐ ECG‐ PPG‐ GSR‐ Respiration

BluetoothBluetoothMicrocontroller

User interface

Figure 2. The system architecture

Regarding the software, there are two main programs developed: the microcontroller Firmware, which controls its operation, controls the acquisition process and the Bluetooth transceiver, and a Graphical User Interface (GUI) in Labview, which communicates with the microcontroller, receives and records the collected raw data from microcontroller over the Bluetooth communication, allows the access to the collected raw data and enables the user to access both the measurement device and the data.

3.1 HARDWARE The main component of the measurement device is the microcontroller, and it uses Arduino platform. Figure 3 shows the final prototype of measurement device, with main components: one Arduino Uno R3 (3.3V and 8MHz), directly connected to a Bluesmirft Gold module (3.3 V and Class 1); and one

Lithium Ion Polymer battery with nominal voltage of 3.7V at 800mAh, as power supply.

Figure 3. Final prototype of Measurement device

In the case of ECG acquisition, the electrical activity of the heart is captured by electrodes using the two-lead method. The electrodes measure the skin potential in the left arm, in the right arm and in a reference position on the body surface. Before the ECG signal is read by Arduino, it was conditioned by a low-power signal conditioning modul. Figure 4 shows the ECG electrode and the schematic of signal conditioning.

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Figure 4. ECG electrode and schematic of signal conditioning

In order to acquire the blood pressure, the PPG (Photoplethysmography) signal is captured by using a finger clip sensor. The finger clip sensor is clipped on the one of left hand fingers, and a current source delivers around 18 mA to the IR-Led of the sensor allows detecting the signal of the photodiode. This latter correlates

with the amount of blood in the finger and thus reflects the pulse wave in the blood vessels. Before the PPG signal is read by Arduino, it was conditioned by a low-power signal conditioning modul. Figure 5 shows the finger clip sensor and the schematic of signal conditioning.

Figure 5. Finger clip sensor and schematic of signal conditioning

While in the case of skin impedance or GSR (Galvanic Skin Response) acquisition, the skin impedance is measured by using two electrodes are attached to the palm of one’s hand. A constant DC current applies, by means of gel electrodes, a limited current (10μA) to the skin. The

measured voltage difference between the two electrodes is then proportional to the skin impedance. Before the skin impedance signal is read by Arduino, it was conditioned by a low-power signal conditioning modul. Figure 6 shows the GSR sensor and the schematic of signal conditioning.

Figure 6. Skin impedance electrode and schematic of signal conditioning

Another biosignal parameter, which this system records, is the respiration rate for chest- and abdomen-breathing. A respiration effort sensor is used to measure it. The sensor contains a piezoelectric crystal that converts chest or abdominal

respiration movement to a small analog voltage, and thus the respiration waveforms can be detected which useful to calculate the respiration rate. Before the respiration waveforms is read by Arduino, it was conditioned by a low-power signal

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conditioning modul. Figure 7 shows the respiration rate sensor and the

schematic of signal conditioning.

Figure 7. Respiration rate sensor and schematic of signal conditioning

All the signals from the sensors are acquired through the analog input ports on the Arduino Uno R3 board, and subsequently converted using the internal analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Then, the digitalized data is sent over Bluesmirft Gold module to the notebook or laptop to be saved and further processed.

3.2 FIRMWARE The firmware was designed to control the Arduino microcontroller, setting its parameters, such as sampling rate, baud rate, and to establish the wireless communication. The procedure represent the main program which was used to control Arduino Uno is illustrated in following steps:

1. Start. 2. Initialize the hardware library,

input/output ports, and baud rate of communication serial with bluetooth.

3. Read ECG, PPG, GSR, and respiration waveform signals from the sensors.

4. Filtering the acquired signals using low pass filter

5. Manipulate the digital raw input data.

6. Send data to the recording terminal using serial communication with bluetooth.

7. Delay 3 seconds. 8. If you want to repeat the

measuring process, go to step 3, else go to step 9.

9. End.

3.3 SOFTWARE A Graphical User Interface (GUI) was developed in Labview in order to communicate with the Arduino. Its main purpose is to establish Bluetooth connection, and then start or stop the acquisition, receiving the acquired data, displaying the acquired data, saving the acquired data, and configuring the device. When start is activated, all data received from the device is saved in a text file for further processing. When stop is called, the acquisition state is stopped, and the system returns to the idle state. The complete procedure represent the main is illustrated in the following steps:

1. Start. 2. Initialize Bluetooth configuration. 3. Establish serial communication

between bluetooth of measuring device and bluetooth of recording terminal.

4. Read and receive data of ECG, PPG, GSR, and respiration waveform signals from the measuring device.

5. Display data of ECG, PPG, GSR, and respiration waveform signals into numeric data or graphical data.

6. Save the data of ECG, PPG, GSR, and respiration rate as a file into memory.

7. If you want to repeat the process reading go to step 4, else go to step 8.

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result of experiment was already expected due to the clock accuracy error of Arduino Uno R3 is about 0.2% as shown in Figure 9b.

5. CONCLUSION A multi-parametric bioelectric signals acquisition system have been designed and implemented to acquire, identify, and register signals such as Electrocardiogphy (ECG),

Photoplethysmography(PPG), Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), and respiration rate. Experimental results have shown that the proposed system can collect and identify data with quality and less data loss.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Valentinuzzi, Max E.

Understanding the Human Machine: A Primer for bioengineering. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company, 2004.

[2] R. P. Jaakko Malmivuo, The Heart, in Bioelectromagnetism - Principles and Applications of

Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Fields. Oxford University Press, New York, 1995.

[3] W. Boucsein, ed., Electrodermal Activity. Springer, 2012.

[4] Challoner A V J 1979 Photoelectric plethysmography for estimating cutaneous blood flow Non-Invasive Physiological Measurements vol 1 ed P Rolfe (London: Academic) pp 125–51

[5] Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, et al. APACHE II: A severity of disease classification system. Crit Care Med. 1985; 13:818-29.

[6] Lim WS, van der Eerden MM, Laing R, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study. Thorax. 2003; 58:377-82.

[7] Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997; 336:243-50.

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Effect of Granular Elastic Column on the Swelling Characteristic of Expansive Clay

Gerard Aponno1, Dandung Novianto2, Yunaefi3

1,2,3Civil Engineering Department, The State Polytechnic of Malang Jl. Soekarno-Hatta 9, Malang

email: [email protected]

Abstract Foundations resting on expansive soils may move differentially in the vertical direction and show sign of unacceptable cracks as the water content in soil changes with season. Nowadays many measures have been practiced to overcome the problems posed by swelling soils. One of the methods is to modify the macro structure of expansive clays by adding non-expansive granular elastic materials into the soils. A laboratory investigation to reduce the swelling properties of the expansive soils found at Gunung Bentar - Probolinggo is reported in this paper. The rubber column techniques were used as alternative methods to improve the swelling characteristics of compacted expansive clays. Each soil samples with various proportion of crumb waste rubber tire to soils are compacted statically, and then performing zero swell test by using load ring for its loading system, and wetting process under controlled water inflow, instead of inundate the samples. The results of this study indicated that rubber column is effective techniques in reducing the value of swelling pressure. Key Words: expansive clays, swelling strain, swelling pressure, granular elastic material 1. INTRODUCTION Excessive heave and settlements that are associated with the volume change of expansive soils can cause considerable distress to civil engineering structures are a worldwide problem that poses several challenges for civil engineers. They are considered a potential natural hazard, which can cause extensive damage to structures if it is not adequately treated. Such soils swell when given an access to water and shrink when they dry out. The swelling and shrinkage phenomenon depends on several factors, including type and amount of clay minerals and cations, moisture content, dry density, soil structure, and loading conditions.

There are several methods that have been used to minimize or eliminate the effect of expansive soils before and after construction of structures. These methods include chemical stabilization, soil replacement with compaction control, pre-wetting, moisture control, surcharge loading, and use of geo-synthetics.

Furthermore, many investigators have proposed several techniques to reduce or even eliminate swelling of expansive clays (Basma 1998, Kennedy, T. W. 1987, Al-Homoud, et al. 1995, Cokca, E., 2002, Al-Rawas et al. 2002). However, the study of the effect of crumb rubber as elastic granular material addition to the expansive soil done by some researchers for decades was usually limited.

This paper presented a laboratory experimental study of the effect of non-expansive granular elastic material addition to the expansive soil with different techniques. The effects of other parameters such as the proportion of mixing are also studied research.

2. SOIL AND CRUMB RUBBER MATERIAL

The purpose of this research is to study the application of new methods of soil improvement techniques, in particular for the development of

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improved expansive soil characteristics. Improvement methods in the form of addition of fill material consisting of elastic granular material in the form of crumb rubber/rubber chips that are incompressible as compressible inclusion into the expansive soil. Additional of materials is done by create a rubber column system, which expected to effectively can reduce the percentage of swelling and swelling pressure.

2.1 MATERIALS The soil samples for this study were brought from a coastal area at Gunung Bentar - Probolinggo, 100-km Southeast of Surabaya - Indonesia. Soil samples for laboratory testing were obtained from a test pit at a depth of about one-meter. The expansive formation at the site is dark grey clay that exhibits severe problems associated with its expansive characteristics.

Sample of crumb rubber was taken from vulkanisir industry around Malang area.

2.2 Physical and Engineering Properties

A laboratory-testing program was designed to determine geotechnical and physical properties of the soil and crumb rubber as shown in Table 1. The grain-size distribution curves of the studied soils indicated that it is composed of predominantly clay and silt size particles. The Atterberg limit test revealed that examined soil would be classified as high plasticity clayey-silt.

Laboratory test result of crumb rubber, are as follows: minimum dry density 0.403 gr/cm3, maximum dry density 0.494 gr/cm3, modulus elasticity rata-rata 216 kN/m2,

internal friction angel based on direct shear test 30°, with no cohesion.

Table 1. Properties of soil and rubber material tested

Based on Casagrande plasticity chart, the soil was classified as inorganic silt of high plasticity (MH), and showed a high plasticity index 30%. Generally, the higher the plasticity indexes of soil, the higher the swelling potential. According to the classification systems developed by Chen (1988) as shown in Table 2, the soil as compacted was classified as medium to high swelling potential.

Table 2. Correlation with common soil test after Chen (1988)

% passing 75µm sieve

Liquid limit

Swelling Pressure (kPa)

Potential

< 30 < 30 50 Low 30 - 60 30 – 40 150 – 250 Medium 60 – 90 40 – 60 250 –

1000 High

> 95 > 60 > 1000 Very High

Parameters Values

Depth of sampling (m) Colour Specific gravity Natural water content, % Bulk density, kN/m3 Percent smaller than 75µm Percent smaller 0.002mm Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Plasticity Index (%) Linear shrinkage limit (%) Unified soil classification Compaction test Modified: - γd(max.) (kN/m3)

- OMC (%) Crumb rubber propertiesMinimum dry density, kN/m3

:

Maximum dry density, kN/m3

Modulus Elasticity (E), kN/m2 Internal friction angel (ø), Degree Cohesion (c), kN/m2

1.00 dark gray 2.51 55 1.4 82 45 65 35 30 16 MH 16.0 19.0 4.03 4.94 216 30 0

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2.3 Sample preparation In this investigation the soil sample were first compacted according to the ASTM Standard (D 1557 - 78) known as heavy or modified compaction test, and give the results as follows: OMC (Optimum Moisture Content) of 19 %, and γd(max.) of 16.0 kN/m3. The specimen then prepared to the initial water content of - 2 % to the OMC or 17%, which correspond to dry density of 15.5kN/m3.

In order to minimize variations in swelling test data, compacted samples were used in the testing program. To ensure uniformity of testing, the soil samples were air-dried, pulverized using a plastic hammer into a powder and screened through the 2.36 mm sieve, followed by thoroughly mixed with the calculated amount of water to give the required initial water content. The soil then was stored in air-tight plastic bags to avoid loss in moisture content, and finally allowed to cure at room temperature for at least 24 hour

to achieve a uniform distribution of moisture content.

The specimen then statically compacted until the required height corresponded to the specified density. Static compaction was chosen in favour of other compaction methods such as impact compaction and kneading, because it gives the most uniform and repeatable samples (Booth 1976, quoted by Al-Shamrani 1999).

A series of specimens were prepared according to the ASTM Test Method for One Dimensional Swell/Settlement Potential of Cohesive Soils (D 4546-85). Table 3 below, shows the proportional weight of soil and rubber that were used to prepare specimen. The rubber column system was made by compacted together the soil sample and steel hole maker at the centre, then the hole filled with specified weight of crumb rubber.

Table 3 Rubber-soil composition for each test specimen

Specimen No.

Weight (gram) Rubber-soil ratio (%)

Column diameter (mm) Soil Rubber

1 188 - 0 0 2 181 3.14 2.06 14.9 3 172 7.03 4.86 22.3 4 162 11.48 8.43 28.5 Note: Specimen no.1 is untreated or virgin soil

3. LABORATORY TESTING PROGRAM

3.1 Equipment The equipment consists of two main components: (1) loading system: the test specimen was placed on the base platen in the loading machine and equipped with proving/load ring and dial gauge at the top, to measure swelling pressure and deformation respectively, and (2) watering system: distilled water in a container was

placed on the electronic balance, and connected to the specimen at the base through flexible plastic pipe. If the valve is open, the water will flow into the specimen, where the amount of that water during the test can be measured directly from the balance readings.

To measure swelling pressures, the load ring with the capacity of 10kN was used, while the vertical

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displacements were measured with a dial gauge (0.002mm/div). Electronic balance with readability of 0.001 gram was used to record the amount of water inflow in wetting process.

Unlike the conventional consolidation cell that is commonly used, this system has several advantages, e.g. loads can be gently applied to the sample without shock impact and the saturation progress during test can be monitored.

However, care must be taken to some aspects:

- Load ring capacity must be selected so that it is appropriate to the range of swell pressure that will be generated.

- Load ring readings must be corrected to count its spring constant properties.

- Avoid leaking and air trapped along the flexible pipeline, because it will impede the flow of water to the sample.

- The water level at the water container must be maintained around the top level of specimen.

3.2 Test Procedure Having prepared the specimen, the compacted soil sample was then placed in a tested cell between wire screen covered with filter paper (will functioned as a porous stone) at the base, and an impervious plastic at the top. A seating pressure of 5kPa was applied using 10kN load ring capacity and waited until the system stable. Set

the watering system that connects the base of the specimen and distilled water container that is placed on the electronic balance. Keep the water level in the container close to the top level of the specimen.

After setting the vertical deformation dial gauge, the valve was opened to allow distilled water flowing into the base of the specimen. As soon as the water wetted the base of the specimen, the pressure and vertical deformation of the specimen were recorded. Readings were taken at 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 480, and 1440 minutes, or would be stopped when the plotted curve indicated the primary swelling had occurred.

After the swelling was completed, the specimen was recompressed to its original void ratio. Loading machine with relatively low constant rates (0.01 to 0.001 mm/minutes) was used to generate the load. The corresponding pressure was termed the swelling pressure. The next step was to unload the specimen to obtain the swell curves. The above procedures were known as the constant volume swell (CVS) test, (Johnson and Stroman, 1976 quoted by Coduto, 1994). The entire process of loading and unloading mechanisms used load ring as shown in the figure 1. At the end of the test, dismantling the specimen from the cell and measures the final water content at two different points to obtain its average value.

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4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

The most pertinent information that resulted from this investigation is shown in Table 4 and 5 and Figure 2 to 5.

Table 4 shows the relationship between the percentage of crumb rubber, swelling potential and value of the reduction of the proportion of

each specimen. Whereas in Figure 2 it can be seen that the swelling potential decreases, concurrently with the increase in the percentage of used crumb rubber were added to the expansive soil samples. Swelling potential of the rubber column method are 1,048%, 1,045%, and 0.990%, corresponding to 39.94%, 40.11%, and 43.27%, reduction of the original soil.

Table 4 Swelling potential for different rubber-soil ratio Rubber-soil dry weight ratio (%)

Swelling Potential (%) Reduction

(%) SV RC RC

0 1.745 2.06 1.048 39.94 4.86 1.045 40.11 8.43 0.990 43.27 Note: SV = Virgin or Untreated soil, RC = rubber column

Figure 2 Relationship between the percentage crumb rubber with the swelling potential

1,745

1,048

1,0450,990

0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

0,0 2,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0

Swel

ling

pote

ntia

l (%

)

Percentage of crumb rubber (%)

virgin line

Swelling pressure

Swel

ling

stra

in, %

Normal stressσn

Wetting process

Unloading

Loading

Figure 1 Potential and swelling pressure measurement method using load ring

Swelling potential

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Table 5 shows the relationship between the percentage of crumb rubber, swelling pressure and value of the reduction of the proportion of each specimen. Whereas in Figure 3 it can be seen that the swelling pressure decreases, concurrently with the increase in the percentage of used

crumb rubber were added to the expansive soil samples. Swelling pressure of the rubber column method are 1.319, 1,257, and 1.038 kg/cm2 corresponding to 36.35%, 39.34%, dan 49.94%, reduction of the original soil.

Table 5 Swelling pressure for different rubber-soil ratio Rubber-soil dry weight ratio (%)

Swelling Pressure (kPa) Reduction

(%) SV RC RC

0 203 2.06 129 36.45 4.86 123 39.40 8.43 102 49.75 Note: SV = Virgin or Untreated soil, RC = rubber column

Figure 2 Relationship between percentage crumb rubber with the swelling pressure

Figure 4 shows the relationship between water content and swelling potential that occurred in the percentage of crumb rubber 2.06%, 4.86% and 8:43%. Swelling potential of the rubber-column method increased with increasing water content. At the beginning of the process of

wetting, swelling pressure increases rapidly as conditions dried specimens absorb water in large quantities. And after the spacemen reach saturation around 50%, the swelling pressure becomes relatively constant.

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Meanwhile, in Figure 5 which shows the relationship between water content and swelling pressure, giving approximately the same results, where the swelling pressure is start to be constant at the moisture content is

about 50%. However, the composition of the mixture 8.34%, indicating a large decrease in swelling pressure compare to the other two compositions.

Figure 5 Water content and swelling pressure.

5. CONCLUSION Tests were carried out on samples of an expansive soil excavated from Gunung Bentar-Probolinggo located around 100 km Southeast of Surabaya. The soil specimens were

treated with rubber column, and tests were performed to obtain the swell pressure and swell potential.

Based on the analysis of the experimental results presented in this

0,00

0,50

1,00

1,50

2,00

2,50

0,00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00

Water content, %

Untreated soil

1 2

3

Figure 4 Water content and swelling potential

00 10,00 20,00 30,00 40,00 50,00 60,00 70,00

Water content, %

Untreated soil

1 2

3

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study, the following conclusions are given:

1. The application of rubber column were found to be effective in reducing the swelling characteristics of expansive soil to various degrees

2. The amount of swelling pressure decreases with the increase of rubber - soil ratio.

3. Further researches are still needed to study the effectiveness of those techniques, and especially the rubber column diameter, pattern, and spacing in relation to the change of its strength behavior.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Al-Homoud, A. S. et al. (1995)

Engineering and Environmental Aspects of Cutback Asphalt (MC-70) Stabilization of Swelling and Collapsible Soils, Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. I, No. 4, pp.497-506.

[2] Al-Rawas, A. A. et al. (2000), A Comparative Evaluation of Various Additives Used in the Stabilization of Expansive Soils, Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 199–209.

[3] Al-Rawas, A, A and Goosen, M, F, A. (2006), Recent advances in characterization and treatment, Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK.

[4] Al-Shamrani, M. A. & Al-Mhaidib, A. I. (1999), Prediction of potential vertical swell expansive soils using a triaxial stress path, Quarterly Engineering Geology, Vol. 32, pp. 45-54.

[5] Basma, A. A. et al. (1998), Stabilization of Expansive Clays in Oman, Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, Vol. IV, No. 4, pp.503-510.

[6] Chen, F. H. (1998), Foundation on Expansive Soils, 2nd Ed., Developments in Geotechnical Engineering Vol. 54, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

[7] Coduto, D. P. (1994), Foundation Design Principals and Practices., Prentice Hall. 612pp.

[8] Cokca, E. (2002), Effect of Fly Ash on Swell Pressure of an Expansive Soil, EJGE Paper, pp. 2001 - 0122.

[9] Khan, A.J. et al (2001), Effect of Sand Layer on the Swelling of Underlaying Expansive Soil.

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Effect Of Propeller Turbine Blade Angle Type Ф 125 On Efficiency Mhp System Of Head 2 And 3 Meters

Paulus Sukusno1, Fachruddin2, P Jannus3

1,2,3Lecturer Department of Mechanical Engineering State Polytechnic of Jakarta, New Campus UI Depok 16425 email : [email protected]

Abstract

This research aims to determine the effect of propeller type turbine blade angle Ф 125 on system efficiency Micro Hydro Power (MHP) head 2 and 3 meters, by way of the impeller blade angle memvareasi with input water turbine capacity fixed. The results of this research can determine the optimal efficiency of the MHP system. Research report on the MHP system head 2 meters with fixed input water capacity obtained optimum efficiency on the blade angle 220 – 240. Research on MHP system head 3 meters with fixed input water capacity, obtained at optimum efficiency on the blade angle 180. To obtain a large output power, it is necessary to water the rate of entry into the turbine that great anyway. To obtain optimal efficiency, it is necessary that the impeller blade angle is set according to the flow rate of water entering the turbine. Keywords: blade angle, water capacity, efficiency, electricity. 1. INTRODUCTION Background Indonesia given the incredible natural grace by God Almighty, but often this potential, neglected even less grateful. Hilly topographical and water flows throughout the year sometimes left alone, while the condition of the surrounding community in poor conditions (electrical energy needs to be cheap / free).

Micro-hydro plants are small-scale power plants suitable to be applied in rural hilly natural conditions and water flows throughout the year or somewhere else, by way of stemming and or flow with water to a place to obtain water level (head) is more than 2 meters can already be made MHP system.

The research activities of MHP systems are practical and reliable head 2 and 3 meters in PNJ has been done can be achieved, but low efficiency <40.5% of the manual book 60% - 67%. There needs to improvmen the MHP system.

From this research are expected to be determined optimally efficiency of the MHP system, by creating and using impellers (propeller type Ф type 125) which can be adjusted the angle of his blade, so the big change impeller blade angle is used, it can be determined optimally efficiency of the system MHP

The purpose of the research is, determining optimally efficiency of the MHP system head 2 and 3 meters by way of memvareasi turbine impeller blade angle of the propeller type Ф125.

The benefit is to get a prototype unit MHP system is practical and reliable head 2 and 3 with excess turbine propeller blades can be set corners.

Problems: Many people think to make the power plant must be of a natural waterfall, not always the case, the head can be obtained by making the intake from the river and running it in the right position to form an optimum water level. The problem is how to transform the energy of water flowing


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into the river into electrical energy with cheap equipment, practical, easy, and reliable.

Basic Theory:

Hydraulic power, the input power turbine or water owned power (Ph), the amount is:

Ph = ρ Q g H [Watt] Specification: ρ = density of water [kg/m3]. Q = water flow rate (discharge), [m3/s]. g = gravity, [m/s2]. H = height of water fall total (total head), [m].

Water flow rate (Q), is the product of the velocity of water flow (V) with the magnitude of cross-sectional area (A) through which flow divided by time or volume per unit time. The equation is,

Q = K 815

2g . Tg(θ /2). H5/2 [m3/s]

Fig. 1: Dam to measure Water flow rate with suppressed weir (V shape).

Specification: K = coefficient of flow at the dam,

K = 0,611 + 0,075 HZ .

θ = Angle of dam V, (θ = 900 ). Z = distance unstoppable base to base flow dam, [m]. H = distance of the base flow of the form V to the surface, [m].

t = time required in the measurement, [s].

Output power (Pout), the output power generated by the generator system MHP (Pout), corresponding with the following formula:

Pout = V. I [Watt]

Input power (Pin), hydraulic power from the water inlet to the turbine (Pin), corresponding with the following formula:

Pin = ρ Q g H [Watt]

MHP efficiency (η), is the generator output power (Pout) divided by the hydraulic power (Pin), or the ratio of output power to input power turbine, corresponding with the following formula:

η = PinPout

x 100 %

Figure 2 Photos of MHP system head 2 and 3 meters.

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Figure 3 Photos of MHP system head 3 meters, turbine units are in the upper tub.

Figure 4 Photos of MHP system turbine units are in the

under tub.

Figure 5 photos turbine units and chassis units.

Figure 6 Scheme of the MHP system turbine unit is in the

tub upper head 2 and 3 meters.

Description of the figure 6:

1. Measuring instrument panels and electrical distribution

2. Generated

3. Transmission speed of rotation

4. Tubs spill (water level control)

5. Tubs input to the turbine

6. Turbine propeller type Ф 125

7. Pipe water turbine output

8. Tubs turbine output

9. Tubs measuring water discharge (suppressed weir shape V)

10. Tubs reservoir

11. Pump (3 pieces)

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Figure 7 Scheme of the MHP system turbine unit are in

the under tub.

Micro Hydro Power is a device or instrument that converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy in a turbine and then to the generator is converted to electrical energy. The problem is how to keep the MHP system produces optimum efficiency.

2. METHODS The method used in this research is to conduct direct observation of the object under study, namely the MHP system. Before the research necessary to prepare a tool that will be examined is by making the angle turbine blades (impeller) that can be set. That is by varying the angle of the impeller blade, to obtain optimal efficiency, because to obtain optimum efficiency needs to be compatibility between the blade angle impeller to the flow rate of water entering the turbine.

Experiment the research.

Research data results obtained from direct observation of the object under study, namely the MHP system. Following the data collection instruments and the steps experiments performed on the system MHP head 3 meters. At 2 meters head can be done in the same way, the difference is only transferred to the place tub turbine unit for head 2 meters.

1. The installed turbine units in the tub top (head 3 meters).

The test steps the MHP system head 3 meters:

2. Turbine output cable is connected to the control panel.

3. Source of water input to the turbine pump is supplied with 3 units.

4. Large impeller blade angle is set according to the desired (140,160,180, 200, 220, and 240).

5. Record the data required for the research.

1. Turbine units moved in like a place holder for the turbine head 2 meters.

The test steps the MHP system head 2 meters:

2. The next trials were repeated as above with vareasi impeller blade angle is different.

Fig. 8: Photos of some air-turbine impeller blade angle is

different.

Table 1 Test data with input capacity constant water head 3 meters of the MHP system turbine units are in the upper tub

Data Type Impeller Blade Angle 14° 16° 18° 20° 220 24°

V [volt] 150 155 157 155 150 147 A [ampere] 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5

Description: In this test, the price of Z and H are all created equal.

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Z = distance unstoppable base to base flow dam, [37 m].

H = distance of the base flow of the form V to the surface, [20,5 m].

Table 2 Test data with input capacity constant water head 2 meters of the MHP system turbine units are in the upper tub

Data Type Impeller Blade Angle 14° 16° 18° 20° 22° 24°

V [volt] 150 155 157 165 170 170 A [ampere] 2 2 2 2 2 2

Table 3 Test data with input capacity constant water head 3 meters of the MHP system turbine units are in the under tub

Data Type Impeller Blade Angle 14° 16° 18° 20° 220 24°

V [volt] 170 175 177 175 173 170 A [ampere] 2 2 2 2 2 2

Table 4 Test data with input capacity constant water head 2 meters of the MHP system turbine units are in the under tub

Data Type Impeller Blade Angle 14° 16° 18° 20° 22° 24°

V [volt] 130 135 140 145 147,5 147,5 A [ampere] 2 2 2 2 2 2

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Data of test result in Table 1 and Table 2 are calculated and analyzed based on the formulas and theories

that have been provided above. The results are poured in Table 3 and are poured in a graph in Figure 5 and 6 and 7 and 8.

Table 5 Calculation results of research data on constant input of water capacity

Calculation results Impeller Blade Angle

14° 16° 18° 20° 220 24°

Turbine units above (Head 3 m)

Po [Watt] 375 387,5 392,5 387,5 375,0 370,0

ƞ [%] 41,1 42,5 42,9 42,5 41,1 40,6

Turbine units above (Head 2 m)

Po [Watt] 300 310 320 330 340 340

ƞ [%] 49,3 51,0 52,6 54,3 55,9 55,9

Turbine units under (Head 3 m)

Po [Watt] 340 350 354 350 346 340

ƞ [%] 37,28 38,38 39,47 38,38 37,94 37,28

Turbine units under (Head 2 m)

Po [Watt] 260 270 280 290 295 295

ƞ [%] 42,76 44,40 46,05 47,69 48,52 48,52 Description: Q, the turbine water input = 31 [l/s] Ph, the power hydraulic head 3 m = 912 [Watt] Ph, the power hydraulic head 2 m = 608 [Watt]

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fig. 9: graphs efficiency and power output on the mhp

system head 3 meters, turbine units are in the upper tub.

fig. 10: graphs efficiency and power output on the mhp system head 2 meters, turbine units are in the upper tub.

Fig. 11: Graphs efficiency and power output of the system MHP head 3 meters, turbine units are in the under

tub.

Fig. 12: Graphs efficiency and power output of the

system MHP head 2 meters, turbine units are in the under tub.

Fig. 13: Graphs output power of the MHP system head 3 and 2 meters, turbine units are in the upper tub and the

under tub.

Fig. 14: Graphs efficiency of the MHP system head 3 and 2 meters, turbine units are in the upper tub and the under

tub.

In the graph in Figure 9 and 11shows the output power and efficiency at the optimum angle of 180, the graph in Figure 10 and 12 shows the output power and optimal efficiency occurs at an angle of 220 and 240, the graph in Figure 13 shows a comparison of the power output of the MHP head 3 meters and 2 meters, and the graph in Figure 14 shows a comparison of the efficiency of the MHP head 3 meters and 2 meters.

To obtain greater power output, it is necessary to water the rate of entry into the larger turbines anyway. To obtain optimal efficiency, then large impeller blade angle needs to be adjusted to the rate of input water turbine.

4. CONCLUSION Based on the results of measurements, calculations, and data analysis, in this study can be summarized as follows:

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1. Optimally efficiency of MHP system on the head 3 meters contained in blade180 angle, the head of 2 meters contained in blade 220 and 240 angle.

2. To obtain a large output power, it is necessary to water the rate of entry into the turbine that great anyway.

3. To obtain optimal efficiency, it is necessary that the impeller blade angle is set according to the flow rate of water entering the turbine.

ADVICE In order to obtain the optimization of the MHP system with propeller-type the turbine Ф 125, it is necessary to study the turbine unit similar to water level (head) and a large input of water to the the turbine varies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you expressed to: DirJenDikti, Kemendiknas as funders, and P3M PNJ as manager of research grants, CV. Cihanjuang Core Technique (CIT) in Bandung and PT Petanusa Cimahi Sealtama in Cibinong who have cooperated in making the impeller type 125 Ф and in making casing turbine unit MHP.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] BC Hydro, 2004.”Handbook for

Developing Micro Hydro in British Columbia” BC Hydro.

[2] Djodikusumo I, dkk., 2009. Teknologi Perancangan dan Pembuatan Turbin Francis Berskala Mini. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Dies Emas ITB. Bandung.

[3] Eddy Permadi, 2008. “Profil CV. Cihanjuang Inti Teknik”. Cimahi, Bandung.

[4] Harianto A., dkk, 2013. Kinerja Teknis dan Biaya Pembangkit Listrik Mikrohidro [Technical and Cost Performance of Microhydro Power Plant]. Jurnal Teknik Pertanian Lampung, Vol. 2, No. 1: 51 – 58.

[5] Pagasis T., 2009. Pengujian Kincir Air Jenis Undershot dengan Skala Laboratorium. Jur. Teknologi Vol.10 No.2 hal. 69 – 76. Univ. Negeri Makasar.

[6] Puguh A.S., 2008 "Pemanfaatan Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Mikro Hidro Untuk Daerah Terpencil" Puslitbang Iptekhan Balitbang Dephan, Jakarta.

[7] Subekti R. A., dkk, 2012. Design and Analysis of the Prototype of Pico Hydro Scale Submersible Type Turbine-Generator for Flat Flow River Application. Teknologi Indonesia 35 No. 3 (2012) 1– 8, LIPI Press 2012.

[8] Sukusno, P., Fachruddin, dkk., 2009. ”Sistem Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Mikro Hidro Yang Praktis dan Handal Head 2 dan 3 m” Laporan Penelt. Stranas, UP2M PNJ, Depok.

[9] Sukusno P., dkk, 2012. Pengaruh Modifikasi Bentuk Dalam Bak Air Input Turbin. No./Vol 1/8 Jurnal Mekanikal Universitas Pancasila Jakarta.

[10] Vineesh V., Selvakumar A. I., 2012. Design of Micro Hydel Power Plant. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT) Volume-2, Issue-2- December (2012). 2249 – 8958.

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Design Wireless Power Transfer Base on Copper (Cu) and Aluminium (Al) Rings Loop Magnetic Coupling

Toto Supriyanto1, Asri Wulandari2, Teguh Firmansyah3 IEEE Member, Suhendar4,

Erick Immanuel5 1, 2 Telecomunication Engineering. Electrical Engineering. Politeknik Negeri Jakarta (PNJ)

[email protected], 2 [email protected] 3,4, 5Electrical Engineering. Enggineering Faculty . Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa

(UNTIRTA). [email protected]

Abstract

Magnetically coupled coils have been widely used for a variety of applications requiring contactless or wireless power transfer (WPT). In this paper, the wireless power transfer (WPT) using Copper (Cu) and Aluminium (Al) as magnetic coupling is designed, fabricated and measured. A main problem of wireless power transfer (WPT) is about low efficiency. As state of the art, this research will investigate the effects of the use of copper and aluminum as magnetic coupling. A Copper (Cu) and Aluminium (Al) are used as transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) vice versa. A power analysis has been carried out to identify the efficiency system. The measurement result shown that the wireless power transfer (WPT) using aluminum as transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) have the highest efficiency. The overall efficiency of the power being transferred is about 7,51%-10,8% at distance 20 cm. This research shown that aluminum can consider as a material for the wireless power transfer with magnetic induction method. Keywords— wireless power transfer, receiver, transmitter, copper, aluminium 1. INTRODUCTION Nowdays, magnetically coupled coils have been widely used for a variety of applications requiring contactless or wireless power transfer (WPT). Tesla has demonstrated that, for a pair of magnetically coupled resonators with one used as a transmitting unit and the other as receiving unit, optimal wireless power transfer could occur at the resonance frequency of the resonators [1]. A pair of L-C loop resonators for wireless power transfer proposed by Tesla shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. A pair of L-C loop resonators for WPT [10]

The most popular wireless power transfer technique used in biomedical implanted devices is near-field

inductive coupling. Researches have indicated that if near-field techniques are used and if the range of energy transfer distance is of the order of tens of centimeters, the overall efficiency of the power being transferred is only about 1%–2% [2].

The magnetically coupled resonators were presented for wireless power transfer. It now becomes possible to transmit power efficiently at ranges longer than that realized using inductive coupling schemes [3]. For low-power applications, wireless power transfer has found applications in battery charging for portable electronic products such as mobile phones [4]–[7]. And mobile laptop charging [8], [9].

In Fig.2 show, typical exponential decay curve of the efficiency as a function of transmission distance d for wireless power transfer (WPT).

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Fig. 2.typical exponential decay curve of the efficiency

[10]

A main problem of wireless power transfer (WPT) is about low efficiency. As state of the art, this research will investigate the effects of the use of copper and aluminum as magnetic coupling.

This paper is arranged as follows. Section II reviews the basic principles of WPT technology that is based on magnetic coupling and introduces the case of a Tx and an Rx. Section III discusses the experimental setup and results are discussed in Section IV. Conclusions are drawn in Section V.

2. THEORY If two resonators are placed in proximity to one another such that there is coupling between them, it becomes possible for the resonators to exchange energy. The efficiency of the energy exchange depends on the characteristic parameters for each resonator and the energy coupling rate between them. The dynamics of the two resonator system can be described using coupled-mode theory [11], or from an analysis of a circuit equivalent of the coupled system of resonators shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. A circuit equivalent of the coupled system of

resonators [11]

Magnetically coupled resonator.kis the coupling coefficient between the Tx and Rx. RSand RLare source and load resistances, respectively. RspandRrpare the parasitic resistances of the Tx and Rx coils.

2.1 EFFICIENCY The efficiency η is defined as the ratio between the total power dissipation in the load and the total power supplied by the sources [12] where I1 and I2 are the phasors of rms currents of coils 1 and 2.

η =𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿|𝐼𝐼2|2

(𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 + 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)|𝑰𝑰1|2 + (𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟𝑆𝑆)|𝑰𝑰2|2 (1)

thus the efficiency, is maximized when [12] :

𝜔𝜔 ≅ 𝜔𝜔𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (2) the resonant frequency of the Tx should be the same as that of the Rx.

2.2 DESIGN WIRELESS POWER TRANSFER

The design Wireless Power Transfer using Copper (Cu) and Aluminium (Al) Magnetic Coupling is following a Flow chart shown in Fig. 4.

Start

Study papers

Evaluate and modification magnetic coils.

(Replace Cu and Al vice versa)

Design transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) for wireless power

transfer

Analysis

Finish

Yes

No

working

Fig. 4. A flow chart this research

Generally Wireless Power Transfer consists of a power supply, oscillator circuit, and magnetic coils as Transmitter. The receiver consisting

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of a full wave rectifier circuit, load, and magnetic coils.

2.3 POWER SUPPLY (AC-DC CONVERTER)

The power suplly circuit shown in Fig. 5.ICLM317regulatorisusedwhichhasan input voltagerangefrom 1.2 to 25voltsand amaximum output currentof 1.5Amperes.

Fig. 5. AC-DC Converter

2.4 OSCILLATOR AS A SOURCE POWER

Royer oscillator circuit is used at this research shown in Fig. 6. Royer oscillator have strong oscillation signal with simple circuit.

Fig. 6. Royer Oscillator

2.5 COPPER (Cu) AND ALUMINIUM (Al) FOR MAGNETIC COIL

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable, a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.

Aluminium is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery white, soft, ductile metal. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust.

2.6 HALF WAVERECTIFIERCIRCUIT

The receiver consisting of a half wave rectifier circuit, load, and magnetic coils.shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. A half wave rectifier circuit

3. METHODOLOGY The experiments in this paper shown in Fig 8 to 11. Next step is changes value of the distance between the coils. And then measured power on the receiver, so the efficiency values obtained

Fig. 8. Wireless Power Transfer with Copper (Cu) Transmitter (Tx) and Copper (Cu) Receiver (Rx)

Fig. 9. Wireless Power Transfer with Copper (Cu)

Transmitter (Tx) and Aluminium (Al) Receiver (Rx)

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Fig. 10. Wireless Power Transfer with Aluminium (Al)

Transmitter (Tx) and Copper (Cu) Receiver (Rx)

Fig. 11. Wireless Power Transfer with Aluminium (Al)

Transmitter (Tx) and Aluminium (Al) Receiver (Rx)


After changes value of the distance between the coils. A power analysis has been carried out to identify the efficiency system. Fig 12 show the power transmitter and Fig 13. show the power receiver

Fig. 12. Power Transmitter (Watt)

Fig. 13. Power Receiver (Watt)

Efficiency is very influential in the distance, increasing the distance between the transmitter with the receiver will decrease power efficiency of wireless power transfer.

Comparison power efficiency shown Fig.14.

Fig. 14. Efficiency (%)

5. CONCLUSION It can be concluded that the efficiency using aluminum as magnetic coils is higher than copper magnetic coils. The overall efficiency of the power being transferred is about 7,51%–10,8%. This research provesthataluminumis consideringuse asa materialfor thewireless power transferwithmagneticinductionmethod.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] R. Lomas, The man who invented

the twentieth century – Nikola Tesla –Forgotten Genius of Electricity. London, U.K: Headline Book Publishing Ltd., 1999, p. 146.

[2] S. Ahson and M. Ilyas (2008) RFID Handbook: Applications, Technology, Security, and Privacy. Boca Raton, FL: CRC.

[3] B. Choi, J. Nho, H. Cha, T. Ahn, and S. Choi (2004) “Design and implementation of low-profile contactless battery charger using planar printed circuit board windings as energy transfer device,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 140–147.

[4] Y. Jang and M. M. Jovanovic (2003) “A contactless electrical energy transmission system for portable-telephone battery chargers,” IEEE Trans. Ind.

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Electron., vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 520–527.

[5] C.-G. Kim, D.-H. Seo, J.-S. You, J.-H. Park, and B. H. Cho (2001) “Design of a contactless battery charger for cellular phone,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 1238–1247.

[6] S. Y. R. Hui and W. C. Ho (2005) “A new generation of universal contactless battery charging platform for portable consumer electronic equipment,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 620–627.

[7] X. Liu and S.Y. R. Hui (2007) “Simulation study and experimental verification of a contactless battery charging platform with localized charging features,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 2202–2210.

[8] Y. Hori (2004) “Future vehicle society based on electric motor, capacitor and wireless power supply,” in Proc. Int. Power Electron. Conf. (IPEC), Sapporo, Japan, Jun. 21–24, pp. 2930–2934.

[9] K. Sugimori and H. Nishimura (1998) “A novel contact-less

battery charger for electric vehicles,” in Proc. 29th Annu. IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf, vol. 1, pp. 559–564.

[10] Chi Kwan Lee, W. X. Zhong, and S. Y. R. Hui (2012) “Effects of Magnetic Coupling of Nonadjacent Resonators on Wireless Power Domino-Resonator Systems”. IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 1905-1916.

[11] Dukju Ahn (2013) “Effect of Coupling Between Multiple Transmitters or Multiple Receivers on Wireless Power Transfer”. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 7, pp. 2602–2613.

[12] A.B. Kurs, A. Karalis, R. Moffatt, J.D. Joannopoulos, P.H. Fisher, and M. Soljacic (2007) “Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances”, Science, 317, pp. 83-86.

[13] J. Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892, pp.68–73.

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Effect of Testing Speed on Tensile Behavior of Kenaf Fiber

Anggit Murdani1, Maskuri2, Profiyanti Hermin Suharti3 1Mechanical Engineering Department, Politeknik Negeri Malang

Jl. Soekarno-Hatta No. 9, Malang 65141 Indonesia [email protected],

2Chemical Engineering Department, Politeknik Negeri Malang Jl. Soekarno-Hatta No. 9, Malang 65141 Indonesia

Abstract

The use of kenaf fiber as reinforcement in polymeric composite is continuously developed toward product diversity. In service, the products based on the composite are experiencing various loading conditions, from static loading to dynamic loading. Mechanical behavior of fiber has important role to determine the overall performance of composite. The objective of this research is to investigate the response of kenaf fiber on tensile loading with various testing speed. Specimens were prepared with 10mm in gage length or span. The testing speeds were 0.02mm/s, 0.1mm/s, 0.5mm/s, and 1mm/s. The tensile behavior of specimen is observed based on stress-strain relationship, supported by fracture evidence. The result shows that tensile strength of specimens increase significantly with increasing of the testing speed. The ultimate tensile stress with speed testing of 1mm/s achieved approximately 230% of that with speed testing of 0.02mm/s. The Young’s moduli also became higher increase with testing speed. Inversely, the strain at fracture tends to become smaller with increasing of the testing speed. For all testing speeds, fractured specimen are showing brittle-like fracture surface. It can be important information in considering kenaf fiber as reinforcement in polymeric composites. Key Words: kenaf fiber, testing speed, brittle 1. INTRODUCTION The development in application of kenaf fiber as reinforcement in polymeric composite brings extensive study in all aspect of the material [1]-[7]. No one doubts that societies must care about green technology. Kenaf fiber is one of the best choices among crop fiber for reinforcement in polymeric composite. Toyota automobile manufacturer has been installing kenaf fiber based polymeric composite for interiors of their premium cars [8]. The use of kenaf fiber based polymeric composite as automotive parts could be more widely extended to more critical components such as engine parts [7]. Most of engine parts notably experiences dynamic loading condition. Dynamic loading is related to high strain rate loading. Most polymers, as a matrix of the composite, have higher elongation than that of kenaf fiber. The

combination of two provides specific behavior of the kenaf fiber reinforced polymeric composites. Therefore it is important to investigate the behavior of the fiber due to varying strain rate. In this study, tensile behavior of kenaf fiber was investigated with various strain rates from static loading to quasi-dynamic loading.

2. THEORY Some basic formulas for evaluating tensile behavior of a material are used in this study. The tensile strength, σ, of material is defined as:

𝝈𝝈 =𝑭𝑭𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎

where Fmax = maximum tensile force and A0 = initial cross-sectional area of fiber.

Strain, ε, is defined as:

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𝜺𝜺 =∆𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝟎𝟎

Where L0 is the initial gage length and ΔL is the change in gage length (L-L0).

The elastic modulus or Young’s modulus, E, is defined as:

𝑬𝑬 =𝝈𝝈𝜺𝜺

3. METHODOLOGY The kenaf fiber observed in this study was obtained from CV. Global Agrotek Malang, which is the major supplier for a main automotive parts manufacturer in Indonesia. This kenaf fiber is used as reinforcement in composite for automotive parts. The general information of the kenaf fiber is shown in table 1.

Table 1. General properties of kenaf fiber ITEM TARGET VALUE

Country of Origin Indonesia Breed Indonesia

Harvest Flowering rate 30% Date of manufacture Retention Time after mowing 1 Year 4 Month or Less

Wash 5 times Wood Processing Methode Cut Rope

Fiber Length 70 mm + 10 mm Fiber Diameter Rope without that look abnormal

Part Bast of more than 20 cm from the ground Moisture Content 18 % Max Foreign Material Without the incorporation of foreign material

Smell Without the bad odor

SOC Satisfy the materials of substances of concern and a

standard BSD 12004 about the product part use restrictions about the use substances of concern

As can be seen in table 1, kenaf fiber was treated well and is ready to be reinforcement in composite. The physical appearance of the kenaf fiber is shown in figure 1. The surface kenaf fiber is obviously clean and showing its typical contour. Figure 1 (a) was taken by optical microscope and figure 1 (b) was taken by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The diameter of the fiber is easily measured from the SEM image. After several measurements, the average diameter of the kenaf fiber was obtained to be 58 μm.

(a)

(b) Figure 1. Physical appearance of kenaf fiber: (a) Kenaf

fiber bundles; (b) SEM image of kenaf single fiber

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The specimens were prepared using paper frame to ensure a proper handling of the specimen when attaching it on the testing machine grips. This method is commonly used in single fiber testings [9]-[11]. The length of the specimen is 10 mm. Both ends are glued using epoxy. This epoxy deposit protects the fiber when it is gripped on tensile testing machine. The specimen configuration is shown in figure 2.

The tensile testing machine used for experiments have been modified using smaller capacity load cell. The load cell can withstand maximum load of 20 Newton. The tip of dial indicator was attached closer on the upper grip in order to minimize effect of load cell and machine deformation on recorded specimen displacement. Figure 3 shows the testing configuration. Load cell and dial indicator was connected to strain amplifiers. The analog signal from strain amplifiers was recorded using data acquisition system (DAQ) inside a personal computer.

Figure 2. Specimen configuration

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Tensile testing: (a) Testing configuration; (b) Instrumentation

Load cell as a load transducer and dial indicator as a displacement transducer have been calibrated and showing linier respond of the physical quantity to the output signals. Figure 4a and 4b show the calibration result of the load cell and dial indicator respectively. Testing speed was determined by crosshead speed movement in which constant. In this study, the testing speeds used were 0.02 mm/s, 0.1 mm/s, 0.5 mm/s, and 1 mm/s.


Figure 5 shows the testing results of all specimens. The initial portion of the curve is slightly growing up. It could be due to seating process on the grip and initial testing speed. The stress - strain curves show mostly linear relationship until its ultimate point. The linear relationship until its fracture or almost fracture indicated that the specimen was experiencing

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mostly elastic deformation. On the other word, all specimens are showing brittle fracture behavior. As it is indicated in Figure 6, the ultimate tensile stress (UTS) of specimen increases with higher testing speed. Kenaf fiber shows sensitivity to strain rate. Study related to the effect of loading rate is presented in [12] for kenaf fiber bundle and in [13-14] for carbon fiber.

In this study, the strain rate is represented in testing machine crosshead speed. Figure 7 shows strain when the specimen reaches UTS. The strain at UTS tends to increase with testing speed of 0.02 mm/s, 0.1 mm/s, and 0.5 mm/s. At testing speed of 1 mm/s, the strain at UTS increases approximately similar to that of testing speed of 0.1 mm/s. Figure 8 shows Young’s modulus of the specimen for all testing speeds. The Young’s modulus of the specimen increases with testing speed. As shown in Figure 6, the Young’s modulus increases slightly at testing speed of 1 mm/s. Unlikely, as shown in Figure 6, the UTS of the specimen increases significantly at testing speed of 1 mm/s.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4. Calibration curve; (a) Load cell and (b) Dial indicator

Figure 5. Stress vs Strain curve for all testing speed

Figure 6. Ultimate Tensile Stress vs Testing speed

0 1 2 3 4 5 60

5

10

15

20

25

Load

(N)

Loadcell Output (V)

ax+ba=4.41007210e+00b=2.65757635e-02|r|=9.99953112e-01

0 0.5 1 1.50

2

4

6

8

10

Dis

plac

emen

t (m

m)

Dial Output (V)

ax+ba=6.86898096e+00b=1.25522273e-03|r|=9.99999368e-01

0 0.01 0.02 0.030

200

400

600

800

1000

Stre

ss (M

Pa)

Strain (mm/mm)

1 mm/s

0.5 mm/s

0.1 mm/s

0.02 mm/s

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

200

400

600

800

1000

Ulti

mat

e Te

nsile

Stre

ss (M

Pa)

Testing Speed (mm/s)

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Figure 7. Strain at UTS vs Testing speed

Figure 8. Modulus Young vs Testing speed

Figure 9 shows fracture feature of the specimen. Figure 9a shows the whole end of fractured specimen and Figure 9b shows more detail fracture feature of the specimen. All specimens demonstrated similar fracture surface feature. As indicated in Figure 5, all specimens implied to behave brittle like material. Other discussion concerning fracture feature of kenaf fiber in bundle representation was performed in [12,15]. The appearance of fracture feature of specimen conforms to the well-known fracture feature of wood since kenaf fiber is woody material [4].

(a)

(b)

Figure 9. Fracture features of a specimen; (a) Whole fractured end, and (b) Detailed fracture feature

5. CONCLUSION This study has examined the tensile behavior of kenaf fiber with variation of testing speed. The result shows that all specimens are showing brittle fracture behavior. The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) of specimen increases with higher testing speed. The strain at UTS tends to increase with testing speed of 0.02 mm/s, 0.1 mm/s, and 0.5 mm/s but increasing at testing speed of 1 mm/s. The Young’s modulus of the specimen increases with testing speed. Furthermore, all specimens demonstrated similar fracture surface feature, i.e. all specimens implied to behave brittle like material since kenaf fiber is woody material.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

0.01

0.02

0.03St

rain

at U

TS(m

m/m

m)


0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

10

20

30

40

50

You

ng's

Mod

ulus

(G

Pa)


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6. ACKNOLEDGEMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided to this study by the Directorate of Higher Education, Ministry of Education of Indonesia. Also, authors express sincere gratitude to CV. Global Agrotek, Malang, for providing high quality kenaf fiber.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Abdullah AH, Alias SK, Jenal N,

Abdan K, and Ali A (2012) Fatigue Behavior of Kenaf Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Composites. Engineering Journal, Vol. 16 Issue 5

[2] Lee S, Shi SQ, Groom LH, Xue Y (2009) Properties of Unidirectional Kenaf Fiber–Polyolefin Laminates. Polymer Composites

[3] Aji IS, Sapuan SM, Zainudin ES, and Abdan K (2009) Kenaf Fibres as Reinforcement For Polymeric Composites: A Review. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (IJMME), Vol. 4, No. 3 : 239-248

[4] Ochi S (2010) Tensile Properties of Kenaf Fiber Bundle. SRX Materials Science Volume 2010

[5] Tawakkal ISMA, Talib RA, Abdan K, Ling CN (2012) Mechanical and Physical Properties of Kenaf Derived Cellulose (KDC)-Filled Polylactic Acid (PLA) Composites. BioResources 7(2) : 1643-1655

[6] Han SO, Karevan M, Sim N, Bhuiyan MdA, Jang YH, Ghaffar J, and Kalaitzidou K (2012) Understanding the Reinforcing Mechanisms in Kenaf Fiber/PLA and Kenaf Fiber/PP Composites: A Comparative Study.

International Journal of Polymer Science Volume 2012

[7] Jeyanthi S, and Janci Rani J (2012) Improving Mechanical Properties by KENAF Natural Long Fiber Reinforced Composite for Automotive Structures. Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 3 : 275-280

[8] Terashi S, and Ogilvie D (2012) North American Environmental Report, Toyota, NY

[9] Samia S. Mir, Syed M. N. Hasan, Md. J. Hossain, and Mahbub Hasan (2012) Chemical Modification Effect on the Mechanical Properties of Coir Fiber. ENGINEERING JOURNAL Volume 16 Issue 2

[10] Nahar S, and Hasan M (2013) Effect of Chemical Composition, Anatomy and Cell Wall Structure on Tensile Properties of Bamboo Fiber. ENGINEERING JOURNAL Volume 17 Issue 1

[11] Bledzki AK, Mamun AA, Faruk O (2007) Abaca fibre reinforced PP composites and comparison with jute and flax fibre PP composites. Express Polymer Letters Vol.1, No.11 : 755–762

[12] Xue Y, Du Y, Elder S, Wang K, Zhang J (2009) Temperature and loading rate effects on tensile properties of kenaf bast fiber bundles and composites. Composites: Part B 40, 189–196

[13] Zhou Y, Wang Y, Xia Y, Jeelani S (2010) Tensile behavior of carbon fiber bundles at different strain rates. Materials Letters 64, 246–248

[14] Zhang Y, Zheng L, Sun G, Zhan Z, Liao K (2012) Failure

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mechanisms of carbon nanotube fibers under different strain rates CARBON 50, 2887 –2893

[15] Nitta Y, Goda K, Noda J, Lee W (2013) Cross-sectional area

evaluation and tensile properties of alkali-treated kenaf fibres. Composites: Part A 49, 132–138

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The Design of Parking System Based on Rfid And Database to Succesful Enviromentally Program

Sugeng Mulyono1, B.S. Rahayu Purwanti2

1Mechanical Engineering, State Polytechnic of Jakarta 2Electrical Engineering, State Polytechnic of Jakarta

[email protected]

Abstract

This research developed a motorcycle parking system based on RFID, supported by Visual Basic database. First, to developed an open-close system of motorcycle portal and a database on RFID. Second, the system encoded either the registered visitors or temporary visitors. The on-off controller of DC motor-driver was used for open-close of portal. Portal was equipped with RFID Box. The portal will opened after the Card is moved nearby to Reader. The maximum distance between Card and Reader is 7 cm, before being connected with SIMPARK. The unique Card code will be identified by Tag Reader. It’s according to Card owner identity and function as a trigger to open portal. The portal automatically closed after microcontroller receives a signal from PIR sensors. Motorcycles which passed portal were detected by PIR sensor. Identification of incoming and outgoing visitor, were encoded in the database. One hundred ID cards were tested, 97 % success to detect identification the unique number. The parking and the database system model can be continued test, hopefully could applied in any parking area. This research has succeeded and could use a database model for parking of motorcycles system activities. Key words: parking, environmentally friendly, rfid, database 1. INTRODUCTION This research is the planning phase of the integrated motor parking system.Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)as an electronic modul which utilize radio wave is integrated with Information Communication Technologies (ICT).RFID Module comprise of RFID Tag and Box, serves respectively as a data storage device and reader.RFID Tag (contained unique code) is moved nearby to RFID Box, the Card owner data will be read.The card owner can enter to motor parking area [1], [2] for a certain time period. Automatic vehicle parking system there have been researched and realized. Automatization is served by machine box that give off the sound and parking ticket.Parking visitor take the paper parking ticket and then pay the parking retribution (fee). Using of paper will polute the environment due to discharge of parking ticket in an indiscriminate manner.Reduction in paper usage also support to

minimization of tree felling as one of paper raw materials. The idea for designing of “go green” parking system is a form of participation for succeding nationally and internationally eco-friendly program.

Usually, parking area especially in campus still was managed conventionally by security officer. Parking area visitors are classified in two categories i.e registered visitors and temporary visitor. Retribution fee payed by temporary visitor difficult to traced.The retribution payment in the campus is not calculated based on the parking time.The problem in campus parking area is not in jaming/queue but how to secure the vehicle.Parking area visitor generally are students/employee/lectures who are doing their activities.Parking time period in the parking areais different from one another but have same tariff. The problem occure in the morning when many visitors (students, employee and lecturers) come together in the same time at 07.30 The


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improvement of servicing by shorten the entrance time will prevent long queue.

The visitor needs to know about space availability in the parking area as soon as posible when the visitor in front of the parking gate. The ease to find parking space is aimed to speed up the time of vehicle storage and will not happen queue.The queue occur because of delivering of parking ticket and retribution payment. Visitor recieve card and retribution evidence with a certain periodic time and served by officer. Delivering of parking ticket and reciept can be done more modern. Vehicle jam due to queue can be overcome by displayed on LCD (Liquid Cristal Display). RFID Tag (as ticket substitution) possesed by registered visitor, will be detected as Valid Card if the visitor has already paid the retribution for one semester, otherwise will be detected as Invalid Card if the visitor haven’t paid yet the retribution or card have already expired.Registration and payment will automatically recorded in the PC when the officer gives RFID Tag.Retribution payment will be a benefit income for the institution in order to improve the parking servicing and securing in the campus. Database of visitors and retribution are stored in the parking system so will be able to give a benefit to the involved officer.

2. METHODOLOGY This research inline with the theme of Research Master Plan of Jakarta State Polytechnic year 2011-2016 point 1 i.e Innovation of On-Wire and Wireless Based Control System. Parking system in the campus generally managed by one of units/parts the Personal and General Affair Head Department responsibility (The

HeadDepartment).Information about using of parking system be very important for monitoring the ammount of motorbike and result of parking retribution.Handycap for The Department Head is imposible to supervise the parking activities by time to time. The Department Head needs information system which can be directly accesed from his/her PC (on wire) or wireless by Ipad. Parking system that can be directly monitored by the department head anytime and anywhere is very importan to be realized.

2.1 Environmentally Friendly Parking Ticket and Retribution

Computerization of parking system by using RFID technology has been many researched, among them is vehicle parking automatization system [1]. RFID tag identify the vehicle which entering the parking area according to the owner identities. [2] Identities recognition using RFID tag has equiped with modular method management system.[3] This method improve the excisting parking management system which estimate the empty space in the parking area. [One of output data forms is parking-fee which is counted when the vehicle leave the parking area and then recorded in the financial report of parking area. Data of total visitor using RFID Tag can be displayed in the 7 segment [4], shows the left slot on block/location of parking area. Parking ticket and payment receipt are designed as simple as using RFID Card to reduce using of paper succeding eco-friendly program, clean product and paperless [5]. Function combining of ID Card either as a presence card and parking card.Parking card is identified from student or employee or lecturer ID card interested for being researched.

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Beside this data of parking visitor can be saved in Microsoft Excel or PDF files, and will be printed out if necessary to support eco-friendly program. Parking visitor who didn’thaven’t or have paid retribution will be detected by the system. Parking officer ask retribution to temporary visitor who haven’t ID card.Parking card for registered visitor in the campus generally used for along one semester/six months and after this period will expired.]

RFID card can be used along six semester and do not need paper as parking ticket. Using of paper as parking ticket is not environmently friendly because it will result waste and going to mess the environment, beside that will need raw materials. Increasing of paper production using of new raw materials identically with using of wood. Wood logging specially in the conservation forest are contributing in damaging the environment and not support afforestation program . Paper as parking ticket has shifted by RFID card having multifunction. RFID card is a smartcard which environmentally friendly can be used for long time unless damage or is broken. Using of RFID card support the environmentally friendly program because no waste will be produce as like using of paper, and preventing tree logging in conservation forest.

2.2 Analysis of Parking Area Requirement

Parking is a condition where a vehicle is not move for temporary moment. [4] Parking space requierement on a certain area need to be known. Formula for calculating of parking area requirementwhen surveybe calculated (1).

fTDNS t

.−

= (1)

Remark:

The total number of vehicle which is parked during a certain period time.The accumulation is gain by summing the incoming vehicle minus out going vehicle.The definition of ‘parking term’ is every vehicle that stop at certain place is signed by parking mark. Parking not just for loading or unloading of stuff and or humantetapi penting untuk meningkatkan pendapatan [5]. Difference of time is park duration, average of parking time from all motorbike when surveybe calculated (2)”

t

x

NIXND ∑=))()(( (2)

2.3 Integrated ICT Based Parking System

Detector mode of parking by face detection (camera) difficult to detect of change expression from visitor. Visitor who is not building occupant is not recognized by system, so need a solution[2], [5]. RFID-based motor parking system substitues monitor of camera system.Someone who entering parking area is given a parking card (RFID Tag). The system detect unique code contained in the RFID Tag which is move nearby the RFID Box, so will be recorded incoming

S: Number of space needed for recent time

D: Average time for park (hour/vehicle)

Nt:: Total number of vehicle during the survey. (vehicle)

T: Period of survey (hour)

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time of visitor. RFID system has connected with computer that enable encode the data of parking visitor. Generally RFID-based parking system can be develop with data storage on database. The function of database is for viewingthe data of parking activities. It is necessary found a connector between RFID [5], [6] could improve with cameraDatabase if be applied with Cristal Report can be printed as a report. Parking services equiped with camera as a parking information system, will more efficient.

2.4 Design of RFID And Database Based Parking System

Smart card based parking system, such as camera, RFID continously developed nowdays. Specially RFID is activated by module using radio waves can open-close parking portal wireless.RFID Tag moved nearby RFID Box Reader which is installed on the entrance gate. RFID card also can be integrated with Identity Card, e.g. Student ID Card. Beside this information about parking space availability is also needed, so will not happen queue or difficult to find

parking space. Information system which display of parking space availability very required by parkir area visitor.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Before visitor enter the parking area can know availability of parking space. RFID based parking system can be integrated with previous parking system using addition equipment for displaying information so visitor enable to know space availability in parking area.

Parking system operated by Administrator, Personal Department Head or Security officer. Security officer logs in to the parking system according the step shown in figure 1, figure 2, figure 3 figure 4. SIMPARK Icon is chosen, Log in by enter Username and Password which will display Parking System Monitor. Parking area is managed by an administrator (autorised staff), who have responsible for manage the system. The system can be accessed by Personal Department Head/an autorised staff for monitoring the parking system.

OK CANCEL

21 : 00 : 05THURSDAY 09 OCTOBER 2014

EXIT

WellcomeSimPark is a software for facilatate in motorcycle parking management which can be easily applied in an institution and easy to operated.Please Log in for starting this application.

Figure 1. Desktop Screen Figure 2. Main Menu SIMPARK

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OK CANCEL

USER NAME:

PASSWORD:

sukatno

************

21 : 00 : 10THURSDAY 09 OCTOBER 2014

EXIT

AVAILABLE SPACE

PHOTO NO. STNK :

NAME :

NID :

0

THURSDAY 09 OCTOBER 2014 21 : 00 : 40

P1

OFFICER : SUKATNO NID : S196702251994031001

MODE AUTO

CHANGE ?

TO MAIN MENU?

AREA

OCCUPIED SPACE LEFT SPACE

500 500

MOTOR IN

MAIN PARKING AREA

Figure 3. Login Activity Figure 4. Parking Display Monitor

3.1 Database System Security as an operator in parking area operates parking system. The authorities of Administrator are acces all of the system, input data, setting password, add the data, edit data, view data, print out data, monitor as well as operate the parking system.The authorities of Department Head are add data, edit data, view data, print out dataand monitor parking system. The authorities to operate the parking system different one another, according Use Case Diagram (Figure 5). Table display from input data process via Visitor Form, contain NID, Visitor’s Name,

Education, Origin University (lecturer and employee), sex. Religion, address (Figure 6). Data input for Paid/Not paid, Date payment, Date Expired are fill in Status_Motor_tbl_Form (Figure 7). Input Data figure 7 is very important to ensure that visitor’s motorbike can come in or goes out from parking area. Motor status is state valid, when RFID card of the visitor move nearby to RFID Reader and having ‘Paid’ Status or hasn’t beyond the expired limits (Figure 8). Visitor status have already full filled, will displayed on the monitor Valid status. Displaying the Valid status identic with Valid Card, automatically portal opened.

Figure 5. Use Case Diagram Figure 6. Entry Data Form

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Figure 7. Motor Status Form Figure 8. Motor Status Data

3.2 Parking Application

Figure 9. SIMPARK Database

SIMPARK software is designed as a user interface. In this part will be displayed some figures which related with operation method and how to operate SIMPARK, start from Desktop screen till appear Parking Display Monitor (Figure 4). Sequence for using SIMPARK are: Press SIMPARK Icon on the desktop screen (Figure 1), appear Screen for Log in (Figure 2).

Using the system by pressing Login button, appear input screen to input account (Figure 3). The next, press OK button, chose sub menus until appear Parking Display Monitor (Figure 4).

A hundred RFID Card move nearby to RFID Box Reader and will be detected their identity. The detected identity is unique number of the card and then added with data of the card owner. Result of input data process can be displayed such as figure 9.

4. AKNOWLEDGEMENT Special thanks to General Directorate of Higher Education has supported this research funding via Center for Research and Community Service State Polytechnic of Jakarta.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Ming-Shen Jina,KuenShiuh Yang,

and Chung–Lun. 2008. Modular RFID Parking Management System based on Existed Gate

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System Integration, ISSN: 1109-2777, Issue 6, Volume 7.

[2] S. C. Hanche, Pooja Munot, Pranali Bagal, Kirti Sonawane & Pooja Pise. 2013. Automated Vehicle Parking System using RFID. ITSI Transactions on Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ITSI-TEEE), p 89-92.

[3] Mohammad Shaifur Rahman, Youngil Park, and Ki-Doo Kim. 2009. Relative Location Estimation of Vehicles in Parking Management System. ICACT, ISBN 978-89-5519-139-4, p 729-732.

[4] Cynthia S. Wang, NiroSivanathan, Jayanth Narayanan, Deshani B. Ganegoda, Monika Bauer, Galen V. Bodenhausen, Keith Murnighan. 2011. Retribution and

Emotional Regulation; the Effects of Time Delay in Angry Economic Interactions.

[5] Walidun Husain. 2013. The Influence of Local Taxes and Levies towards ExpenditureAllocation in Gorontalo Town, Indonesia. IJRRAS 15 (2), May 2013 www.arpapress.com/Volumes/Vol15Issue2/IJRRAS_15_2_07.pdf

[6] SugengMulyono, B. S. RahayuPurwanti, ZainalNurArifin, Azwardi. 2013. The Development of Motorcycle Parking System based on RFID and Visual Basic Database. Proceeding of Annual South East Asian International Seminar (ASAIS), ISSN: 2302-786X, p. 179-187.

http://www.arpapress.com/Volumes/Vol15�

http://www.arpapress.com/Volumes/Vol15�

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Precast Concrete Panel with Substitution of Fine Agregate Mining Gold Tailing Pongkor

Amalia1, Agus Murdiyoto2

Civil Enggineering Department, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta email : [email protected]

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the potential of gold mining waste tailings in Pongkor as fine aggregate in precast concrete wall panels. The study was conducted by making the specimen precast concrete wall panels size 100 cm x 50 cm x 10 cm. To reduce the weight of the panel, made holes in the middle of the wall. Wall panels are made of concrete with water cement factor (fas) 0.50 to 5 variations of tailings as aggregate substitution, ie 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of the weight of the fine aggregate. The results showed that (1) the use of tailings as fine aggregate substitute in concrete precast panels can increase the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete on the composition of 10%, and 20%, (2) tensile strength of precast wall panels decreased in the presence of tailings on concrete mixture, (3) tailings can be used as a substitute fine aggregate in concrete panels up to 40%, wherein the composition produces precast concrete panels that meet the standards for non-structural partition wall, (4) weight content of wall concrete panels using more and more tailings, bulk density is decreased. Keywords: precast concrete panel, compressive strength, tailing of gold mining 1. INTRODUCTION Tailings are the waste rock that precipitated the destruction process to separate the gold from the ore. Gold tailings were dumped still contain heavy metals that are harmful to the environment. In the gold mining process, tailings are waste an enormous amount, because of the mining was done, only less than 3% of the gold, the rest of the tailings. PT Antam UPBE Pongkor is a gold mining company that produces tailings ± 350,000 tonnes per year. This tailings require special handling and management, especially large area and sterile as a shelter (tailings dam) so as not to pollute the environment. Until now, a new tailings Pongkor utilized ± 60% of the total volume as a pile of excavated material that has been mined. Remaining 40% collected in the tailings dams and tailings have not been fully utilized.

Physically, the tailings is a rock shaped fine to medium sand with material composition ± 75% quartz,

23% iron oxide and 2% other minerals. Research the use of tailings as a pavement material mentions that the tailings are used as a mixture of pavement up to 40% can improve the basic soil properties (Competitiveness. 2008). Besides being used as a road pavement, the tailings can also be used as a molding material which produces brick brick class 25 and 50 (Widodo et al 2010). Another study using tailings as a filler in concrete to produce a marine environment that is more resistant concrete in marine environments compared to concrete without tailing (Shah & Saputra.2011).

The results of research into the use of tailings as a filler material in concrete hollow brick mention that, tailings can be used as a substitute for an aggregate of up to 75%, wherein the composition produces a hollow concrete brick that still meets ISO standards for fourth grade concrete bricks that can be used as non-insulating walls structural (amalia & Murdiyoto, 2013). The use of tailings


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as fine aggregate in concrete hollow brick turned out to have a good performance so it is necessary to conduct further research on the use of these tailings concrete with different variations of the amount of tailings.

From some of the research results, there are some things that still need to be developed further, the use of tailings as raw material for the manufacture of precast concrete wall panels. To determine the performance of the tailings as aggregate in precast concrete wall panels, it is necessary to study the use of tailings in concrete wall panels.

Precast Concrete Walls

The walls are precast concrete building elements are printed / fabricated in a factory or other place, then installed at the construction site.

FRESH CONCRETE PROPERTIES

Fresh concrete is concrete in the plastic state (before it hardens), and will soon harden within a few hours after the concrete stirring. Fresh concrete must have high performance, namely: kelecakan or ease done, cohesiveness and ease of pumping to high ground, low hydration heat, which is relatively low shrinkage on hardening process and the acceleration or delay the start time of the connective. The properties that need to be considered in the fresh concrete are:

a. Workability

This trait is a measure of the level of convenience for the concrete mixture stirred, transported, poured and compacted. The nature of the ease of doing the fresh concrete is influenced by: (1) The amount of water used in the concrete mix. The more water

used, the easier it fresh concrete is done but the amount of water which a lot can decrease the compressive strength of concrete. (2) Addition of cement into the mixture. A greater amount of cement, the fresh concrete more easily done. (3) Gradation of fine and coarse aggregates. If the aggregate has a gradation used in accordance with the requirements, then the concrete will be easy to do. (4) The form of granular aggregates. Granules form a spherical aggregate concrete work will be easier. (5) The use of mineral admixture and added ingredients. The level of workmanship is closely related to the ease of kelecakan concrete. To measure kelecakan concrete slump testing. The greater the mean value of the slump concrete mix concrete dilute and this means more easily done. Slump value ranges from 5-120 cm. In fresh concrete to avoid segregation and ketidakkohesifan the mix. Segregation occurs due to lack of concrete fine grains, coarse grains and cement mortar is very dilute. Ketidakkohesifan concrete caused by: lack of cement, sand shortages, water shortages, and composition of the aggregate grain size is not good. To avoid segregation and ketidakkohesifan mix done by improving the composition of the concrete mix, namely: improving water content, sand content, the maximum size of aggregate grains and increase the amount of fines / filler.

b. Unit weight

Unit weight of concrete is the ratio between the net weight of the fresh concrete volume (the volume of the cylinder for testing). Weight function to correct content of the concrete mix concrete arrangement if the result is

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different from the execution planning. Correction figures obtained from the comparison between the weight of the unit weight of the concrete with a concrete plan implementation. Price correction figure is then multiplied by the needs of each ingredient in the planning. In addition, the unit weight of concrete also serves to convert from the unit weight and unit volume to correct the excess or shortage of materials during the manufacture of concrete that will affect the overall volume of work.

c. Initial Setting Time

Setting time is the time taken by concrete to harden, ranging from a plastic state into a tractable form rigid (hard). Connective function of time to determine when it is appropriate to open the mold (Formwork) concrete so that the concrete does not change shape, but the concrete is not allowed to accept the burden, either alone or heavy load from the outside.

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE

Mechanical behavior of hard concrete is concrete in the ability to carry the load on the building structure. Performance good hard concrete compressive strength of concrete is shown by the high, better tensile strength, more ductile behavior, watertightness and air, resistance to sulphate chloride dn, low shrinkage and long-term durability.

a. Concrete Compressive Strength

Concrete compressive strength is the maximum compressive strength of concrete that can be carried per unit area. Between normal concrete compressive strength 20-40 MPa. Compressive strength of concrete is influenced by: water cement factor

(water cement ratio = w / c), the nature and type of aggregate, type of mix, kelecakan (workability), treatment (curing) of concrete and concrete age. Factors cement water (water cement ratio = w / c) greatly affects the compressive strength of concrete. The smaller the value of w / c its the little amount of water that would result in a large concrete compressive strength. The characteristic and type of aggregate used also affect the compressive strength of concrete. The higher the level of violence used aggregate will produce a high compressive strength of concrete. In addition, the composition of large granular aggregates are not uniformly good and can allow for interaction between the grains so that the cavity between the aggregate under optimum conditions that produce a dense concrete and high compressive strength.

Type of concrete mix will affect the compressive strength of concrete. The amount of cement paste should be sufficient to lubricate the entire surface of the granular aggregate and fill cavities between aggregates to produce concrete with compressive strength desired. To obtain concrete with strength as desired, then the young concrete maintenance needs to be done in order for the cement hydration process runs perfectly. In the cement hydration process takes a certain humidity conditions. If the concrete too quickly dry up, there will be cracks on its surface. These cracks will cause the strength of concrete down, also due to the failure to achieve full chemical hydration reactions. Concrete compressive strength increased with age concrete. Compressive strength of concrete is considered reached 100% after 28 days old concrete.

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b. Tensile Strength of Concrete

One disadvantage of having a tensile strength of concrete is very small compared to the compressive strength that is 10% -15% f'c. Tensile strength of concrete affect the ability to cope with cracked concrete in the beginning before it loaded. Testing the tensile strength of concrete can be done by: (1) direct tensile test, (2) split tensile test (tensile testing concrete indirectly) by using the "Split cylinder test". With concrete cylinder splitting tensile stress occurs through the transfer of the seat of one of the fields of the cylinder and the concrete cylinder split along loading diameter.

c. Flexural strength of Concrete

Flexural strength of the indirect tensile strength of concrete due to bending moment in a state (flexure / modulus of rupture). Of flexural strength testing can be known patterns of crack and deflection that occurs in flexural load bearing beam. Flexural strength of concrete can also indicate the level of ductility of concrete. Flexural strength of concrete is calculated based on the formula, where M is the maximum moment when the collapse of the test specimen and Z is the section modulus in the transverse direction. According to Article 11.5 SNI 03-2847 (2002) value of flexural strength of concrete when subjected to compressive strength are MPa.

Gold Mining Tailings

Tailings are the waste rock that precipitated the destruction process to separate the gold from the ore. Gold tailings were dumped still contain heavy metals that are harmful to the environment. In the gold mining

process, tailings are waste an enormous amount, because of the mining was done, only less than 3% of the gold, the rest of the tailings. Physically, the tailings is a rock shaped fine to medium sand with material composition ± 75% quartz, 23% iron oxide and 2% other minerals. As demolition waste rock tailings still contain minerals as listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Composition of Mineral Processing Tailings

Gold (Widodo et al. 2010)

Besides containing minerals such as Table 2.3, tailings also contain heavy metals that can pollute the environment. Utilization of tailings should pay attention to the content of heavy metals, so utilization does not harm the environment. The study of gold mining tailings UPBE Pongkor mention that these tailings contain metallic elements Mn 0.86 mg / L, 0.366 mg Fe / L, 0,035 mg Pb / L, Cd 0,027mg / L, 0.033 mg Zn / L and Cu 0, 22 mg / L. This value is below the quality standard that is safe to use tailings (Prasetyo. 2011). Widodo et.al (2010) examined the use of gold mining waste tailings is done simply by the local community as a brick print Tasikmalaya. The tailings are used as materials for brick molding, where the main ingredients used are tailings, feldspar, rock side, inorganic substances and water. The results showed that the brick print using basic materials meet the requirements of SII-tailing 0021-78 to print brick

No Jenis Mineral Prosentase (%) 1 Kuarsa (SiO2) 54 2 Dolomit (CaMg) 2,5 3 Kalsit (CaCO3) 7 4 Anhidrit (CaSO4) 2 5 Clay/Kaolin/Monmorilonit/Illite 9 6 Oksida Besi (FeO) 3

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class 25 and 50 are properly used as a wall.

2. METHODS OF RESEARCH Variation and Type Test Objects

The study was conducted by making a cylindrical concrete specimen size of 15 cm x 30 cm. Test specimens made with cement water factor (fas) variation of 0.50 to 5 tailings as aggregate substitution, ie 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of the weight of the fine aggregate. Tailings used a gold mine waste in Pongkor Bogor, West Java. Properties of concrete are studied include: workability, unit weight, compressive strength, and tensile strength of concrete. Compressive strength and tensile strength of concrete tested at 28 days. All in curing the specimen by soaking in water until the age of 28 days.

The materials used in this study is the type of adhesive composite portland cement (PCC), fine aggregate from natural sand types, and gold mining tailings in Pongkor, Bogor, West Java.

Method of Testing Materials

Prior to the manufacture of concrete specimen, the testing done on the quality of fine aggregate, and physical properties of the tailings. For properties not be tested because the PC used a PC that meets ISO standards. The type and testing standards used include: ASTM C 143-2000 (Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concret), ASTM C 33-2003 (Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates), ASTM C 39-1999 (Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens), ASTM C 496-1996 (Standard Test Method for

Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens).

After testing the constituent materials of concrete, the next procedure is the manufacture of test specimens and test quality.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Properties ingredients Concrete

The properties of Panels concrete are presented in Table 2

From Table 2, it appears that the materials used to make panel concrete meet the standards required to make concrete.

Bulk Density of Sand.

Bulk Density of Sand will affect concrete strength concrete. Sand with high density can increase the compressive strength. Sand used in this study has a specific gravity of 2.64. Judging from the weight of its kind, this sand aggregate qualifies as normal, ie from 2.50 to 2.70. Tailings has a specific gravity of 2.62. Loose Bulk Density of Sand. Weight function for calculating sand content of the material needs to be used to make mortar. Loose Bulk Density of Sand used in this study was 1343.10 kg / m 3, which is the value meets the requirements of ASTM C 331 minimum 1120 kg / m 3 (Anonymous, 1994).

Moisture and Water Absorption.

Sifat-Sifat Bahan Jenis Bahan

Agregat Halus

Agregat Kasar Tailing

Berat Jenis 2,58 2,60 2,46 Berat Jenis (SSD) 2,64 2,63 2,62 Berat Jenis Semu 2,74 2,67 2,73 Berat Isi Lepas (kg/m3) 1343,10 1352,00 1074,74 Voids (%) 48% 48% 56% Berat Isi Padat (kg/m3) 1536,33 1413,28 1229,33 Voids (%) 40% 46% 50% Penyerapan Air (%) 0,02 0,01 4% Kadar Lumpur (%) 3% 3% 3%

Gradasi Agregat Zona 2 Diameter mak 20 mm Zona 4

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Water content showed that the water content in the sand, while the absorption of water in the sand is the ability to absorb water until saturated. If the sand water content value is smaller than absorption, then sand in a dry condition. Conversely, if the moisture content of sand was higher than the water absorption, the sand in wet conditions. Water content and water absorption of sand affect the water needs in making a workable mix concrete brick. Laboratory test results, and tailings sand used in this study dry condition.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE TO PRODUCE PRECAST CONCRETE WALL

Workability

Worakbility the fresh concrete properties to demonstrate the concrete ease stirred, poured, molded, and compacted. This trait is important to note that the process of making concrete the concrete produced solid, flat surface, and has a high strength. To determine the workability of concrete, slump value testing. The higher the slump value is generated, indicating that the concrete has good workability. The results of the study workability of concrete for precast walls with aggregate production of tailings, are presented in Table 3 and Figure 1.

Table 3. Slump Value of Tailing Concrete

levels of Tailings Average Slump (mm)

0% 75,0 10% 201,8 20% 113,3 30% 106,7 40% 90,0

Figure 1 Value Slump Concrete Tailings

Concrete with high slump value indicating concrete easier to work with, easily stirred, poured and compacted. Concrete at the level of ease in the process affects the density of concrete. The results showed that the use of tailings in concrete can reduce bleeding and concrete viscosity better than the concrete without tailing. This is consistent with the results of the research of Li Yun Feng, et al (2009) which states that the use of steel slag powder can make the concrete has a better viscosity.

From Figure 1 and Table 3 shows, that the use of tailings as a substitute for sand in concrete by 10% with W/C 0.5, results in the most high slump value. Of the image can also be seen, that the use of taling up to 40% yield slump value is higher than on the concrete without tailing. This suggests that the use of tailings as a substitute for sand in concrete precast wall panel turns make the concrete more plastic so that the concrete is poured and compacted into the mold / formwork walls. Slump value is closely linked to the level of ease of doing on the concrete. It looks at the time of printing / casting panel with no tailings, where the mortar has a smallest slump, mortar is difficult to cast into the formwork panels and hard compacting. This is because, solid

75,0

201,8

113,3 106,790,0

0

50

100

150

200

250

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

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concrete / too thick, the walls narrow slit so that if there is a large gravel size and position stuck in the pipe, the concrete will not flow down. The resulting porous panels on the sides.

On the production variation of wall panels 2 and 3, with the tailings 10% and 20%, it turns out the process of pouring and compacting concrete into formwork / mold more easily. This is because there are finely granulated tailings fraction, so that the mortar is poured and compacted easier.

On the production variation of wall panels 4 and 5, with the tailings 30% and 40%, it turns out the process of pouring and compacting concrete into formwork / molds start difficult. This is because there are finely granulated tailings fraction increasing number, so that the mixing process started more difficult. In addition, the number of grains of fine tailings that more and more, higher water absorbing.

Unit Weight of Concrete

Unit Weight of concrete used to calculate the weight of its own structure. The greater the weight of the contents, the structure itself has a greater weight. Unit weight of hard concrete research results are presented in Table 4 and Figure 2.

Table 4 Average Unit Weight of Concrete Tailing

Tailings level Average Unit Weight (Kg/m3) 0% 2317,905

10% 2289,219 20% 2280,349 30% 2288,150 40% 2280,098

Figure 2. Average Unit Weight of Tailing Concrete

Unit weight of precast concrete wall panels are value ratio between the weight and volume of the panel. Bulk density will affect the weight of its own walls. From Figure 2 and Table 4 it appears that the precast concrete panels without substitution tailings has the greatest bulk density than concrete panels without tailing. The use of tailings in the precast concrete panel was able to reduce the weight of its contents. This means, the concrete panels that use tailings lighter than panels without tailing. The greater the amount of tailings that replaces sand in the concrete mix, the smaller the value of heavy contents. This occurs because the value of specific gravity and bulk density of the tailings is smaller than the value of the specific gravity and the weight of the sand. This is in line with previous studies, where the use of tailings in far too hollow concrete brick unit weight of brick. The more tailings sand replaced on hollow concrete brick, concrete brick, the bulk density also decreased (Amalia and Murdiyoto, 2013).

Compressive Strength of Concrete Panels

The results of compressive strength of concrete panel at 28 days is presented in Table 5 and Figure 3.

2317,905

2289,219 2280,34

9

2288,150 2280,09

8

22602270228022902300231023202330

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

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Table 5. Average Compressive Strength of Concrete Tailing

Tailing Level Average Compressive Strength (Mpa)

0% 21,46

10% 23,06

20% 22,88

30% 18,64

40% 18,10

Figure 3. Average Compressive Strength of Tailing

Concrete

Concrete panels tailings grading 10%, the compressive strength increased by 7.45%, 20% tailings increased by 6.62%. Compressive strength of concrete panels on the content of the tailings decreased 30% and 40%. This condition occurs as fine-grained tailings as fill the cavity between the optimum fine aggregate and cement so that the panel becomes more solid and concrete compressive strength up. Concrete compressive strength is closely related to workabiltynya, where concrete with high slump value is cast in concrete and compacted to produce a more dense concrete panels. In this study, concrete panels without having tailings slump value is smaller than the concrete panels with tailings. At the time of the printing process, the tailings slurry concrete panels without difficulty so that the concrete is poured and compacted porous. Therefore, the compressive

strength of concrete is also smaller than the tailings concrete panels.

On the production variation of wall panels 4 and 5, with the tailings 30% and 40%, it turns out the process of pouring and compacting concrete into formwork / molds start difficult. This is because there are finely granulated tailings fraction increasing number, so that the mixing process started more difficult. In addition, the number of grains of fine tailings that more and more, higher water absorbing. This condition causes the compressive strength pane down.

The results of this study are consistent with results of previous studies, which used as a substitute for sand tailings on hollow concrete brick mention that the use of tailings in the top 40% can decrease the compressive strength of the brick (Amalia & Murdiyoto, 2013). And research shows that the use of steel slag powder above 10% also cause compressive strength of concrete down (LI Yun Feng, et al, 2009). The same is also generated by research Suryadi (2007) which uses iron sand dust with levels of 54.3% Fe2O3, SiO2 and MgO of 29.95% amounting to 5.12% as a filler in concrete. The results showed that the substitution of concrete with 10% iron sand dust at 28 days compressive strength increased by 9.34%.

Tensile Strength of Concrete Panels

Tensile strength of concrete is concrete strength to prevent cracking due to shrinkage. Concrete with high tensile strength have properties not easily crack when it shrinks. The results of the study of tensile strength of concrete with aggregate tailings are presented in Table 6 and Figure 4.

Table 6 Average Tensile Strength of Concrete Tailing

21,46 23,06 22,8818,64 18,10

0,00

5,00

10,00

15,00

20,00

25,00

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

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Tailings levels

average tensile strength (Mpa)

Tensile strength of SNI (Mpa)

0% 1,81 1,529 10% 1,78 1,585 20% 1,77 1,579 30% 1,69 1,425 40% 1,55 1,404

Figure 4. Average Tensile Strength of Concrete Tailing

From Figure 4 it appears that the use of concrete as a partial replacement of sand tailings have a lower tensile strength than concrete without tailing. Tensile strength of concrete decreases as the number of tailings in concrete panels. From Table 6 also seen that the tensile strength of concrete panels and concrete without tailings tailings experimental results a value greater than the theoretical tensile strength formulation SNI 03-2847-2002, where the tensile strength required for

SNI 0,33 'fc .

4. CONCLUSION from the analysis and discussion above it can be concluded that:

1. concrete panels that use the content of the tailings has a smaller weight than concrete panels without tailing.

2. The use of tailings as aggregate replacement in concrete for making precast wall panels can increase the compressive strength of concrete, up to 20%. The

highest value of compressive strength of concrete panels produced by the tailings grading 10%. Compressive strength of concrete decreases in levels of tailings above 20%.

3. The use of tailings as fine aggregate in concrete panels lowering the tensile strength and flexural strength of concrete panels.

4. The tailings can be used as a substitute for an aggregate of up to 40%, wherein the composition produces concrete for making precast wall panels which still meets the standards to make non-structural partition wall.

5. SUGGESTION From the results of this study suggested:

1. The use of tailings as aggregate in concrete maximum of 50%

2. Do more research on the long-term impact of tailings on health when used for residential.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks go to the director general of higher education who have provided assistance in conducting research funds competitive grants year 2014 budget.

7. REFERENCES [1] Amalia, Murdiyoto A. 2013.

Pemanfaatan Limbah Tailing Penambangan Emas UPBE Pongkor Dan Debu Spons Sebagai Bahan Pembuatan Dinding Bata Beton. Laporan Penelitian. Jakarta. Unit Penelitian dan Pengabdian Masyarakat PNJ.

[2] ASTM C 143. (2000). Standard Test Method for Slump of

1,81 1,78 1,771,69

1,55

1,40

1,50

1,60

1,70

1,80

1,90

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

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Hydraulic Cement Concrete, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

[3] ASTM C 33. (2003). Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

[4] ASTM C 39. (1999). Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

[5] ASTM C 496. (1996). Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

[6] Husin AA dan Setiadji R. 2008. Pengaruh Penambahan Foam Agent Terhadap Kualitas Bata Beton. Jurnal Permukiman vol. 3 nomor 3. Bandung : Pusat Litbang Permukiman.http://puskim.pu.go.id (Akses tanggal 20 Februari 2012).

[7] Prasetyo, R. 2010. Kajian pemanfaatan limbah penambangan emas: studi kasus pemanfaatan tailing di PT. Antam UBPE Pongkor. Abstraksi Tesis. Jakarta : Universitas Indonesia. http://lontar.ui.ac.id/opac/themes/libri2/detail.jsp?id=117254&lokasi=lokal (Akses tanggal 16 Januari 2012).

[8] Saing, Z. 2008. Sifat Pemanfaatan Tailing Sebagai Alternatif Perkerasan Jalan. Jurnal Teknik Dintek vol. 1 nomor 2 hal. 53-61. Ternate : Universitas Muhammadiyah Maluku Utara. http://etd.ugm.ac.id/index.php?mod=penelitian_detail&sub=PenelitianDetail&act=view&typ=html&buku_id=50995&obyek_id=4 (Akses tanggal 6 Januari 2012).

[9] Suryadi, Akhmad, 2007. Hubungan Tegangan Regangan Beton Mutu Tinggi dengan Pasir Besi Sebagai Cementitious. Digilib ITS : Abstrak. http://digilib.its.ac.id/ITS-Master-31000003018214/1152 . [30 januari 2010]

[10] Syah RD dan Saputra PD, 2011. Pemanfaatan Limbah Beracun Penambangan Emas (Tailing) Sebagai Agregat Halus Pada Beton Di Lingkungan Laut (Beton Tailing 4sea). Tugas Akhir. Jakarta : Politeknik Negeri jakarta

[11] Widodo, dkk. 2010. Pemanfaatan Tailing Pengolahan Bijih Emas Cara Amalgamasi Untuk Bata Cetak. Laporan akhir program insentif peneliti dan perekayasa LIPI. Sukabumi : UPT Loka Ui Teknik Penambangan Jampang Kulon LIPI. http://km.ristek.go.id/assets.files/LIPI/ (Akses tanggal 6 Januari 2012).

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Variations in Temperature on Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Resilient Modulus

Eva Azhra Latifa1, Nuzul Barkah Prihutomo2, Mulyono3

1,2,3Civil Engineering Department, Jakarta State Polytechnic PNJ Jln GA Siwabessy, Kampus Baru UI Depok – 16425

Phone 021 7863532, Fax 021 7863532 e-mail:[email protected]

Abstract

This study is the last a series to obtain the best hot mix asphaltic concrete used for flexible pavement with the lowest damage at high temperatures. Previous studies were conducted on varying submersion lengths up to 120 hours and 60oC of temperature towards various fillers, i.e. fly ash and Portland cement, compared to stone dust. The results on Marshall Stability found that a mixture of Portland cement filler and stone dust meets the required criteria, whereas fly ash does not qualify for further testing. Pertamina 60/70 and Retona 55 asphalt was used, both of which showed good performance. The aggregate gradation used was from Bina Marga and Superpave. The research was continued with dynamic stability testing under repetitive load using wheel tracking, where both mixtures were found to have similar durability. The resilient modulus of asphalt concrete mixtures with Superpave gradation and Pertamina asphalt, as well as Bina Marga gradation and Retona asphalt 55, was tested with UMATTA device in this last research. The end result showed that the combination of Superpave gradation with Pertamina asphalt has lower resilient modulus compared to that of Bina Marga gradation with Retona asphalt, which means that the latter is more flexible and, hopefully, more durable.The Bina Marga gradation with Retona asphalt,combination is the recommended mixture for use as surface layer on flexible pavement.. Keywords: aggregate gradation, hot mix asphalt, Marshall stability, dynamic stability, resilient modulus. 1. INTRODUCTION This study is the last in a series to obtain the best hot mix asphaltic concrete used for flexible pavement with the lowest damage at high temperatures.

According to the Department of Public Works, by September 3rd, 2013, there were over 945 damaged spots throughout roads in Jakarta. This was due to the very high load from motorized vehicles traversing through the roads in Jakarta everyday. Moreover, the rainy season also helped accelerate the deformity of the roads. A road maintenance program conducted from August to September managed to fix 169 of the broken spots by utilizing funds allocated within the APBD DKI 2013 budget worth Rp131,753,562,500.00.(http//www.beritasatu.com, Sept 2013)

The research currently being conducted tests the resilient modulus of asphalt concrete mixed with superpave gradation and Pertamina asphalt, as well as Bina Marga gradation and Retona asphalt 55, with a UMATTA device. The heart of the research is putting up the durability of hot mix asphalt concrete with superpave aggregate gradation and fine Bina Marga aggregate gradation using Retona asphalt 55 against repetitive load under varying temperatures and stress; expressed as the tensile stress, tensile strain and resilient modulus of the mixtures.

This research aims to determine the value of the tensile stress, tensile strain and resilient modulus of hot mix asphalt concrete with superpave aggregate gradation and fine Bina Marga aggregate gradation using Retona asphalt 55 as a starting point


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to estimate the volume of traffic that can traverse road pavement as well as the life span of existing road surface plans.

The final result will compare each mixture’s characteristics with the applied tests.

2. THEORY The performance of asphalt concrete mixture is influencedby changes in temperature, the temperature of the surface layer, and the stress caused by vehicle wheel load throughout the pavement. Vechile wheel load on the pavement causes varied stress on all materials within the pavement system (Yin, et al, 2007). Tensile stress occurs on the asphalt base layer, whereas tensile strain occurs on the foundation bed and above subgrade. Moreover, each load has the potential to cause permanent deformation.

The following image depicts the stress and strain occuring within the pavement structure.

Figure2.1 Stress and strain on pavement. Source:

Matthew, 2007

The behavior of tensile and asphalt concrete mixture deformation shows a linear character, which indicates that the connection between the two depends on temperature and load (Füleki-Tkalecz,2010). Permanent deformation happens every time pavement surface receives load. However, the tensile strain occuring as a result of load is recoverable: even

if it happens repetitively and far under the maximum load, it will recover. Therefore, it can be categorized as being elastic; although as is known, flexible pavement layer is not an elastic material.

On flexible pavement,the pattern of load distribution differs for each layer due to the different amounts of strength. The strongest material with the lowest flexibility exists within the uppermost layer, whereas the weakest material with the lowest stiffness exists on the lowermost layer.Picture 2.2 shows that wheel load on the uppermost layer occurs in a small area and results in the highest stress. As it gets lower, the area affected by the load expands; therefore, load distribution causes low stress that weaker materials can sufficiently handle.

Figure 2.2. Load distribution under wheel load.

Source:http://www.nra.co.za

Resilient modulus is directly related to the materials’ ability to stand the distribution of load, in connection with stress and strain, indicating how materials experience deformation as a result of load. This connection varies depending on temperature and the velocity of the vehicle, which shows the behavior of viscoelastic materials. Temperature greatly influences the stiffness modulus and resilient modulus of asphalt concrete against asphalt pavement layer (Wahhab, 2001).

http://www.nra.co.za/�

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According to Pilkey (2005), resilient modulus is the maximum strain energy per volume unit that is absorbed to elasticity threshold in tensile test, and, similar to the area of elasticity in the stress/strain curve, shows the amount of energy absorbed without experiencing plastic deformation. Generally, resilient modulus can be calculated as follows,

……..(1)

where:

σyindicates yield stress,

Eindicates elasticity modulus,and

εindicates strain

Resilient modulus has such an important function in pavement structure that almost allmethods for planning pavement thickness, and pavement response model against load based on the elasticity theory, makes use of this parameter as its main input (Kamal, et al, 2005).

According to Dachlan, et al (2012), the following formula represents the typical modulus value of condensed hot asphalt concrete mix,

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 10[6,4721−0,000147362 (𝑇𝑇)]2….(2)

where:

T indicates temperature in Fahrenheit, and

EAC indicates resilient modulus in psi.

Resilient modulus in this research calculated base on SNI 03-6836-2002as follow:

E= Pe(𝜇𝜇+0,27)𝐻𝐻 𝑋𝑋 ℎ𝑐𝑐

….........................(3)

Pe= 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸ɛ𝐸𝐸hc(µ+0,27)𝐸𝐸106 ……………….(4)

Where :

Pe = maximum load, N

H = total deformation after loading, mm E = aproximately of resilient modulus, MPa D = average of diameter,mm h = average of height, mm ɛ = horizontal strain, micro meter µ= poison ratio, 0.4

The instrument commonly used to determine the resilient modulus of asphalt concrete mix in a laboratory is the UMATTA (Universal Material Testing Machine) in accordance with SNI 03-6836-2002, AASHTO TP31 and ASTM D4123.

3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Location This research was conducted at the Material Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department, Jakarta State Polytechnic, Depok; and the Central Laboratory of Roads and Bridges, Department of Public Works, Bandung.

3.2 Research Tools The tools used for this research are test devices for stability and Marshall dissolution in the early stages of the research, followed by the use of UMATTA test device for tensile stress and tensile strain as well as resilient modulus tests.

3.3 Research Materials This research made use of materials for forming asphalt concrete, including coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, fillers such as stone ash,

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Portland cement and fly ash, and hard asphalt-type oil (AC).

3.4 Research Design The research on the characteristics of materials forming asphalt concrete and Marshall stability is followed by determining the dynamic stability as has been done in the previous research. This advanced research calculates the tensile stress and tensile strain, as well as the resilient modulus, of hot mix asphalt concrete using the UMATTA test device.

The introductory research on Marshall characteristics of varying filler aggregates, asphalt, submersion times, and temperature, in accordance with the Road and Bridge General Specifications, December 2010.

The follow-up research on dynamic stability of varying filler aggregates, asphalt, submersion times, and temperature, using the wheel tracking test device in accordance with SNI No. 03-1737-1989.

The advanced resilient modulus research on varying temperature and load with the UMATTA device in accordance with 03-6836-2002, AASHTO TP31 dan ASTM D4123.

3.5 Data Collecting Method The methodology employed on gathering data consists of laboratory testing on the characteristics of asphalt concrete against various filler aggregates, submersion times, and temperature, as stated above.

3.6 Laboratory Analysis Method The method used in the introductory stages is Marshall testing where a test object with 101.66mm of diameter and about 63.5mm of height is pressed under maximum load and deformation stated as the maximum melting value, in order to determine

the stability and dissolution of asphalt concrete with varying filler aggregates and asphalt, followed by varying submersion times and temperature. A test object of the same shape is used to determine the tensiole stress, tensile strain, and resilient modulus.

3.7 Data Analysis Method The data obtained from the research on tensile stress, tensile strain, and resilient modulus is analyzed with the random design statistical method.

3.8 Research Stages The following flowchart represents the workflow of the research:

Figure 4.1. Research workflow flowchart


Graph 4.1 shows the result of mixed aggregate sieve analysis.

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Graph 4. Aggregate sieve analysis

From the above graph, the value of Pb can be inferred as follows:

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,035(%𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸) + 0,045(%𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸) + 0,18(%𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹) +𝐾𝐾………………..(5)

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,035(46,8) + 0,045(49,1)+ 0,18(4,1) + 0,75

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 5,3355 ≈ 5,5%

Optimal asphalt intensity is determined as follows

Graph 4.1. Determining optimal asphalt intensity

Superpave Gradation Aggregate Data Analysis

The recapitulation results of indirect tension testing at 25oC of temperature and with 750N of load found that the value of stress to be 0.072N/mm2; the value of strain 0.000033; and the value of resilient modulus 2263.279MPa or 328265.9psi.In comparison with the follow-up test, it is apparent that the value of resilient modulus decreases the higher temperature is applied on the test object; whereas the value of strain

increases along with temperature.Based on the intensity of load applied, strain and resilient modulus increase along with the load. The relation between resilient modulus, temperature and load is illustrated in the following graph:

Graph 4.2 How resilient modulus, temperature, are

related

Pertamina Gradation Aggregate Data Analysis

Based on the results of the calculations, it can be inferred that the resilient modulus value that fulfills the criterion of being above 400,000Psi is obtained from the test at 25oC of temperature with 750N and 1500N of load. With a similar test conducted at 37.5oC and 50oC of temperature and the same load, the resilient modulus value obtained is only about 100,000Psi, which does not fulfill the requirement for resilient modulus in asphalt concrete. At 50oC of temperature, the resilient modulus value obtained is only less than 5000Psi.

This proves that, the higher temperature received by asphalt concrete, the more horizontal deformation caused due to the load traversing on it. As temperature rises, asphalt gets thicker or thinner, which lowers deformation or its ability to go back to its original form. Therefore, it affects the resilient modulus value in asphalt concrete.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0 20 40 60M

odul

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Modulus Resilien 750 NModulus Resilien 1500N

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The relations between temperature and strain, as well as temperature and resilient modulus, are depicted in graphs 4.2–4.4, respectively:

Graph 4.3. How temperature and strain are related

Graph4.4.How temperature and resilient modulus are

related

Load greatly affects the results of stress value, whereas temperature does not influence stress much. Unlike with strain, higher temperature will result in higher strain values. At high temperature, asphalt concrete pavement will get a reduction; therefore, with load on it, asphalt concrete will easily experience deformation.

Additionally, in the indirect tension test, the temperature applied during the test has a massive influence on the resulting resilient modulus value. This is because, the higher the temperature is in asphalt concrete, the lower the resulting resilient modulus value will be.

5. CONCLUSION The following conclusions can be inferred from the results and analyses on the research conducted:

Resilient Modulus largest valueis obtained at a temperature of 250 Celsius approaching 400,000psi with the value taken for determining the appropriate flexible pavement thickness in accordance of PtT-01-2002 –Bobtained from hot mix of Bina Marga gradation with Retona asphalt 55.

Hot mix asphalt concrete with Bina Marga gradation and Retona 55 asphalt more flexiblein accepting there peated load wheels of the vehicleandhas the potential tobe more durablethanhot mix asphaltwith Superpave gradation and Pertamina asphalt.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] ASTM D 4123-82 Indirect

Tension Test for Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixture

[2] Bina Marga, 2010,General Specification for Asphalt Pavement, Sixth Division(Spesifikasi Umum Divisi 6 Perkerasan Aspal). Jakarta: DepartemenPekerjaanUmum

[3] Dachlan, A. Tatang and Sjahdanulirwan, Muhammad. 2012. Kajian Pengaruh Modulus Resilien dan Kepadatan Membal, Terhadap Kekuatan dan Keawetan Perkerasan Beraspal Panas.Bandung : Puslitbang.

[4] Füleki, Peter, Tkalecz, 2010, Rheological Analysis of Bitumen to Improve the Hungarian Asphalt Mixture Design,J The Young European Arena of Resarch, Szechenyi Istvan University, Gyor, 2010

[5] Latifa,Eva A, et al, 2009, Dampak Gradasi Agregat dengan Dua Variasi Aspal Terhadap Sifat Campuran Beton Aspal, Prosiding

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Seminar Nasional Teknik Sipil,Vol 04 April 2010

[6] Matthew, Tom V, 2007, Introduction to Transportation Engineering CE320 Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbay, India, March 22, 2007

[7] Pilkey, Walter D, 2005, Formulas for Stress, Strain, and Structural Matrices, New Yersey, John Willey &Sons

[8] Yin, Hao, Sulaimanian,Mansour,

[9] Kumar,Tanmay,2007, The Effect of Loading Time on Flexible Pavement Dynamic Response: a Finite Element Analysis, J Mech Time-Depend Mater, vol 11,2007

[10] Nesnas, Kamal, Nunn, Mike 1996, Modelling the Time Dependent Behaviour of Asphalt and Pavement Permanent Deformation Under a Rolling Wheel

[11] SNI 03-6836-2002, Pengujian Kuat Tarik Tak Langsung, Departemen Perindustrian, 2002

[12] Sukirman, Silvia. 2003. Beton Aspal Campuran Panas. Bandung: Nova

[13] The Asphalt Institute, 2006. Superpave Series No.2 (SP-2), 2006 Superpave Mix Design, Kentucky, USA

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Effect of Chitosan in Deinking Process on the Optical Properties of Paper

Muryeti1, Estuti Budi Mulyani2, Teddy Tapianto3, Efnyta Muchtar4

1Jurusan Teknik Grafika dan Penerbitan, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta 2Jurusan Teknik Grafika, Politeknik Media Kreatif, Jakarta

[email protected]

Abstract Chitosan from shrimps shell was produced from deproteinization, demineralization dan deacetylation steps. Recycling of paper requires the removal of the printing ink, also called deinking, from the used paper to obtain brighter pulp. The objective of the research was to investigate the effectiveness chitosan in deinking paper and to determine the effect of chitosan on the optical properties of paper (brightness, whiteness, and lightness). Deinking process involves dislodging ink particles from the fiber surface then separating the dispersed ink from the fiber suspensions by washing. Chitosan efficiencies in deinking can be obtained by analysis and measurement brightness paper, whiteness and Lightness value. The increasing dosage of chitosan in deinking process, is proportional to increase whiteness and Lightness paper. The optimum concentration of chitosan used in the deinking process in this study is 1.5 grams. The added chitosan did not affect significantly to the brightness of paper. Keywords: chitosan, deinking, recycling of paper, brightness 1. INTRODUCTION Recycling of paper requires the removal of the printing ink from the used paper, also called deinking, to obtain brighter pulp so that the processed material is brighter. Deinking is a process for detaching and removing printing inks from recovered fibers to improve optical properties of recovered printed papers. Four-step process involving pulping, washing, froth flotation, and another washing is usually used in deinking process. Chemicals with heat and mechanical energies are used to detach the ink particles and other contaminants from the fibers in a pulper1. Dispersed ink particles formed during pulping must be removed to prevent their re-deposition onto the cellulose. Ink particles are then separated from the fibers via a variety of operations like washing and flotation2. The first step in deinking waste-paper is pulping. The mechanical force is usually supplied by a pulper where the paper is beaten into its constituent fibers. The ink particles first are detached from the

fibers by factors like: hydrodynamic flow of the liquid phase in the pulper, swelling of the fibers, flexing and bending of the fibers, and abrasion of the fibers against each other3. The mechanical force in the pulper is not sufficient for effective ink removal therefore surface active chemicals such as NaOH, H2O2, Na2SiO3, chelating agent are added in the pulper to decrease adhesion of the printing ink to the fibers and to increase the ink removal efficiency4. The ink is physically bonded to the fiber because of high heat, and expensive to remove by conventional chemical methods. Most of the conventional deinking technique require large amount of the chemical agents, such as sodium hydroxide, hidrogen peroxide, natium silicate, diethylenetriamine penta acetate resulting in costly waste water treatment. Several enzyme such as cellulases and hemicellulases have been used for the inking of waste paper.5,6. The use of enzyme requires spesific reaction condition.


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Natural polymeric materials are gaining more and more interest for application as adsorbents due to their biodegradable and non-toxic nature. Chitosan offers an interesting set of characteristics, including non-toxicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and bioactivity. Chitosan is prepared from chitin by deacetylating its acetoamide groups with a strong alkaline solution. This is the most abundant biopolymer in nature after cellulose. As shown from Figure 1.

OOH

CH2OH

OO

OH

CH2OHH

*

NH2 NH2

H

Fig. 1. Chemical structure of chitosan

Chitosan has three types of reactive functional groups, an amino group as well as both primary and secondary hydroxyl groups at the C-2, C-3 and C-6 positions, respectively. Its advantage over other polysaccharides is that its chemical structure allows specific modifications, especially at the C-2 position. Chitosan is known as an ideal support material for enzyme immobilization because of its many advantages such as its hydrophilicity, biodegradability, biocompatibility and anti bacterial property.7 Chitosan has been widely used as an adsorbent for transition metals, organic species and for dye waste removal from aqueous solutions, due to the presence of the amino (-NH2) and the hydroxyl (-OH) groups on chitosan chains which serve as the coordination and reaction sites. 8,9,10,11 The high proportions of amino functions in chitosan have been found to provide novel adsorption properties for many metal ions12,13,14 and organic dyes15,16,17,18,19,20 . The deacetylated amino groups in chitosan

can be protonated and the polycationic properties of the polymer are expected to contribute to the charged interactions with a model dye, methyl orange, which is an anionic azo dye. The aim of this study is to apply the use of chitosan in deinking process and determine the dosage of chitosan is effective in deinking process.

2. MATERIAL AND METHOD 2.1 Materials Material that were used are shrimp shell, NaOH (Merck), HCl 37% p.a (Merck), H2O2 30% pa (Merck), Na2SiO3 (Merck), Waste paper and aquadest.

Instruments that were used include glass aparatus, sieves, analytical scale, thermometer, pH meter, hotplate stirrer, spectrophotometer UV-Vis, and spectrofotometer FTIR, spectrodensitometer X-Rite and Brightness Color Meter.

2.2 Experimental method Isolation of chitosan

The isolation of chitosan consist of three steps, deproteinization, demineralization and deacetylation. The shells of fresh shrimp were thoroughly and repeatedly washed in water and sun dried. The raw material was completely immersed in 4% NaOH solution (w/v) and boiled for two hour for deproteinization. After cooling, the alkali was drained off and washed repeatedly with ionized water to obtain neutral pH. The contents were added 1M HCl and allowed to act for one hour to remove CaCO3. The acid was decanted and repeatedly washed with water. Deacetylation process is carried out by adding 40% NaOH solution at 1000C for 3h. The NaOH was quickly drained off and the content was repeatedly washed

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with water and filtered in order to retain the solid matter, which is the chitosan. The sample were then left uncovered and oven dried at 1100C for 6 hour.

Characterization of the chitosan

Characterization of chitosan using spectrophotometer FTIR to determine functional groups of chitosan in the range of 4000-400 cm-1. To determine the ash content, the standar ASTM D2866-94 was used. Some physicochemical properties of chitosan are given in Table 1.

Deinking and Pulp slurry preparation

The waste paper is put into pulper with a large quantity of water and broken down into a slurry during 15 min and room temperature. Most of the water containing dispersed ink is drained off from the pulp through slots or screens with 1% consistency. Pulps were treated with a standard mixture of deinking chemicals containing NaOH (1% of pulp mass), Na2SiO3 (0.8%), H2O2 (1%). Chitosan was added (with different dosage 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 g) in order to adsorb carbon black from cellulose fibers in deinking process. The process of deinking involves ink particle dislogment from the fiber surface and the separation of dispersed ink from

fiber suspensions by washing with aquadest. Chitosan efficiencies in deinking can be obtained by analysis measuring of brightness paper. The brightness of paper was determined with brightness and color meter, whiteness and Lightness was determined with spectrodensitometer X-Rite

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Characterization of chitosan Figure 2 represents the FTIR spectra of chitosan (400-4000 cm-1). The wide band at 3476 cm-1 shown in the spectrum is attributed to stretching vibration of hydroxyl group of chitosan. The band at 3725 cm-1 is due to stretching vibration of N-H groups. The band at 2952 cm-1 is assigned to C-H stretching vibration of polymer backbone. The other band at 1484 cm-1 is due to C-H bending. The bands observed at 1622-1673 cm-1 is due to C-O stretching, 1373 cm-1 correspond to -NH stretching vibration. The presence of two bands, one at 1144 cm-1and another at 1069 cm-1, probably indicates stretching vibrations of C=O groups.

Table1. Physicochemical characteristics of chitosan

Characteristic Value

Moisture content (%) 4,88 Ash Content (%) 27,61 Deacetylation (%) 60,71

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Figure 2. FTIR of chitosan

Presence of ink influence the optical paper such ac brightness and whiteness paper. However, brightness is not a perfect tool to use in the deinking process since it is affected not only by the presence of ink but also by the wavelengths of lignin and dye. The brightness is measured from 0–100% (ISO brightness), using brightness and color meter. The effect of dosage chitosan (varied from 0,5 to 2 g) in deinking process is shown in Fig.3

The use of chitosan in the deinking process, resulting in reducing value of

paper brightness. Increased concentrations of chitosan, did not increase brightness paper. This is likely due to the sheet of paper deinking results containing chitosan was pure white and insoluble in water.22 Chitosan contained in the paper, resulting in brightness to be down. In addition, washing deinking results were less than perfect cause the value of brightness is reduced.

Brightness of conventional deinking paper is 81,34%. Brightness of conventional deinking paper is higher than paper deinking using chitosan.

Fig. 3. Brightness of paper using chitosan at different dosage

Whiteness measures paper in the same way the eye sees it. Light is actually made up of all colors combined. When light strikes an object, the object absorbs some colors and reflects others. Whiteness

measurements performed using X-Rite spectrodensitometer.

The effect of dosage of chitosan (varied from 0 (control), 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 g) in deinking process on whiteness of paper is shown in Fig. 4.

81,21 80,82 80,16 80,39 80,37

70,00

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)

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In this study, whiteness of paper increase from 114,38% to 116,04% as the dosage of chitosan increase from 0,5 to 1,5 g. Whiteness of paper without using chitosan was 106,75%. The increase of chitosan dosage lead to increasing whiteness paper. When the dosage of chitosan was increased to 2 g, whiteness of paper was

decreased. The result show that the whiteness optimum was 1,5 g dosage chitosan (116,04%). Whiteness of conventional deinking paper is 116,27%. Brightness of conventional deinking paper is almost similar than paper deinking using chitosan.

Effect of Chitosan on the value of L (lightness) can be seen in Figure 5.

Fig. 5. Lightness of paper using chitosan at different dosage

Lightness was measured using X-Rite spectrodensitometer. The effect of dosage of chitosan (varied from 0 (control), 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 g) in deinking process on L value (lightness) of paper is shown in Fig. 5. In this study, L value of paper (lightness) increase from 89,15 to 93,09 % as the dosage of chitosan increase from 0,5 to 1,5 g. Lighness of paper without using chitosan was 88,03%. The increase of chitosan

dosage lead to increasing paper lightness. When the dosage of chitosan was increased to 2 g, no significant increase lightness of paper occurred. The result show that the lightness value optimum was 1,5 g dosage chitosan. Lightness of conventional deinking paper is 92,98%. Lightness of conventional deinking paper is higher than paper deinking using chitosan

106,75

114,38 114,77116,04

113,59

102,00104,00106,00108,00110,00112,00114,00116,00118,00

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whiteness (%)

dosage chitosan (g)

88,03 89,15 90,7293,09 93,31

70,0075,0080,0085,0090,0095,00

100,00

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L va

lue

dosage of chitosan (g)

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An increased in the chitosan dosage lead to an increase in the adsorption capacity of the carbon black (pigment) on chitosan (as adsorbent). Adsorbent surface area increased and availability of more adsorption sites caused by increasing adsorbent dosage. When the adsorbent was increased to 2 g, the adsorption is decrease, this due to saturation of active sites which do not allow further adsorption to take place. Paper deinking that using chitosan have Whiteness and lightness that is almost similar with the conventional paper deinking results. The use of chitosan as an additive agent needs to be done. Chitosan may be worttly candidates as adsorbent in deinking process. For further researches, modification of chitosan should be investigated to improve solubility in water so the effect and usage of chitosan can be elaborated.

4. CONCLUSION Chitosan have been synthesize from shrimp shell, involved three main step deproteinization, demineralization, and deacetylation. Deinking process of old waste paper by using chitosan has been done. The waste paper was beated, at 1 % consistency, pH 7, and room temperature, and chitosan was added with the dosage of 0,5 to 2 g. From data shown in this research, we can conclude that chitosan influence on optical properties of paper such as whiteness and L value (lightness). The addition of chitosan in the deinking process, did not cause an increase brightness of paper. The optimum dosage of chitosan in deinking process at weight doses of 1.5 g.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank State Polytechnic of Jakarta and the Directorate General of Higher

Education, Indonesia for sponsoring this work.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] G.V. Franks, Stimulant sensitive

flocculation and consolidation for improved solid / liquid separation, J.of Coll. and Int. Sci., 292, 2005, 598-603.

[2] Z.Aksu, Application of biosorption for the removal of organic pollutants a review. Pro. Biochem. ,40, 2005, 997-1026.

[3] J.Synowieck ,and N.A.Al Khateeb, Production, properties, and some new applications of chitin and its derivatives. Crit. Rev. Food Sci., N Utr 43, 2001,145-171.

[4] Sritapunya , Thritima and Sureerat Jairakdee. Adsorption of surfactants on carbon black and paper fiber in the presence of calcium ions. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. Volume 389, Issues 1–3, 2011, 206–212.

[5] Mørkbak AL, Zimmermann W (1998). Deinking of mixed office paper, old newspaper and vegetable oil-based ink printed paper using cellulases, xylanases and lipases. Prog. Pap Recycl., 7: 14-21.

[6] Pala H, Mota M, Gama FM (2004) Enzymatic versus chemical deinking of non-impact ink printed paper., J Biotech.108: 79-89

[7] A. Martino A, P.G. Gifferi, and G. Spagna, Immobilization of β – glucosidase from a commercial preparation.Part 2. Optimization of the immobilization process on chitosan . Proc. Biochem., 31,1996, 287-293.

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[8] C. Grégorio, G. Frédéric, R. Capucine, M. Bernard M, A. Oliver,M.C. Nadia, D.G.Francois, and M.B. Pierre ,The removal of Basic blue 3 from aqueous solutions by chitosan – based adsorbent: Bach studies J. of Haz.Mat. ,153, 2008, 96-106.

[9] K.S Tapan, C.B Nikhli, K. Subarna, G.A Mahmooda, I. Hidek, and F. Yoshinobu, Adsorption of Methyl Orange onto chitosan from aqueous solution. J. of Water Res. and Prot., 2, 2010, 898-906.

[10] S .Zheng, Z. Yang, D.H.Jo, and Y.H Park, Removal of chlorophenols from ground water by chitosan sorption. Water. Res., 38, 2004, 2315-2322.

[11] W .Li, Z .Junping, and W. Aiin, Removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution using chitosan –g- poly (acrylic acid) montmorillonite super adsorbent nanocomposite. Coll. and Surf A: Phy. Eng. Asp., 322, 2008, 47-53.

[12] Saeed A, Sharif M, M Iqbal, Application potential of grapefruit peel as dye sorbet: Kinetics, equilibrium and mechanisms of crystal violet adsorption. J. of Haz. Mat.,179 (1-3), 2010, 564-572.

[13] R .Ahmad, Studies and adsorption of Crystal violet dye from aqueous solution onto coniferous – pinus bark powder (CPBP). J.of Haarz.Mat., 171 (1-3), 2009, 767-773.

[14] Q .Wu, Z .Shan, M .Shen, S.J.Li, and H.Chen, Biosorption of direct scarlet dye on magnetically modified Saccharomyces cerevisial cells. Chin. J. of

Biotech. , 25 (10), 2009,1477-1482.

[15] R.H Rodde, A. Einbu, and K.M Varum, A seasonal study of the chemical composition and chitin quality of shrimp shells obtained from northern shrimp. (Pandalus borealis). Carboh. Poly., 71, 2008, 388-393.

[16] H.Struszczyk, Microcrystalline chitosan. Int. J. of Appl. Poly. Sci., 33, 1987, 177-189.

[17] Crini, G., and Badot, P.M. Application of Chitosan, a Natural AminoPolysaccharide, for dye Removal From Aqueous Solution by Adsorption Process Using Batch Studies: A Review of Recent Literature. Prog. Polym. Sci. 33(4). 2008, 399-447

[18] S .Rengaraj, M. Seung- Hyeon, and S. Sivabalm, Agricultural solid waste for the removal of organics: adsorption of phenol from water and wastewater by palm seed coat activated carbon. Was.Manag., 22, 2002, 543–548.

[19] Z. K George,and K.L Nikolaos. Reactive and basic dyes removal by sorption onto chitosan derivates. J. of Coll. and Int. Sci., 331, 2009, 32-39.

[20] B .Zehra, Ö. Coşan, S .Yoldaş, and Y .Kadir, Sorption of malachite green on chitosan bead. J.of Haz. Mat., 154, 2008, 254-261.

[21] K .Azlan, W.N Wan SAIME, and L.L Ken, Chitosan and chemically modified chitosan beads for acid dyes sorption. J. of Envi.Sci., 21, 2009, 296-302.

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Green Product of Liquid Fuel from Plastic Waste by Pyrolysis at 900 OC

D. Mustofa Kamal1, Fuad Zainuri2

Mechanical Engineering Departement, Politeknik Negeri Jakarta [email protected]

Abstract

Alternative treatments to convert plastic waste into fuel currently receive great attention from researchers world wide. The objective of the research is to obtain liquid fuel from pyrolysis of waste plastics that is safe for humans as well as environment, with a heating value and fuel quality meet the standardized compliant.The method used for the research is plastic waste pyrolysis heated at 900°C, and the resulting vapor is condensed through a crossflow condenser. The method resulted in a liquid fuel with a calorific value of 46 848 J/g, which is greater than plastic waste processing at a temperature of 425°C, that is only 41 870 J/g. In addition, the nature of current method for treating plastic waste is considered more secure than that of plastic waste processing at the temperature of 425°C. The reason for this is due to the fact thatthe percentage of compounds that could potentially be carcinogenic (boric acid and cyclopentanone) is reduced. Keywords: plastic waste, fuel, pyrolisis, green product 1. INTRODUCTION As the highest consumption of fossil fuels country, Indonesia consumed petroleum for approximately 1.6 million barrels per day in 2005, while in 2006, it reached 1.84 barrels per day. Other countries such as Japan and Germany equally consume only less than 1 million barrels per day (Zuhra et al, 2003). In 2013, the United States produced about 30 million tons of plastic each year total, but with only about 4% are recycled (Sarker, 2013). In addition to producing energy, the combustion of fossil energy sources also releases gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which causes air pollution (Damanhuri, E. 2009). So it is highly necessary to findalternative fuels to be widely used that is enviromentally friendly.

Research developed at this time (Moinuddin et al, 2013) and can be used as fuel instead of fossil fuels (Suryo on the use of plastic waste into liquid fuels by means of pyrolysis is still being et al, 2011). Previoustly,

Tri Anggono (2009) has conducted a research on the type of plastic waste from food packaging (Low Density Polyethylene or LDPE) at a temperature of 425C heating, and the results show that compounds have properties such as flammable acetone and cyclopentanone (1.68% Area ). In the same year, Damanhuri (2009) stated that the cyclopentanone compounds are cyclic ketone compounds potentially carcinogenic gas (toxic). In addition, boric acid is also harmful if it is accidentally breathed in since it may irritate mucous membranes that showed by sore throat, coughing, and short breathing.

Based on the background, Indonesia contributed to the decline in petroleum reserves and also the problem of energy crisis faced by the world today. Therefore, this study aimed to obtain liquid fuels resulted from pyrolysis of waste plastics that is safe for humans and environment, with a heating value and fuel quality that meet standardized-compliant.


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2. THEORY Pyrolysis or devolatilization is material by temperature fractionation process. Pyrolysis process starts at temperatures around 230 ° C, when the component is thermally unstable, and volatile matters on waste will break up and evaporate along with other components (Aprian et al, 2009). Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures in the absence of oxygen (Mustafa et al., 2013).

Plastic is a synthetic organic material or semi-synthetic organic materials derived from petroleum and natural gas. Of plastic products, resulting polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyurethane and polyphenols, generating plastic waste that consists around 50-60% of PE, 20-30% of PP, PS and 10-20%, 10% PVC (Sarker, 2013).

Polyethylene (PE) medium and high density polyethylene, the melting point of 120oC to 135oC range. Low density polyethylene melting point range 105oC to 115oC. (HDPE) is characterized by a density that exceeds or equal to 0.941 g/cm3. HDPE has a low degree of the ramifications and inter-molecular strength and very high tensile strength. It functions as material for milk bottle, bottle/detergent packaging, packaging margarine, water pipes and bins. LDPE is characterized by a density of 0.910 to 0.940g/cm3. LDPE has a high degree of the long and short chain branching, which means it will not turn into a crystalline structure. It also indicates that LDPE has a low tensile strength. LDPEcan be foundin the form of container since it is strong and in the

form of plastic film applications such as plastic bags and plastic wrap. LLDPE is characterized by a density between 0.915 to 0.925g/cm3. LLDPE is a linear polymer with a short chain branching with a significant amount. LLDPE is used as material for cable wrap, toys, packaging caps, buckets, containers and pipe (Aprian et al, 2011). According to Triana (2006), reaction temperature pyrolysis at 475°C in a reactor made of stainless steel and flowing nitrogen gas (100 mL / min) resulted in decomposition reaction speed cracking of plastic waste type polypropylene (PP).

Agus Sapriyanto (2011) has tested a machine toconvert plastic waste into fuel. The test material is1 kg of plastic waste that is heated within 5300Cheating temperature. All kinds of plastic are put inside the machine. Then within 2 hours, the machine produces liquid fuels as much as 300 ml.The test shows the calorific value of the fuel is plastic waste of 10,519 Cal/g or 44040.95 J/g, equivalent to the heating value of the premium is 10 285 Cal/g or 43061.24 J/g. In the same year, Aprian et al (2011) also examined the oil obtained from the pyrolysis process of waste plastic. This study uses two types of plastic as a fixed variable, namely High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) and using the reactor with a diameter of 20 cm and 40 cm high. Pyrolysis temperature is held at 250-420 0C and the reaction time for 0-60 minutes. Oil produced in the pyrolysis process can be compared to kerosene and oil is a source of valuable chemicals such as alcohols, organic acids, ethers, ketones, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. And gas produced in the form of Cox, NOx, H2 and alkanes (Damanhuri, 2009).

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Suryo et al (2011), in his study of the properties of a mixture of waste biomass pyrolysis oil and plastic waste polypropylene (PP), tries to investigate the density,viscosity and heating value. The pyrolysis oil resulted from the research is thus used to boil water on the stove. The efficiency of pyrolysis oil stoves is also tested using standard water boiling test (WBT). The research shows the obtained oil-fired stove

efficiency is best at 30% biomass composition: 70% plastic at the temperature of 400 0C which is equal to 24%.

Based on the decision of the Director General of Oil and Gas in 2008, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the Republic of Indonesia, the standards and quality (specification) of fuel, inthe form of oil marketed in the country, are as follows (EMR 2008).

Table 1. Specifications of fuel oil

(Source: Director General SK Oil & Gas, Energy and Mineral Resources, 2008)

At first pyrolysis technology is considered as an environmentally friendly method (Mujiarto et al, 2005) since the method ultimately produces CO2 and H2O, which is a non-toxic gas. But in its development, the cyclopentanone compound as a result of the pyrolysis of cyclic ketones can potentially turn into carcinogenic gas (toxic). In addition, boric acid is also harmful if inhaled, can cause irritation of mucous membranes accompanied by sore throat, coughing, and breathing becomes short (Damanhuri et al, 2009). Cyclopentanone compounds can be identified through gas chromatography (Pavia et al, 2006).

3. METHODOLOGY Shredded plastic waste and included in the converter and heated to a temperature of 900 ° C, and the resulting vapor is condensed through a crossflow condenser. Fuel oil produced at the heating temperature of 900 ° C. The heating value is tested using Bomb Calorimeter and testing Gas Chromatography (GC). Tests conducted using the calorific value-bomb calorimeter contained in Energy Conversion Engineering Laboratory, Polytechnic of Jakarta. GC-MS analysis method (Cromatografy Gas Mass Spectrometry) is to read both spectra contained in the combined method.

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Figure 1 Converter plastic waste into fuel

Experiment

GC test results if there are samples contain many compounds, which is evident from the many peaks (peak) in the GC spectra. Based on the data retention time is already known from the literature, we know what compounds were present in the sample (Pavia et al, 2006). Next is to

incorporate the compound into the alleged mass spectroscopy instruments. This can be done because one of the uses of gas chromatography is to separate the compounds of a sample. After that, the results obtained from mass spectroscopy spectra at different charts.

Analysis

The calorific value compared to the value obtained with the standard and quality (specification) of fuel oil type of oil that is marketed in the country (Dept. of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia, 2008), to meet the calorific value of fuel standards should be above 41 870 J / g. Based on test results, the value of the heat produced by 11,189 cal / g or 46 848 J / g, thus meeting the standard calorific value of the fuel sold in the country.

Table 2. Test Results Calorific Value (1 gram mass Oil Plastic)

Testing Results of GC - MS

Figure 2 graphs the GC-MS testing fuel from plastic waste

NILAI KALOR CV (Cal/g) delta T BBM plastik 11.189 8.915 Premium 11.245 3,993 standar mutu ESDM RI 10.000 -

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Table 3 Data of important compounds of liquid fuels from waste plastics

No. Peak % Area Expected Compounds Formula

1. 1 64,69 2-propanon/aseton C3H6O 2. 2 27,08 Boric Acid H3BO3 3. 3 0.09 - - 4. 4 6,93 Acetic Acid C2H4O2 5. 5 1,2 Siklopentanon C5H8O

Based on the results of testing the fuel produced at the heating temperature of 900oC obtained levels of flammable compounds (2-propanone) increases, while potentially carcinogenic compounds (boric acid and cyclopentanone) reduced the percentage.

4. CONCLUSION 1. The processing of plastic waste at

a temperature of 900oC produce liquid fuel with calorific value of 46.848 J/g which means that this value is greater than the processing of plastic waste at a temperature of 425 °C which resulted in the calorific value of 41.870 J/g.

2. Testing the fuel produced GC-MS showed that the levels of potentially carcinogenic compounds (boric acid and cyclopentanone) is reduced so that means the percentage of plastic waste at a temperature of 900oC has properties more secure than plastic waste processing at a temperature of 425oC

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Agus Sapriyanto. 2011. Mesin

Pengubah Sampah Plastik Menjadi Minyak. PKMT PNJ 2011.

[2] Aprian Ramadhan, Munawar, A., 2011. Pengolahan Sampah Plastik Menjadi Minyak Menggunakan Proses Pirolisis. Universitas

Pembangunan Nasional “Veteran”. Jawa Timur.

[3] Damanhuri, E. 2009. Pengelolaan Bahan Berbahaya dan Beracun (B3). Institut Teknologi Bandung.

[4] Keputusan Direktur Jendral Minyak dan Gas Bumi Nomor 14496 K/14/DMJ/2008. Standard an Mutu (Spesifikasi) Bahan Bakar Minyak Jenis Minyak Bakar yang Dipasarkan Di Dalam Negeri.

[5] Mustofa K., D., dkk. 2013. Polytech: Conversion Machine of Plastik Into Oil Fuel With Continuous System And Reservoir Wet-Steam Oil With 20 Kg Capacities. Proceedings of AISC Taiwan 2013. ISSN:2337-442X ISSN:2337-442X

[6] Mujiarto, Imam. 2005. Sifat Dan Karakteristik Material Plastik Dan Bahan Aditif. AMNI Semarang

[7] Napitupulu, Farel H. 2006. Pengaruh Nilai Kalor (Heating Value) Suatu Bahan Bakar Terhadap Perencanaan Volume Ruang Bakar Ketel Uap Berdasarkan Metode Penentuan Nilai Kalor Bahan Bakar Yang Diperlukan. Departemen Teknik Mesin FT Universitas Sumatera Utara.

[8] Pavia, Donald L., Gary M. Lampman, George S. Kritz, Randall G. Engel 2006. Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques (4th Ed.).

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Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp. 797–817.

[9] Peraturan Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup Nomor 13 Tahun 2009. Tentang Baku Mutu Emisi Kegiatan Industri Minyak Dan Gas Bumi Sumber E

[10] Rodiansono, Wega T., danTriyono. 2007. Pembuatan, Karakterisasi dan Uji Aktivitas Katalis NiMo/z dan NiMo/Z-Nb2O5 pada reaksi hidrogen fraksi sampah plastic menjadi fraksi bensin. Berkala MIPA Vol 17 No. 2.

[11] Sarker, M., Rashid, M. M. 2013.Mixture of LDPE, PP and PS Waste Plastics into Fuel by Thermolysis Process. International Journal of Engineering and Technology Research, Vol. 1, No. 1.

[12] Sarker, M., Rashid, M. M. 2013. Container Waste Plastic Conversion Into Fuel. International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences Vol. 3 No. 1

[13] Sari. 2011. Optimasi Nilai kalor Pembakaran Biobriket Campuran Batu Bara dengan Arang Tempurung Kelapa. Universitas Sebelas Maret. Surakarta.

[14] Suryo A.W., Adityo. 2011. Studi Sifat Minyak Pirolisis Campuran Sampah Biomassa dan Sampah Plastik Polypropylene (PP). Universitas Sebelas Maret. Surakarta.

[15] Tri Anggono, et al. 2009. Pirolisis Sampah Plastik untuk Mendapatkan Asap Cair dan Penentuan Komponen Kimia Penyusunnya Serta Uji Kemampuannya Sebagai Bahan Bakar Cair. Universitas Lambung Mangkurat. Banjarbaru. misi Proses Pembakaran.

[16] Yasabie Abatneh, Omprakash Sahu. 2013. Preliminary Study On The Conversion Of Different Waste Plastics Into Fuel Oil. International Journal Of Scientific & Technology Research. Vol. 2, Issue 5.

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The Characteristic of Bantak Agregate as Main Materials on Marshall Test

Faqih Ma’arif1, Buntara S. Gan2, Imam Muchoyar3, Effendie T4, Sumarjo H5

1,2,4Department Of Civil engineering and Planning, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta-Indonesia, 55281

em@il: [email protected]. 2Associate Professor, Department Of Architecture Engineering, College Of Engineering,

Nihon University, Japan, 963-8642; em@il: [email protected] ,5Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta -Indonesia

Abstract

This research aimed to improving the performance of the aggregate bantak as main material in Marshall test. Bantak is an porous aggregate, derived from Merapi volcanoes has low abration. One of the most interest about this agregate is the abundant amount, but the locals society not use it as building materials, because their quality is inferior considered. An effort to improve performance aggregate bantak is adding fibers polypropylene. The method used experiment laboratory test. Consist of 105 total specimens, whereas CS (control specimen), BC (Bantak Clereng), BB (Bantak-Bantak) and CB (Clereng-Bantak) were 15, 30, 30 and 30 specimens every variance respectively. The results of tests indicate that Bantak agregate performance can increase when added polypropylene fibers. Furthermore, Bantak aggregate can be used as flexible pavement. Keyword: Bantak, polypropylene fibers, flexible pavement 1. INTRODUCTION Bantak aggregate is porous material and having the abration low test. Bantak is very minimal use in quary area. Although its availability very much, about 80 % (±1.200.000m3) from merapi matérials consist of Bantak aggregate. The Effort repair material performed on this research is combining bituminous AC 60/70 and polypropylene fibers. It is expected that will increase the performance of the materials so as to be used for the structure of flexible pavement a highway that cheap, safe, durable and the availability of raw materials that is adequate to can be exploited without damaging ecosystems and the environment. Because of that reasons, it also said that these materials environmentally friendly when used to material flexible pavement pavement.

Findings innovation this research is targeted at increasing the aggregate

bantak yet to be around and industry, by society the hope is a infrastructure construction can be used matérials Bantak aggregate. Bituminous material used is AC60/70 pertamina. It is cementitious materials have a middle quality in comparison with other kinds of bituminous material. In its use field, this material is much used especially for flexible pavement, with the level of service load national/district road. So this material is quite cheap, because ketersediannya are many about ±50 % compared with other kinds.

This material type included smart materials. It is smart because can be changed by itself without treated in particular. Special treatment is referred to, when exposed to heat it will be melted with itself and when exposed to cold also so. So, in an selection additive material needs to be considered some aspect, especially material that can add rheologi the



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nature of this material in this chosen fibers polypropylene monofilament who has strong high tensile, and hold in temperature burning up to 140oC. With the addition of polypropylene fiber, then the main focus in the improvement of the quality of this type of material is increasing the special nature as a dynamic stability, speed deformation, Resilient Modulus, and ductility material. Furthermore, the expectation is an increase in the quality of the material of the medium to be high, with the level of service is secure, easy and cheap to repair and have a cheap stay in treatment.

2. THEORY According to Mwangi (2007), the stiffness and resistance to permanent deformation of asphalt mixtures strongly depends on the mixture composition, degree of compaction, rate of loading and temperature.

Ghaly, N.F. (2008) report the inclusion of any modifier type into the base asphlat significantly improved its examined proparties and so the asphlat mixture performance depending on the polymer type and its content. The individual use of polypropylene inversely affects the binder flexibility and stability at low and high service temperatures. However, mixing styrene butadiene-styrene with polypropylene significantly reduced the brittleness of the base asphalt at cold temperature and enhanced the flexibility of the asphalt mixture at high temperature. The inclusion of 6% polypropylene combined with 2% styrene butadiene styrene to the base asphlat ultimayely increase the rutting resistance of the asphlat mixture at high service temperature to-88.3%.

Sinan Hinislioglu, et.al (2005) report bitumen mix with HDPE at 1-4% by weight of bitumen at 185OC for 60 minutes. Duration using a higher shear mixer. The results show that the addition of 3% HDPE, results in an increase of 57% in Marshall quotient. In addition, it has been observed that the use of 2% HDPE decreased the permanent strain by 34% and increased the creep stiffness by 52%. The creep recovey values of the asphalt concrete with HDPE after 15 minutes have been found to be higher than control mixtures. It can be concluded that HDPE modified asphaltic binders provide better resistance against permanent deformation, because of their higher stability and stiffness.

3. METHODOLOGY Agregate properties

The course and fine aggregates used were Bantak from Yogyakarta Special Region (DIY), Indonesia, and filler were used Bantak and Kelud ash. The laboratory tests performed to evaluate the properties of coarse aggregate were: aggregate impact value, aggregate crushing value, water absorption, specific gravity. The tests conducted fines aggregate and filler (Kelud ash) were specific gravity. The test result shown on the Table 2 below.

Sampling and testing (Preparation for mix design)

In this papers, mix design were prepared for 3rd varians mixtures, i.e. CS, BS, BC, BB, and CB, the details of varians can be shown on the Table 1 below.

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Table 1. Sampling and testing

No Specimen Coarse

and fines agregate

Filler Polypropylene fibers (%)

Bituminuous (%)

Total sample

1 CS (CS5a-CS5c); (CS5.5a-CS5.5c) (CS6a-CS6c) (CS6.5a-CS6.5c) (CS7a-CS7c)

Bantak Bantak -

5, 5.5; 6; 6.5; 7

15

2 BC (BC5a-BC5c); (BC5.5a-BC5.5c) (BC6a-BC6c) (BC6.5a-BC6.5c) (BC7a-BC7c)

Bantak, Clereng

Kelud ash 0.1, 0.3, 0.5

5, 5.5; 6; 6.5; 7

30

3 BB (BB5a-BB5c); (BB5.5a-BB5.5c) (BB6a-BB6c) (BB6.5a-BB6.5c) (BB7a-BB7c)

Bantak Kelud ash 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7

30

4 CB (CB15a-CB15c); (CB15.5a-CB15.5c) (CB16a-CB16c) (CB16.5a-CB16.5c) (CB17a-CB17c)

Clereng, Bantak

Bantak 30

Total 105 Note: CS : control specimens (bantak course agregat, bantak fine agregat, bantak as filler) BC : bantak course agregat, clereng fine agregat, kelud ash as filler BB : bantak course agregat, bantak fine agregat, kelud ash as filler CB : clereng course agregat, bantak fine agregat, kelud ash as filler 4. ANALYSIS RESULT AND

DISCUSSION Bitumen properties

Petrolium asphalt called ”AC-20” (aproximatelly equivalent to 60/70 pen), produced by pertamina, was

used in this mixture. The laboratory tests performed to evaluate the bituminuous properties were: penetration, softening point, flash point, specific gravity. The test results shown in the Table 2 below.

Table 2. Physical properties of asphalt cement AC 60/70

No Properties Standard Methods Specification AC 60/70 unit 1 Penetration RSNI-06-2456-1991 60-79 69,07 0.1mm 2 Softening point SNI-06-2434-1991 48-58 55,42 oC

3 Flash point SNI-06-2433-1991 ≥ 200 322,67 oC

4 Specific gravity SNI-06-2441-1991 ≥ 1 1.034 gr/cc

Table 3. Test results coarse and fine agregate

No Agregate properties Standard Method unit

Specification Results

Min. Mak. At 320C At 250C

Bantak coarse agregate 1 Abration SNI 03-2417-1991 % - 40 34.57 2 Specific gravity(bulk) SNI 03-1969-1990 Gr/cc 2.5 - 2.306 2.301 3 Apparent specific gravity AASHTO T-85-81 % 2.5 - 2.377 2.372 4 Absorption SNI 03-1969-1990 % - 3 3.100

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No Agregate properties Standard Method unit

Specification Results

Min. Mak. At 320C At 250C

Bantak fine agregate 1 Specific gravity (bulk) AASHTO T-85-81 gr/cc 2.5 - 2.630 2.624 2 Apparent specific gravity AASHTO T-85-81 gr/cc 2.5 - 2.903 2.897 3 Absorption SNI 03-1969-1990 % - 3 3.573 Bantak as filler SKSNI M-02-

1993-03

1 Specific gravity AASHTO T-85-81 gr/cc 2.5 - 2.656 2.559 Void in mix (VIM)

Void in mix is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen.

The test result show on Table 11 below.

Table 11. Void in mix

No Specimen KAO (%)

VIM with (Polypropylene fibers)

VIM optimum

0 0.1 0.3 0.5 1 CS 6 6.67 - - - 6.67 2 BC 6 3.01 3.67 3.36 3.67 3 BB 6 3.94 5.46 4.85 5.46 4 CB 6 6.94 2.77 3.98 2.77

Based on Tables 11 above shows that the VIM optimum on each variance, with levels of fibers polypropylene 0.3 % (optimum fibers). The flow values any variance compared with fibers polypropylene picture presented at the Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Relationship between VIM versus varians

specimen

Based on figure 1 above shows that specimen BB it has value higher than the BC and CB. Based on figure 1 above shows that specimen bb it has value higher than the BC and CB. The difference of VIM BB value compared with BC, CB were the results 48.77% and 97.11%. if

compare with control CS, the value decrease is 22.16 %.

VIM value excessively high (CS) will causing a decrease durability layer pavement, because cavity too great will facilitate the entry of water and air into layers pavement.

Air will oxidize asphalt so layer of asphalt being thin and will reduce asphalt cohesion. Is this done will cause discharge granules (raveling), the water will dissolve part asphalt not oxidized so reduction in the amount asphalt will be faster. Variance specimen BB having good VIM value of stiffness, so hard layer will not easily cracked when receives the traffic load, because of not enough to receive deformation.

Void Filled Bitumen (VFB)

Void filled bitumen is s the voids in the mineral aggregate frame work filled with the bitumen. The test result show on Tabel 12 below.

6.67

3.67

5.46

2.77

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

CS BC BB CB

Specimen

VIM

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Tabel 12. Void filled bitumen (VFB) test

Based on Tables 12 above shows that the VFB optimum on each variance, with levels of fibers polypropylene 0.3 % (optimum fibers). The VFB values any variance compared with fibers polypropylene picture presented at the Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Relationship between VFB versus varians specimen

IF VFB value is too high, that will be easily cause bleeding asphalted layers.

Based on Figure 3 above, VFB value optimum obtained on variant specimen BB, this is proven by a curve that reverses. Combination of filler Bantak aggregate and Kelud volcanic ash (BB) is quite good specimen variant in this mixture. It is indicated not many cavities of empty so water and air will not easily inside the layer film will implied to durability toward to this proportion mix.

Stability

stability is the resistance to plastic flow of cylindrical specimens of a bituminous mixture loaded on the lateral surface. Test results show on Table Tabel 13 below.

Tabel 13. Stability test results

No Specimen Optimum

Bituminuous (%)

Stability with (Polypropylene fibers) Stability optimum

0 0.1 0.3 0.5 1 CS 6 1317.69 - - - 1317.69 2 BC 6 517.15 412.30 529.82 412.30 3 BB 6 1199.00 1422.45 1260.45 1422.45 4 CB 6 628.00 639.78 515.00 639.78

Based on Tables 13 above shows that the stability optimum on each variance, with levels of fibers polypropylene 0.3 % (optimum fibers). The stability values any variance compared with fibers polypropylene picture presented at the Figure 3 below.

Figure 3. Reltionship between Stability versus

polypropylene fibers

38.06

80.02

49.92

87.97

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

CS BC BB CB

Specimen

VFB

1317.69

412.3

1422.45

639.78

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

CS BC BB CB

Specimen

Stab

ility

No Specimen Kadar aspal

optimum (%)

VIM with (Polypropylene fibers)

VFB optimum

0 0.1 0.3 0.5 1 CS 6 38.06 - - - 38.06 2 BC 6 80.04 80.02 80.03 80.02 3 BB 6 58.71 49.92 53.10 49.92 4 CB 6 84.63 87.97 85.68 87.97

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Based on Figure 4 above shows that stability value will optimum at variance specimen BB. The difference value compared with BB, CS CB BC were the results of 7.95 %; 71.01 % and 55.02 % respectively. It shows that depends of variance specimen BB better than the other. The combination Bantak aggregate and volcanic ash have friction among granules aggregate (internal friction), locking between grains aggregate (interlooking) and good of layers

cohesion, so that the stability is optimum. Besides process density, aggregate quality, levels and asphalt also affect this value, so as to be indicated that Bantak aggregate can be used as flexible pavement based on stability value.

Flow

Flow is the deformation or decrease sample marhshall test, due to applied load. The test results shown on Table 14 below.

Tabel 14. Flow value

No Specimen Optimum

Bituminuous (%)

Flow with (Polypropylene fibers)

Flow optimum

0 0.1 0.3 0.5 1 CS 6 3.03 - - - 3.03 2 BC 6 5.82 5.05 5.27 5.05 3 BB 6 3.50 3.12 3.27 3.12 4 CB 6 2,63 1,95 1,90 1,95

Based on Tables 14 above shows that the flow optimum on each variance, with levels of fibers polypropylene 0.3 % (optimum fibers). The flow values compared with fibers polypropylene presented at the Figure 4 below.

Figure 4. Relationship between flow versus varians

specimen Based on Figure 5 above showed that flow value optimum at variance specimen BB of 3.12mm, because of flow value more than minimum required. If the flow value is too low will result in brittle flexible pavement, while flow value excessively high will cause effortlessly of deformation

flexible pavement and has low durability.

5. CONCLUSION This research study following conclusion can be drawn:

Bantak aggregate can be used on flexible pavement. The addition of fibers polypropylene can improve performance aggregate based on characteristic results testing

The use of fibers polypropylene and optimum asphalted of 0.3 % and 6 %.

The best of composition variance specimen are using combination between Bantak aggregate and volcanic ash.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We offer our sincere gratitude to Department Of Civil and Engineering and planning, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta and Also thanks to Ministry of education and culture, Directorate General Higher Education.

3.03

5.05

3.12

1.95

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

CS BC BB CB

Specimen

Flow

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I would like to express my appreciation to persons working in Transportation Engineering Laboratory, I would like to give my deepest thanks to my wife, my daughter and my son for their understanding and unlimited patience. Without their support this work would have not been possible.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Ghaly, N.F. 2008. Combined

Effect of Polypropylene And Styrene-butadiene Styrene on Asphalt, and Asphalt Mixture Performance, Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 4(11): 1297-1304, 2008, © 2008, INSInet Publication. Petroleum Research Institute. Cairo. Egypt.

[2] Mwangi, M.P., (2007). "Permanent Deformation of Asphalt Mixtures”, Ph.D. Thesis, Section of Road and Railway Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, pp. 5, Netherlands, 2007.

[3] Revisi SNI 06-2456-1991. Uji Penetrasi Aspal: Badan Litbang Departemen Pekerjaan Umum.

[4] Revisi SNI 06-2433-1991. Metode pengujian titik nyala dan titik bakar dengan cleve land open cup: Badan Litbang Departemen Pekerjaan Umum.

[5] Revisi SNI 06-2434-1991. Cara uji titik lembek aspal dengan alat cincin dan bola (ring and ball): Badan Litbang Departemen Pekerjaan Umum.

[6] Sinan hinislioglu, Hatice nur aras, Osman unsal bayrak. Effect of high density polyethylene on the permanent deformation of asphalt concrete. Department of civil engineering, engineering faculty, ataturk university, 25240 erzurum, turkey, received 12 april 2004, accepted 3 august 2005. indian journal of engineering & material sciences vol.12, october 2005, pp.456-460.

[7] SNI 06-2441-1991. Metode pengujian berat jenis aspal: Pustrang Balitbang Pekerjaan Umum.

[8] SNI 03-1968-1990. Metode pengujian tentang analisis saringan agregat halus dan agregat kasar: Pustran-Balitbang Pekerjaan Umum.

[9] SNI 03-1969-1990. Metode pengujian berat jenis dan penyerapan agregat kasar: Pustran-Balitbang Pekerjaan Umum.

[10] SNI 03-2417-1991. Metode Pengujian Keausan Agregat Dengan Mesin Abrasi Los Angeles:Pustran Balitbang Pekerjaan Umum.

[11] SNI 1970 – 2008. Metode pengujian berat jenis dan penyerapan air agregat halus: Badan Standardisasi Nasional.

[12] SNI M-01-2003. Metode Pengujian Campuran Beraspal Panas dengan Alat Marshall: Badan Standardisasi Nasional.

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Design of Broadband Metamaterial Microstrip Filters for WiMAX Applications 2.3 GHz and WiFi 2.4 GHz

Tri Prijooetomo1, Toto Supriyanto2

1Electrical Engineering Department, State Polytechnic Jakarta Jl. Prof Dr. G.A. Siwabessy, Kampus Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424

email : [email protected], 2Electrical Engineering Department, State Polytechnic Jakarta

Jl. Prof Dr. G.A. Siwabessy, Kampus Universitas Indonesia, Depok 16424

Abstract The purpose of this study resulted in the design of metamaterial-based Broadband filters for WiMAX and WiFi technologies to implement the metamaterial ingredients.The performance of a filter is closely associated with the materials used to manufacture the filter. Sebagai state of the art, pada penelitian ini diusulkan sebuah rancangan broadband filter menggunakan bahan metamaterial yang bekerja pada teknologi WiMAX dan WiFi secara bersamaan (simultaneous). So it can improve the efficiency of the device and makes the device more compact.Materials metamaterial can be obtained by making a material structure that has properties not available in nature.That is a structure that has a value of permitivity (ε) and permeability (μ) negative. Materials of this metamaterial has the advantage of low loss. Thus, its use is expected to reduce the coefficient of wave reflection and transmission of improving the efficiency of the filter. The simulation results showed that the use of open-split method is able to generate broadband metamaterial resonator BPF in the frequency range 1.975 GHz to 2.615 GHz, with a bandwidth of 640 MHz.Minimum return loss of -54.36 dB, insertion loss of -0.061 dB. Physically, broadband metamaterial microstrip BPF has compact dimensions are 40.2 x 31 x 1.6 mm, so that the potential of this BPF design used serbagai wireless communication applications. Key Words: WiMAX, WiFi, Metamaterial 1. INTRODUCTION wireless communication systems, RF filters are useful for separating the signal and noise information. In order for the information signal and noise can be well separated, it would require a filter which has good performance. Assessment of performance of a filter seen the value of the parameters that result. Performance of a filter value is closely associated with the materials used to manufacture the filter.

As a state of the art, This research proposed a broadband filter design using metamaterial ingredients working on WiMAX and WiFi technologies simultaneously (simultaneous). So it can improve the efficiency of the device and makes the device more compact. Materials metamaterial can be obtained by

making a material structure which has properties not available in nature. Material structure is a structure that has a value of permitivity (ε) and permeability (μ) is negative, seen in quadrant III in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Permitivity-permeability (ε-μ) and refractive

index (n) diagrams

Materials of this metamaterial has the advantage of low loss. so that, use is expected to reduce the coefficient of wave reflection and transmission of improving the efficiency of the resulting filter.

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The specific aims of this study that is generated Broadband microstrip metamaterial filters for WiMAX and WiFi by implementing the metamaterial ingredients to lower the coefficient of wave reflection and transmission of improving efficiency. Output parameters of the designed filter is has a coefficient of wave reflection / return loss (S11 <-25 dB), insertion loss (S21> -0.5 dB), VSWR = 1.1. Bandwidth = 1 GHz, and the efficiency of transmission of 90%.

2. THEORY 2.1 State Of The Art Of This

Research The design can be done with a model metamaterial transmission line approach. Model Composite Right-Left Handed Transmission Line (CRLH-TL) can be the basis for designing bandpass filter. CRLH modeled in a unit cell as a series of series capacitor (CL), series inductor (LR) and shunt inductance (LL) and the shunt capacitor (CR). So CRLH TL has a positive propagation constant, negatif and, zero according to the characteristics of effective permittivity and permeability. According to (Itoh: 2006) the propagation constant is shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. propagation constant metamarial CRLH-TL

T. Graph (Itoh : 2006)

CRLH-TL metamaterial approach has several advantages, (Itoh: 2006).

1. Wide working frequency (broadband).

2. Loss is low (lossy) 3. Compact dimensions. 4. Easy to design filters..

Preliminary study, the results that have been achieved

It has been a lot of research and methods for generating a broadband filter, including research by (Jung-Woo : 2008) to the method Electromagnetic Band Gap developed namely (EBG). The results of this study apply to the Ultra Wide Band (UWB) with Bandwidth 7 GHz and the value of S11 = S21 = -25 dB and -3 dB.

subsequent studies conducted by (Kaijun Song: 2009) the method developed is the use of a metamaterial. The results of this study apply to Wi-Fi devices with 6 GHz bandwidth value and the value of S11 = S21 = -25 dB and -2 dB.

This Research Proposal: As the state of the art, in this study the proposed structure metamatrial Square shaped

as I know, no study filters that use Square shaped Metamaterial, as an additional innovation that is added to enhance the value of Stub Loaded S21 and S11 Lowering the value loss.

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Tabel 2.1 Peta Jalan Penelitian Broadband Filter

3. METHODOLOGY

Figure 3.1 Research Methods Broadband Metamaterial Filter

Testing the metamaterial can be determined from the results of the simulation using CST Microwave Studio software. Later in the Fabrication and measurement using Network Analyzer.


One of the materials that attract the attention of researchers is the metamaterial materials. Metamaterial material can be obtained by making a

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material structure which has properties not available in nature. Metamaterial structure is a structure that has a value of permitivity (ε) and permeability (μ) negative [1].

The process of designing a broadband metamaterial microstrip BPF using an open split resonator shown in the flowchart below.

Figure 4.1. Flowchart of designing a broadband filter

specification broadband metamaterial microstrip BPF design looks as follows.

1. Highpass filter cutoff frequency is 1.975 GHz 2. Lowpass filter cutoff frequency is 2.615 GHz 3. Filter bandwidth of 640 MHz 4. The insertion loss bandwidth <- 3 dB. 5. Return loss bandwidth of <-10 dB. 6. Matching impedance 50 ohms

Initial structure of open split ring resonator shown in Figure 4.2 below.

Figure 4.2. The structure of open split ring resonator

This structure is then modified to result in a form that is simpler and more compact. In this study, the split of the open rectangular shaped resonator, as shown in Figure 4.3 below.

Figure 4.3. The structure of open split ring resonators for

metamaterial microstrip BPF broadband applications [Proposed].

Gambar 4.4. Perancangan open split ring resonator untuk

aplikasi broadband metamaterial mikrostrip BPF di perangkat lunak Advance Design System (ADS).

design results are then simulated using Advanced Design System software (ADS). to assess the performance of the filter. Among them is the bandwidth, return loss (S11), VSWR, insertion loss (S21), and shows the phase filter. The simulation results of bandwidth and return loss (S11) and insertion loss (S21) broadband metamaterial microstrip BPF shown in Figure 4.5. below.

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Gambar 4.5. The simulation results (a) return loss dan (b) insertion loss.

Return loss (S11) at a frequency of 1.975 GHz at -10.033 dB, while the frequency of 2.615 GHz at -10.205 dB. Return loss (S11) the smallest visible at 2.175 GHz frequency that is equal to -54.361 dB. This result shows that the reflection coefficient broadband metamaterial microstrip

BPF using an open split resonator has a small loss value. While the value of insertion loss at a frequency of 1.975 GHz at -0.525 dB, while the frequency of 2.615 GHz at -0,679dB. Value of the insertion loss (S21) the smallest visible at 2.175 GHz frequency that is equal to -0.0061 dB.

Gambar 4.6. The simulation results (a) VSWR dan (b) Hasil simulasi phase.

Figure 4.6. shows the simulation results of VSWR. VSWR values at a frequency of 1.975 GHz by 1.92, while the frequency of 2.615 GHz at 1.89. if 1 then the value of VSWR

ideal [9]. In this study produced VSWR at frequencies above or at the bottom of fekuensi 2. This indicates that the BPF has worked well.

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Figure 4.7. (a) Simulation results overall. and (b) Current distribution on the filter

5. CONCLUSION In this study, designed broadband metamaterial microstrip BPF using open split resonator. Based on the simulation results be concluded that the use of the open method of split resonator capable of generating broadband metamaterial microstrip BPF in the frequency range 1.975 GHz to 2.615 GHz, with a bandwidth of 640 MHz.

In addition, the value of a minimum return loss of -54.36 dB and an insertion loss of value of -0.061 dB.These results show that the filter has good performance and low loss.physically, broadband metamaterial microstrip BPF has compact dimensions are 40.2 x 31 x 1.6 mm, so is the potential BPF design used for various wireless communication applications.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] T. Itoh, (2006) “Electromagnetic

Metamaterials : Transmission Line Theory and Microwave Applications”, WILEY-INTERSCIENCE, John-Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ.

[2] Jung-Woo. (2008). “Compact Ultra-Wideband Bandpass Filter With EBG Structure” IEEE Microwave and Wireless

Components Letters, Volume: 18 , Issue: 10, Page(s): 671 – 673.

[3] Wai. (2007). ”EBG-Embedded Multiple-Mode Resonator for UWB Bandpass Filter With Improved Upper-Stopband Performance”. IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters. Page(s): 421 – 423.

[4] Ching-Her. (2010). “UWB BPF Design Using Modified Tri-Section SIR”. IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters. Page(s): 541 – 544.

[5] Rowd Ghatak (2011). “A Compact UWB Bandpass Filter With Embedded SIR as

[6] and Notch Structure”. IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters. Volume: 21 , Issue: 5, Page(s): 261 – 263.

[7] Min-Hang. (2009). “An Ultra-Wideband Bandpass Filter With an Embedded Open-Circuited Stub Structure to Improve In-Band Performance”. IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters. Volume: 19 , Issue: 3, Page(s): 146 – 148.

[8] Rui Li. (2007). “Compact UWB Bandpass Filter Using Stub-Loaded Multiple-Mode Resonator”. IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters.

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Volume: 17 , Issue: 1. Page(s): 40 – 42.

[9] Qing-Xin. (2010). “Design of UWB Bandpass Filter Using Stepped-Impedance Stub-Loaded Resonator”. IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters. Volume: 20, Issue: 9, Page(s): 501 – 503.

[10] Kaijun Song. (2009). “Compact Ultra-Wideband Bandpass Filter Using Dual- Line Coupling Structure”. IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters. Volume: 19, Issue: 1. Page(s): 30 – 32.

[11] Liang Han. (2010). “Development of Packaged Ultra-

Wideband Bandpass Filters”. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques. Volume: 58 , Issue: 1.

[12] R. N. Baral. (2009). "Miniaturized Microstrip Bandpass Filter Using Coupled Metamaterial Resonators". International Journal of Microwave And Optical Technology. Vol. 4. No.2. Page 115-120.

[13] Arokiaswami.(2009). "Compact Interdigitated Microstrip Bandpass Filter with

[14] Meandered EBGs". The 39th European Microwave Conference. Rome Italy. Page 439-443.

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Compressive and Shear Strength Behaviour of Masonry Wall With Pumice Breccia as Mortar

Faqih Ma’arif1, Buntara S. Gan2, Slamet Widodo3, Agus Santoso4, Sumardjo H5

1,3,4,5Department Of Civil Engineering and Planning, Faculty Of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 55281

em@il: [email protected] 2Associate Professor, Department Of Architecture Engineering, College Of Engineering,

Nihon University, Japan, 963-8642. em@il:[email protected]

Abstract

This research aims to develop materials pumice breccia as instant mortar on brick wall construction. The special region of Yogyakarta (DIY) an enormous potential for the development of product-based natural pumice breccia. Based on Resources Information System Investment (2012), Pumice reserves stored on DIY Recorded more than two and a half billion cubic meters, Covering an area Gunung Kidul ± 2,497 billion m3, Bantul ± 76,067 billion m3 and Sleman ± 85,367 billion m3. in which each location located relatively next to one another. The method used is an experiment laboratory. This research used 3rd varians, which were CS (compressive strength); TBS (Tensile bond strength) and SS (shear strength). This research dealt with three tests (compressive test, tensile bond strength and shear stress). Proportion mix used 1Pc:4Pm and 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm. The test results show that on compressive strength, tensile bond strength and shear strength obtained the effective thickness of pumice mortar were 10mm, 15mm and 20mm respectively. The failure mode is combination failure. In general, pumice breccias can be used as adhesive material (mortar) substitute of conventional mortar in masonry brick. Keyword: shear strength, masonry, pumice breccia 1. INTRODUCTION To minimize the negative impact of the consumption of electrical energy in the building has developed the concept of green building With minimize the needs of artificial illumination and air conditioning. Nowadays, the presence of air-conditioning has become a standard requirement in the various types of building. To minimize the need for air-conditioning, the wall materials need to be developed that is capable of absorbing heat from outdoors is put in that will go into the room.

To develop these heat reducer wall material, required the development of a material that has the heat conductivity is small enough. In General, building material and has many pore heavy kinds of light will have a value of thermal conductivity is lower anyway. Therefore, this point

has a lot of light aggregate based materials developed. Lightweight aggregates can be distinguished into two groups namely; natural and artificial lightweight aggregate. Lightweight aggregate structural criteria have been clearly defined in ASTM 330 that the dry content of the loose weights should not surpass 880 kg/m3 and weight of the aggregate must not exceed 2000 kg/m3.

The special region of Yogyakarta (DIY) an enormous potential for the development of product-based natural pumice breccia. Based on Resources Information System Investment (2012), Pumice reserves stored on DIY Recorded more than two and a half billion cubic meters, Covering an area Gunung Kidul ± 2,497 billion m3, Bantul ± 76,067 billion m3 and Sleman ± 85,367 billion m3. In which each location located relatively next


mailto:em@il:[email protected]�

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to one another. In this research, the most importance is mortar that serve as a bed joint between bricks, thickness mortar referring to the condition in the field. The use of lightweight mortar is one of the new things that will be applied to the mechanical testing laboratory. Mechanical tests that are developed are compressive stress, tensile bond strength and shear stress.

2. THEORY Pumice is one of sediment, rocks namely volcanic rock that weight light because of being porous materials. Pumice usually light colored, or discoloration of the skin whitish. Pumice is also widely used in the days of ancient Rome, by the way in gali, in the wash, and then used as building materials. Because of its lightweight, then does it weigh when used as material in concrete structures, lighter weights will be produced (Setty, 1997).

Wisnumurti reported about the optimization of the use of the composition of the mixture of mortar to mighty press pair red brick walls. The test results showed that the

optimal composition for masonry walls, red is on the composition of the cement mix 1: 6 sand, this is proven by the real difference is the smallest test results suggesting that the composition of a propotion mix of 1: 6 is no longer a real different with a proportion mix of 1: 5, 1: 4, and 1: 3. While the graph of the relationship between compressive strength of mortar and compressive strength walls indicates that an increase in compressive strength of wall along with strong improvement press the mortar being used.

According to Tjokrodimuljo (2007), mortar is a building material made from water, adhesive materials (e.g. mud, lime and portland cement) and fine aggregate (e.g., natural sand, etc.). The function of the mortar in masonry is red as the joint layer between red bricks with mortar itself. To get compressive strength in red brick, the mortar is required to have a minimum compressive strength equal strength with the brick. Mortar cement has a strong press between 3-17 MPa and have a specific gravity of between 1.8-2.20. as shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Properties of cement mortar made from cement and coarse sand

Volume of mixture

(Cement: fine agregate)

Water cement ratio

Spread value (%)

specific gravity

Compressive

strength (MPa)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Water absorbtion

(%)

1:3 0,6 85 2,22 28 2,60 7,47 1:4 0,72 82 2,19 18 1,80 7,71 1:5 0,90 86 2,14 10 1,70 8,58 1:6 1,10 85 2,10 8 1,30 9,03 1:7 1,48 88 2,04 5 0,96 9,94

(Source: Tjokrodimuljo, 2007)

3. METHODOLOGY Sampling and Testing

The pumice unit used in the masonry wall (produced and delivered in a single batch) have been produced especially for the current research

project. The unit dimension are 225mm (length), 105mm (width) and 65mm (height). The masonry joints have a thickness of 10mm, 15mm, 20mm, respectively and are to be filled with pumice breccia, made using small aggregate size. The

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compressive strength of concrete at 14 days is the averge four results obtained in tests with cylindrical

specimens (diameter of 150mm and height of 300mm), according to the recommendation of SNI 2847-2013.

Table 2. Sampling and testing specimen

No Specimen Proportion mix Types of tests Total sample

Thickness mortar (mm)

1 CS1a,b,c 1Pc:4Pm compressive strength 9 10, 15, 20 2 CS2 a,b,c 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm compressive strength 9 10, 15, 20 3 CSC 1Pc:4Ps control 3 15 4 TBS1 a,b,c 1Pc:4Pm tensile bond strength 9 10, 15, 20 5 TBS2 a,b,c 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm tensile bond strength 9 10, 15, 20 6 TBSC 1Pc:4Ps control 3 15 7 SS1 a,b,c 1Pc:4Pm shear strength 9 10, 15, 20 8 SS2 a,b,c 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm shear strength 9 10, 15, 20 9 SSC 1Pc:4Ps control 3 15

63 Description of the Test Set-up

The specimens consist of three masonry courses subjected to a vertical pre-compression load, see the Figure 1. The top and bottom masonry courses are kept under constant pressure while a horizontal load is applied in the middle masonry course. Eventually this member slides,

providing the value of the shear strength of the joints. Therefore, two joints are tested simultaneously.

Masonry compressive strength

Masonry compressive strength was determined in accordance with the provisions of Mojsilovic, et., al (2007). Three test on three unit were performed. See the Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. Compression test apparatus

The value of compressive strength can be calculate with equation follows:

AP

=σ (1)

Masonry tensile bond strength (splitting test)

This test is intended to determine tensile bond strength (splitting test) of pumice breccia as mortar. Testing method for tensile bond strength of masonry is presented in Figure 2 below.

PV

base plate

pumice mortar

axial load

brick

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Figure 2. Splitting test shear bond stress apparatus

(Sources: Mojsilović, et.al, 2009)

The tensile bond strength of masonry prism (Mojsilović, et.al, 2009), obtained using equation 1 below:

4

.;.

.π

σ LhDwithtDFC

T == (2)

Where: h and l are the specimen height and width, respectively. In addition, t denotes the specimen thickness; F is the applied load and C a constant of 0.648. This constant depends on brick/joint stiffness and

the chosen value was based on modulus of elasticity ratio of brick and mortar, Eb/Em, of approximately 2

Shear strength bond test

Testing method for shear strength bond test of masonry prism is presented in Figure 3 below (Tung, 2008).

Figure 3. Tensile bond test apparatus

(Sources: Tung, 2009)

The shear strength of masonry prism, obtained using equation 2 below:

F = σ. A (3)

Where: F= applied load (N); σ= shear strength (MPa); A=shear plane area (mm2)

Research Tool

Compression Testing Machine trade mark Wfi (Wykeham Farrance

International) from Blough, England, Capacity of 2000 kN; LVDT (linear variable diferential transducer), load cell, and others.


Masonry tensile bond strength (Splitting test) of Masonry

Masonry bond strength of masonry brick is to find out the capacity of performance of pumice breccia mortar, the test results are presented in Table 3 below.

pumice mortar Metal plate

SpringLoad Cell

Base plate

PH PH

PVBrick

pumice mortar

brickbase plate

PV

axial load

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Table 3. Test result of masonry triplet

No Specimen types of tests Proportion mix

Mortar thickness

(mm)

Load average (N)

stress (MPa)

1 CS1a,b,c compressive strength

1Pc:4Pm 10 113843.33 4,85 15 113190,00 4,76 20 83790,00 3,52

2 CS2a,b,c compressive strength

1Pc:3Ps:3Pm 10 124705,00 5,32 15 110903,30 4,68 20 88118,33 3,71

3 CSC Control 1Pc:4Ps 15 80523,33 3,45 4 TBS1a,b,c tensile bond

strength

1Pc:4Pm 10 8640,33 0,11 15 4671,33 0,06 20 7521,50 0,09

5 TBS2a,b,c tensile bond strength

1Pc:3Ps:3Pm 10 4263,00 0,055 15 3879,16 0,048 20 6043,33 0,074

6 TBSC Control 1Pc:4Ps 15 5643,17 0,081 7 SS1a,b,c

shear strength 1Pc:4Pm 10 5216.87 0,11

15 5504,33 0,47 20 4165,00 0,09

8 SS2a,b,c shear strength

1Pc:3Ps:3Pm 10 3824,00 0,08 15 8983.33 0,19 20 5749,33 0,12

9 SSC Control 1Pc:4Ps 15 9571,33 0,39 Note:

CS1a,b,c: tegangan tekan pada ketebalan benda uji 10mm, 15mm dan 20mm

TBSC : tensile bond strength control

SSC : shear strength control

Compressive strength test

Testing press intended to find out the compressive stress of wall, the test results is presented in Figure 4 and Figure 5 below.

Based on Figure 4 above show that the compressive strength at proportion mix 1Pc:4Pm of specimen CS1a, CS1b, CS1c and CSC were the results 4.85MPa, 4.76MPa, 3.52MPa, 3.45MPa respectively. Compressive strength optimum on CS1a specimen. The different value of stress compared with CS1b, CS1c, CSC were the results 1,89%; 37,78% and 40,58%

respectively. Figure 5 show that compressive stress with proportion mix 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm of specimen CS2a, CS2b, CS2c and CSC were the results 5.32MPa, 4.68MPa, 3.71MPa and 3.45MPa respectively. Compressive strength optimum at CS2a specimen. The stress different result compare with CS2b, CS2c and CSC were

5.32

4.68

3.713.45

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

CS2a CS2b CS2c CSC

mortar thickness(mm)

stre

ss (M

Pa)

Figure 4. proportion mix 1Pc:4Pm Figure 5. proportion mix 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm

4.85 4.76

3.52 3.45

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

CS1a CS1b CS1c CSC

mortar thickness (mm)

stre

ss (M

Pa)

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13.68%; 43.40% and 54.20% respectively.

In General, the test results above indicate that the thickness of the mortar is effective on compressive strength obtained a value of 10 mm. Interpretation of these results is wall will receive the load (beams, plates and columns), so that the behavior of the ravages of load tap on the wall will be more dominant than due to shear force (due to the optimum shear force will only occur when the earthquake). Conventional Mortar is

more brittle and have a lower load capacity compared to the pumice breccia mortar. It is identified as a mortar pumice has a light weight materials (1gram/cm3). Because of its low weight, it will change the characteristics of mortar that was brittle, a mortar that has pretty strong endurance against load.

Tensile bond strength

Tensile bond strength intended to find out the performance of masonry brick. the test results is presented in figure 6 and figure 7 below.

Based on Figure 6 above show that the tensile bond strength at proportion mix 1Pc:4Pm of specimen TBS1a, TBS1b, TBS1c and TBSC were the results 0.11MPa, 0.06MPa, 0.09MPa and 0.081MPa respectively. Tensile bond strength optimum on TBS1a specimen. The different value of stress compared with TBS1b, TBS1c, TBSC were the results 83.33%; 22.22% and 11.11 respectively. Figure 5 show that tensile bond strength with proportion mix 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm of specimen TBS2a, TBS2b, TBS2c, and TBSC were the results 0.055MPa, 0.048MPa, 0.074MPa and 0.081MPa respectively. Tensile bond optimum at TBSC specimen. The stress different result compare with TBS2a, TBS2b, TBS2c were 47.27%; 68.75% and 9.46%. respectively.

The use of mortar pumice will optimal value on 1pc: 4pm in proportion mix. Based on results show that pumice breccia have resistance and bond better than the conventional mortar. so the value of ductility brings much more compared to conventional mortar. Ductility is the capacity of a structure to deform at an almost-constant load, passing the elastic phase and dissipating the energy transmitted by the seismic waves through attrition and hysteresis phenomena. So, a structure will established, even though the conditions in the verge of collapse. On a structure wall, value ductility can be used by using partial and full of ductility.

Shear bond test (shear strength)

Shear bond test intended to find out the shear strength of wall, the test

0.11

0.06

0.090.081

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

TBS1a TBS1b TBS1c TBSC


tens

ile b

ond

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

Figure 6. Proportion mix 1Pc:4Pm Figure 7. Proportin mix 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm

0.0550.048

0.0740.081

0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

4263 3879.16 6043.33 5643.17


tens

ile b

ond

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

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results is presented in Figure 8 and figure 9 below.

Based on Figure 8 above show that the strength bond strength at proportion mix 1Pc:4Pm of specimen SS1a, SS1b, SS1c and SSC were the results 0.11MPa, 0.47MPa, 0.09MPa and 0.39MPa respectively. Shear strength optimum on SS1b specimen. The different value of stress compared with SS1b and (SS1a, SS1c, and SSC) were the results 76.60%; 80.85% and 20.51% respectively. Figure 9 show that shear strengt with proportion mix 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm of specimen SS2a, SS2b, SS2c and SSC were the results 0.08MPa, 0.19MPa, 0.12 MPa and 0.39MPa respectively. Shear strength optimum at SSC specimen. The shear strength different result compare with SS2a, SS2b and SS2c were 79.49%;

51.28% and 69.23% respectively. The value of the shear stregth using an aggregate pumice without sand positive trends, this is indicated by the shear strength value is always greater than the test control specimen. Based on laboratory test, Pumice is considered to be into breccia mortar type M and N. this mortar have 45,38% fines grade.

Failure Mode

The test sample described previously were also instrumented to allow the rate at which a crack propagates through a triplet to be monitored. Hasil pengujian disajikan pada Gambar 10 di bawah ini.

Figure 10. failure mode

These test given a clear indication of the failure mode. It was apparent that the type of loading condition were intiated by tensile/shear and combination failure between the brick brick/mortar interface at the bottom of the sample and travels upwards on

joint. This appeared to confirm that the increase in strength previously observed was not due to an increase in shear strength alone.

0.11

0.47

0.09

0.39

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

SS1a SS1b SS1c SSC

mortar thickness(mm)

shea

r str

engt

h (M

Pa)

Figure 8. proportion mix 1Pc:4Pm Figure 9. proportion mix 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm

0.39

0.120.08

0.19

00.050.1

0.150.2

0.250.3

0.350.4

0.450.5

SS2a SS2b SS2c SSC

mortar thickness

shea

r str

engt

h (M

Pa)

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5. CONCLUSION The compressive strength results SC1a and SC2a on volume of mixture 1Pc:4Pm and 1Pc:3Ps:3Pm were 4.86MPa and 5.32MPa respectively.

The test results of tensile bond strength máximum TBS1a and TBSC on volume of mixture 1Pc:4Pm and 1Pc:4Ps were 0.11MPa and 0.081MPa respectively.

The test results of shear strength TBS1a and TBSC on volume of mixture 1Pc:4Pm and 1Pc:4Ps were 0.47MPa and 0.89MPa respectively.

The failure mode on all simple show that combination failure.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We offer our sincere gratitude to Departement Of Civil and Engineering and planning, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta and Also thanks to Ministry of education and culture, Directorate General Higher Education. We extend our thanks to all our colleagues at the Laboratory Of Structure Universitas Islam Indonesia.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] ACI committee. 211. (2004).

Standard Practice for selection

proportion for Normal, heavyweight, and mass concrete, ACI 211-1.91” ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Michigan, 38pp.

[2] Eric Tung (2008). Parametric study of masonry infilled reinforced concrete frames using mortar joint properties. The 14th World Conference On Earthquake Engineering October 12−17, 2008, Beijing, China.

[3] Mojsilović N. et. al. (2009). Static Cyclic Shear Tests on Masonry Wallettes with a Damp proof Course Membrane; November 2009.

[4] Anonim. (2013). Reinforced concrete code 2847-2013. Indonesian Standard.

[5] Tjokrodmuljo. (2007). Teknologi Beton. KMTS: Universitas Gadjah Mada

[6] Wisnumurti, Agoes Soehardjono dan Kiki Andriana Palupi. (2007). Optimalisasi Penggunaan Komposisi Campuran Mortar Terhadap Kuat Tekan Dinding Pasangan Bata Merah . Jurusan Sipil Fakultas Teknik Universitas Brawijaya Malang Jl. Mayjen Haryono 147 Malang, JURNAL REKAYASA SIPIL / Volume 1, No.1 – 2007 ISSN 1978 – 5658.

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Analysis of Color Conversion Model of Hue, Saturation, Brightness on Digital Image

Wiwi Prastiwinarti1, Noorbaity2, Zulkarnain3

Politeknik Negeri Jakarta Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract

Color is an element that must be considered in the control of print quality, especially in obtaining consistent and predictable color between the colors on the monitor and the printout. The focus of research to analyze the difference in color in the digital image color models to variations change the Hue, Saturation, and brightness in order to obtain the position of the color in the color space CIEL * a * b are applied in the management of digital data in the Pre Press to obtain a standard color and consistent. Experiments study model making images with color 100% cyan, 100% magenta, 100% yellow and 100% black. Experiments designed to measure the color difference stage by stage with a variety of conditions the value of brightness, hue and saturation. The results of the study form the hue changes color different to the cyan, magenta, and yellow is the hue of 0, hue +50 or +60 hue, hue hue +115 or +120, +180 hue 175 or hue, hue -50 or hue -60, -115 or -120 hue, and hue hue -175 or -180. Changes in saturation towards negative (-) the average ΔE greater than towards the positive (+) so that the resulting color is more opaque or grayish. The more negative direction (-) the average lightness changes resulting ΔE greater than the positive direction (+). Keyword CIEL * a * b,, HSV, colorimetry, digital image 1. INTRODUCTION Prepress the initial stage of the print production process, have an important role in controlling the stability of the color. Pre Press is an image processing (image) in preparing digital print design (artwork, graphic design) using computer devices, starting from data input to design ready-to publication or Final Artwork. In terms of color reproduction, there are two types of color models RGB and CMY color model. Models of different colors are used for different purposes. There is no single color model that can reproduce the color and color differences represent perfectly in all conditions. CIEL * a * b * is the best model to represent the differences in color perception. The study period color model conversion done 3 years, 2014 is the focus of research to analyze the difference in color in the digital image color models RGB-24 bit to variations change the Hue, Saturation, and brightness. The study looked at the color space generated by applying a

variation changes the hue, saturation, and brightness are then used to assess the quality of the prints. Mapping the color that will be established will make the restriction area so that it looks the position of each color in the color space CIEL * a * b. The purpose of the latest research methods in determining the position of the color produced by the application of the variation in changes in hue, saturation, and brightness by using the CIELAB color mapping combined with CIEXYZ to be able to identify the color of the light and print maps. This study will be continued in the next year by making a color model conversion is done by MATLAB program, created three-dimensional models of digital images with 24-bit RGB color, which is done with the color transformation models CIELa * b * as a matrix value inputted in MATLAB, the output is transformation matrix values conversion results into a model 24-bit RGB digital images.

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2. THEORY Hue

Hue is the color characteristics based on the wavelengths of light reflected or refracted by an object. Value (Value) is defined hue on the color wheel. As we all know Hue is the color spectrum (RGB and CMY) color hueadalah value between 0-360 corner circle.

Saturation (Chroma)

Saturation is the degree of intensity of a color. The higher the value of its saturation, the colors more vivid, the lower the saturation value of his image more towards grayish or getting discolored. As one example, namely lemon and pear, lemon yellow is brighter, but in this case means more clearly, while more opaque yellow pears. This is one difference in the clarity or color saturation (Anne Dameria, 2012).

Lightness

Based on the comparison of its lightness (brightness), color can be divided into bright and dark colors. For example, lemon yellow and orange. no doubt, more lemon yellow glow. Lightness can be measured independently of each hue (Minolta, 2002).

In theory CMY color model (without Black - Black) is the direct opposite of the RGB color model, in this case the analogy can be drawn simple conversion functions such as:

fungsi [r,g,b] = cmy2rgb (c,m,y)

r = 1.0 - c;

g = 1.0 - m;

b = 1.0 - y;

There is no simple formula to convert RGB colors to CMYK or vice versa. such as:

fungsi [r,g,b] = cmyk2rgb (c,m,y,k)

r = 1.0 - (c+k);

g = 1.0 - (m+k);

b = 1.0 - (y+k);

Delta Error

Delta Error (ΔE) = Color defference / color deviation, is the difference in the value of a color image is generated from the difference in the value of L * (lightness), a * (red-green range), b * (yellow-blue range). If the value of L * a * b * of an initial proof print / master (1) and that the print / batch (2) the color difference (ΔE) can be calculated manually, as follows (Pratomo Herman, 2009):

∆L* = L*(2) – L*(1)

∆a = a*(2) – a*(1)

∆b = b*(2) – b*(1)

∆E �(∆L ∗)2 + (∆a ∗)2 + (∆b ∗)2

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3. METHODOLOGY

Variations And Type Of Test Items Experiments were performed in this study to create a model in the form of figure 4 box with color 100% cyan, 100% magenta, 100% yellow, and black 100% .dimensi with -24-bit RGB color model. decomposed models with color CIEL * a * b different layers corresponding variation in the value of brightness,

saturation and hue. Modeling is done using Adobe Photoshop application. This model was created as a media experiment to measure the perception of color difference on the printouts of digital images. Experiments designed to measure the color difference stage by stage with a variety of conditions the value of brightness, hue and saturation:

Tabel 1. Variations change Hue, Saturation, Brightness

Brightness Hue Saturation

1 same different same

2 same same different

3 different same same

Conditions 1, 2, 3 for experiments conducted with one of the values of brightness, hue or saturation is constant. Experiments carried out by dividing the color model CIEL * a * b in several different layers so that each layer has a shape of brightness, saturation and hue according to the desired conditions and each layer only describe the colors in the 24-bit RGB.

Experimental Testing Method Tests conducted experiments for each condition in each experiment is to measure the results of color printing digital images, and make the position

of the colors in the color space CIEL * a * b. The measurement results are then applied to the color management in digital data process Pre Press, to obtain the standard in obtaining appropriate and consistent color.

Data Analysis Method Data analysis was performed on experiments with one of the values of brightness, hue or saturation is constant (conditions 1, 2 and 3 (Table 1). The data obtained from each experimental condition were analyzed by measuring the colors Cyan,

Preparation Device through the monitor calibration,

Testing of digital color output with color shapes digital

Testing the position of digital color to change hue variations saturatio

Testing input digital color

Testing digital proof prints with color

f

Application of Variation change Hue, saturation, brightness pada pengolahan

Testing to RGB color conversion

Figure 1. Mapping the color space CIEL * a * b to variations change the hue,

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Magenta, Yellow, Black on every variation changes in hue, saturation, brightness, color deviations obtained henceforth ΔE, ΔL, Δa, Δb, and the calculation is based on the largest deviation, adjusted to a standard color in order to obtain standard color management in digital data in the Pre Press.

ANALYSIS Hue changes the color model CIE L * a * b

Discoloration on the model of color space CIEL * a * b described below:

Tabel 2. The color space CMY to the color space CIEL * a * b

Quadrant 1 2 3 4

Color Space M Y G C

R G C B Y M

Hue color shift counter-clockwise in the color space CIEL * a * b shows the Quadrant 1 axis toward + b + a * consists of magenta, red, and yellow, which isthe axis of Quadrant 2 + b * -a * heading consists of color yellow and green, Quadrant 3 that axis -a * -b * to the axis consists of the colors green and cyan, and quadrant 4 that axis to the axis -a -b * * consists of cyan, blue, and magenta, while the black color is not including in one

quadrant because of its position on the axis L * with the coordinates 0.

Based on the color change of the variation Cyan Hue, magenta color changes to variations in Hue, and yellow discoloration of the variation of Hue, the color change occurs when a change in hue form different colors of cyan, magenta, and yellow color to another as described in the table below

In the H-0 form a cyan color - cyan, magenta-magenta, and yelow¬ - yellow, H + 50 to D + 60 to form cyan-blue, magenta-red, and yellow-

green, H + H +120 115 to form a cyan-magenta, magenta-yellow, and yellow-cyan, H + H + 175 to 180 form a red-cyan, green-magenta, and

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yellow-blue, and H-50 to H -60 form a cyan-green, magenta-blue, and yellow-red, H-115 to H -120 form a cyan-yellow, cyan and magenta-yellow-magenta, H-175 to H -180 form a red-cyan, green-magenta, and yellow- blue.

Change Color Saturation Model CIE L * a * b

Change Brightness on the CIE color model L * a * b Variations Saturation changes are used to observe the color change is ± 100, the greater the value, the color saturation is increasingly clear, as did the smaller the saturation value visible grayish color (opaque). This is due to the color space CIEL * ab *, saturation is the radius of a circle so negative direction leads to the axis L and ΔL, Δa, Δb and ΔE negative direction is greater than in the positive direction (+). For more details can be seen in the table below:

Tabel 4averageΔL, Δa, Δb pada Variasi

Saturation ± 100 ΔL Δa Δb ΔE + 0.42 0.48 0.89 1.27 - 0.99 2.39 2.80 4.93

Change Brightness variations are used to observe the color change is ± 100 to obtain the following color changes:

Visualization discoloration of 100 variations of brightness change, brightness change towards a positive result in a lighter color than the change in the negative direction which results in a darker color. This is due to the brightness in the color space CIE L * a * b * is the L * axis so that when a change occurs in the direction of the negative (-) then the resulting color is darker than in the direction of the positive (+) and the results of ΔL, Δa, Δb and ΔE negative direction (-) is also greater than in the positive direction (+). For more details can be seen in the table below :

Variations of color aberrations in Hue, saturation, and brightness based on the average ΔE color model CIEL * a * b

Based on the variation of changes in hue, saturation, and brightness can be known to change color based on the average ΔE.

Tabel 5.averageΔL, Δa, Δb pada Variasi

Saturation ± 100 ΔL Δa Δb ΔE + 1.99 2.46 2.88 5.23 - 2.42 2.67 2.97 5.48

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The application changes the hue, saturation, and brightness on the color model CIEL * a * b.

Lab results of measurements on the reference image, an image without any changes hue variations, aturation, brightness:

Table 5:42 shows the value Rererensi and Lab Lab Image Image without change hue, saturation, brightness.

Color deviation between the two images is ΔL = 6.35, Δa and Δb = -2.13 = 2.22 resulting in a very large ΔE ie 7:06 means ΔE between images referansi and without adjustment produces a very different color. Among the three parameters L, a, and b, ΔL value storage is greatest, this is done following the process of change (adjustment) colors with predictions calculated as follows:

Tabel 5.43. Predicted Changes in Hue, Saturation, Brightness

HSL ∆L Perubahan Hue, Saturation, Brightness

∆L

6.35 Hue 1,87 1 H + 5 1,87

6,35 - 1,87 4,48 Saturation 0,83 1 S + 5 0,83

4,48 - 0,83 3,65 Brightness 1,82 2 L + 10 3,64 3,65 - 3,64 0,01

Based on the calculations in Table 5:43 prediction, the use of value change, the first time a change hue, saturation 1 times change, and lightness 2 times with every change is worth 5 so as to process color adjustment using the value of hue = +

5, + 5 = saturation, and lightness = +10.

Visualization of the reference image, an image without any changes in HSL, HSL and image after the change is shown in Figure 5:17, look at the application of the hue value = +5, +5

Gambar 5.13. Grafik rata rata ∆Eperubahan Hue,

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= saturation, and lightness = +10 reproduce colors closer to the reference, it is also proved on the measurement results below:

Tabel 5.43. Test Result of Lab

implementation of change hue, saturation, and lightness can produce ΔE smaller than before in order to obtain the value E = 3.24. This proves that the role of the hue, saturation, and lightness is quite large in helping achieve the color in the space CIE L * a * b.

4. CONCLUSION hue shaping different colors of cyan, magenta, and yellow is the hue of 0, hue +50 or +60 hue, hue hue +115 or +120, +180 hue 175 or hue, hue -50 or hue -60, -115 or -120 hue, and hue hue -175 or -180. As in H0 form a cyan-cyan, magenta-magenta, and yellow-yellow. At H + 60 form a cyan-blue, magenta-red, and yellow-green. At H + 115 +120 samapai forming cyan-magenta, magenta-yellow, yellow-cyan. At H + 175 to +180 forming red-cyan, green-magenta, and yellow-blue. In the H-50 and -60 form a cyan-green, blue-magenta, and yellow-red. At -120 H115 to form cyan-yellow, magenta-cyan, and yellow-magenta. In the H-175 to -180 forming cyan-red, magenta-green, and yellow-blue.

Change the saturation plays a role in shaping it becomes clear and opaque colors,. The more towards the negative (-) change in average saturation resulting ΔE greater than

towards the positive (+) so that the resulting color is more opaque or grayish. However if the saturation change towards the positive (+) the resulting color will be more obvious. That is because the position of the saturation in the color space CIE L * a * b * is the radius of the circle so that when a change occurs towards the negative (-) then the resulting color is more keabua-gray (not clear / opaque) than in the positive direction (+) and th e resu lts o f ΔL, Δa, Δb an d ΔE negative direction (-) is also greater than in the positive direction (+).

Changes in the role lightness into light and color merubahan gelap.Semakin negative direction (-) the average lightness changes resulting ΔE greater than the positive direction (+). Thus, if the lightness changes in a negative direction (-) then the color will be darker huge market and if the direction of the positive (+) then the resulting color is getting brighter.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Balasubramanian, R. and Dalal, E.

(1997), A method of quantifying the color gamut of an output device. Color Imaging: Device-Independent Color, Color Hard copy, and Graphic Arts II, volume 3018 of Proceedings SPIE, San Jose, CA, pp.110-116.

[2] CIE 156:2004, Guidelines for the evaluation of Gamut Mapping Algorithms. Technical report, ISBN: 3 901 906 26 6.

[3] CIE 159:2004, A colour appearance model for colour management systems: CIECAM02, ISBN 3 901 906 29 0

[4] CIE 131:1998, The CIE 1997 interim colour appearance model (simple version) CIECAM97s

Image L a b Referensi 59,92 -7,44 -18,64 Setelah perubahan Hue, saturation, brightness

59,12 -4,81 -20,36

∆ 0,8 -2,63 1,72 ∆E 3,24

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[5] Dameria,Anne..DesaignerHandbookDalamProduksiCetakdanDigitalPrinting.Jakarta.2012.Febienne

Dugay, “Perceptual evaluation of colour gamut mapping algorithms. 2007

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Developing a Penstock for Micro Hydro Power Plant of Waterwheel Type

Gun Gun Ramdlan G, Jusafwar, Adi Syuriadi, Fachruddin, Dianta Mustofa Kamal, Agus Sukandi and Candra Damis Widiawaty

Mechanical Engineering Department, State Polytechnic of Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract

Recently non-renewable energy has been decreasing. In response to this condition, many alternative energy resurces have been developed such as Penstock as a micro hydro power plant. However, penstock development for a waterwheel type has not gained attention of researchers and developers. On the other hand, some of the available energy resources are supplied by people independently by building a Penstock for Micro Hydro Power Plant of Waterwheel Type. Testing the effectiveness of the extending the contact between the flow of water and waterwheel and decreasing the momentum due to decrease flow rate can determine the most effective channel geometry. This research is aimed at enhancing the performance of a penstock that has been common in societies. This research is an experimental study by extending the contact between the flow of water and waterwheel and decreasing the momentum due to decrease flow rate. This experiment shows that each of 1/5 maximum extention of pensctock with open channels enhances the average power of 0.7%. This research contributes to the development of appropriate technology in the field of renewable energy sources. Keywords: penstock, waterwheel, appropriate technology, renewable energy 1. INTRODUCTION Impairment of non-renewable energy sources and the expensive development of renewable energy technologies to encourage an increase in search of new energy sources and the development of technology, in order to improve the efficiency of energy use.

In 2011, 11 percent of the national electricity production generated by PLN comes from renewable energy. 6 percent comes from hydropower (hydro) and 5 percent comes from geothermal energy (geothermal). PLN planned by the end of this decade will increase the use of geothermal energy to 13 percent and hydropower are still 6 percent. Thus the total renewable energy to be developed until the end of the decade 19 percent of the national electricity production. [1]

The increased use of energy can not be avoided. Based on the data of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the national electricity

production has increased in 2007, reaching 140,000 GWH, in line with increasing national electricity consumption reached approximately 120,000 GWH in 2007.

During the first half of 2010, the Java-Bali electricity consumption grew by 10.5%. Realization of power production in the first half-2010 reach 83,3 Terra Watt hour (TWH). [2]

Recently non-renewable energy has been decreasing. In response to this condition, many alternative energy resurces have been developed such as Penstock as a micro hydro power plant. However, penstock development for a waterwheel type has not gained attention of researchers and developers. On the other hand, some of the available energy resources are supplied by people independently by building a Penstock for Micro Hydro Power Plant of Waterwheel Type.

Development of MHP Type Waterwheel had been done, with


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improved efficiency and increased protection system. But still have weaknesses in controlling the flow of water, as a source of energy driving the waterwheel. When the burden of electricity decreased water flow remains at maximum conditions. These conditions could result in generator the excess energy input, that could lead to over speed to lower the age or damage the generator. Otherwise when the load goes up, water supply can cause generator the overload to cause a generator caught fire. (SNP2M 2011)

Development in the first year, up to 1000 watts of power, the voltage is less stable. Stable voltage at the load from 146 to 283.5 watts. Above 283.5 watts voltage drops below 220 volts. (ASAIS 2013).

Based on these considerations it is necessary to study the MHP Installation waterwheel type that has been developed in the first year, to be increased to MHP has a water gate control system, as well as voltage stability studies, by means of testing the penstock, to see the effectiveness of the expansion of the contact between the water flow and waterwheel and a decrease in the flow of momentum due to a decrease in flow velocity, and study the characteristics of the generator.

2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Problem Identification Electricity networks that haven't been linked in PLN: some areas of the community, encourage developing MHP independently of waterwheel is simple, with DC generator without using protection. In addition to a very small capacity about 100 Watts, as well as the construction and installation of a simple, very easily damaged due to natural disturbances

such as: order waterwheel is damaged, or the generator on fire, as well as maintenance that requires high surveillance, and more. The Generator caught fire because of excess resources, caused a sudden water overpressure due to high rainfall, due to lightning strikes, because overloaded, or the energy source, is declining.

Technically, the condition occurs because, no mechanical protection system, capable of regulating energy flow, so that the amount is in the range of allowable, and electrical protection from overload or sudden loads. [3]

The development of MHP, with higher technology, both from the side of science and technology, as well as the cost, it is still difficult for the community. On the other hand, the use of MHP, a high-tech, has a constraint in the installation, in the form of disruption to irrigation, because it requires a high head, which will interfere with the agricultural productivity.

Development in the first year, up to 1000 watts of power, the voltage is less stable. Stable voltage at the load from 146 to 283.5 watts. Above 283.5 watts voltage drops below 220 volts. (ASAIS 2013).

Based on these considerations it is necessary to study the MHP Installation waterwheel type that has been developed in the first year, to be increased to MHP has a water gate control system, as well as voltage stability studies, by means of testing the penstock, to see the effectiveness of the expansion of the contact between the water flow and waterwheel and a decrease in the flow of momentum due to a decrease in

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flow velocity, and study the characteristics of the generator, to keep open the possibility for the Community independently developed easily later.

2.2 Development of MHPP. MHP development of type waterwheel with fixed head low capacity and reliability are increased, performed as in Figure 1.

Figure 1 MHP Development Process Flow Diagram

Testing the effectiveness of the expansion of the contact between the water flow and waterwheel as well as a decrease in momentum due to a decrease in water flow velocity can determine the most effective channel geometry. Development of mechanical protection system installation (Governing Hydraulic Valve) MHP can improve the efficiency and reliability of the system. Development and testing can ensure optimum efficiency and reliability can be achieved by improving the weaknesses that are not observed in the initial design. All activities are carried out jointly between the community and the team can improve together for the development of MHP independently.

3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION.

3.1 Expansion of the contact between the water flow and waterwheel and a decrease in the flow of momentum due to a decrease in flow velocity

The first activity carried out on the development of MHP installation waterwheel type with low head, capacity and reliability are increased as in the planning, are as follows:

Survey research sites MHP installation built in the first study as in Figure 2, requires testing in the penstock.

Expansion of the contact between the water flow and waterwheel and a decrease in the

flow of momentum due to a decrease in flow velocity

Installation of Mechanical Protection System (Governing Valve) MHP

Development and Testing of MHP

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Figure 2 MHP Civil Installation

Analysis of the penstock, to see the effectiveness of the expansion of the contact between the water flow and waterwheel as well as a decrease in momentum due to a decrease in water flow velocity.

Penstock by Closed Channels The first test, the penstock is made with a closed channel in the form of five pipelines like Figure 3. The test was done by controlling the opening penstock. Data obtained as in Table 1.

Figure 3 Penstock by Closed Channels

Table 1 Data of the test results, the penstock by Closed Channels

Channel openings Penstock

Voltage generator

(Volt)

Voltage in (Volt)

Voltage out (Volt)

Current (Ampere)

1 170 150 220 1 4/5 160 140 200 1 3/5 130 120 160 1 2/5 110 40 120 1 1/5 50 5 50 1

Generation efficiency increases with the opening of the penstock, as shown in Figure 4

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Figure 4 Graph openings penstock with closed channels, the efficiency

Penstock by Open Channels Penstock with an open channel, a channel of MHP installation initial conditions, as shown in Figure 5.

Testing is done by adjusting the width of the channel, using wood baffle, to the extent of the flow can be changed. Data obtained as in Table 2.

Figure 5 Penstock by Open Channels

Table 2 Test data on the penstock with an open channel

Channel openings Penstock

Voltage generator

(Volt)

Voltage in (Volt)

Voltage out (Volt)

Current (Ampere)

1 220 180 220 1 4/5 190 150 220 1 3/5 180 140 200 1 2/5 170 120 180 1 1/5 160 120 180 1

Generation efficiency increases with the opening of the penstock, as shown in Figure 6.

y = -0,077x2 + 0,163x - 0,003R² = 0,985

0%1%2%3%4%5%6%7%8%9%

0 1/2 1 1 1/2

Efis

iens

i

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Poly. (Bukaan saluran)

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Figure 6 Graph openings penstock with open channels, the efficiency

Of the two models tested penstock, penstock with closed channels, the increase in power is proportional to the rise in the penstock openings, also followed the increase in the flow of water, while the penstock with open channels, the increase in power is proportional to the increase in contact area between the water flow and waterwheel, without the increase in the flow of water. Penstock with open channel shows, the greater the contact area between the water flow and waterwheel, power generation increases the average of 0.7%.

3.2 Installation of Mechanical Protection System (Governing Valve) MHP

MHP analysis for the development of mechanical protection system (Governing Valve)

Design of the mechanical protection system (Governing Valve) Development carried out at the inlet headtank with the addition of a valve controlled by the hidraylic governing to control the amount of water entering headtank as shown in Figure 7.

y = 0,034x2 - 0,007x + 0,078R² = 0,978

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

0 1/2 1 1 1/2

Efis

iens

i

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Bukaan saluran

Poly. (Bukaan saluran)

ISSN 2302-786X


Figure 7 Governing valve design

ISSN 2302-786X


Testing of mechanical protection system (Governing Valve)

Figure 8 Governing Valve Testing

Governing hydraulic testing results as in Figure 8, showing hydraulic governing, shaking valve actuators extend, when the rotation speed exceeds 500 rpm, and shaking return valve actuators, when the rotation speed of approximately 500 rpm.

The local community is involved in all activities, to ensure the development and maintenance capabilities independently.

4. CONCLUSION Development is done in the penstock by extending the contact between the flow of water and waterwheel and decreasing the momentum due to decrease flow rate. This experiment shows that each of 1/5 maximum extention of pensctock with open channels enhances the average power of 0.7%. This research contributes to the development of appropriate technology in the field of renewable energy sources.

5. REFERENCES [1] Webesite Alkindo, 2012, “PLN

Tingkatkan Produksi Listrik Dari Energi Terbarukan”, http://www.alkindo.org

[2] Website Kontan, 1012, “Sepanjang 2010, konsumsi listrik nasional meningkat”, http://www.kontan.co.id

[3] BC Hydro, 2004, “Handbook for Developing MICRO HYDRO In British Columbia”, BC Hydro.

[4] Cihanjuang Inti Teknik, 2008, “Company Profile, Bandung”.

[5] M. Suhud, 2007 “Mikro Hidro Tanjung Lokang” http://www.lead.or.id/download/c12/lap/M_Suhud.pdf

[6] Muhammadiyah Online, 2008, “UM Malang Luncurkan Pembangkit Listrik Mikro Hidro”,http://www.muhammadiyah.or.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1054&Itemid=2

[7] Website Kab.Bogor, 2011, “Sumber Daya Air”, http://www.bogorkab.go.id

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