Weightlifting Exercises Enhance Athletic PerformanceThat Requires High-Load Speed StrengthNaruhiro Hori, MS; Robert U. Newton, PhD; Kazunori Nosaka, PhDEdith Cowan University, Joondalup,Western Australia, Australia

Michael H. Stone, PhDEdith Cowan University, Joondalup,Western Australia, AustraliaUnited States Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, Colorado

© National Strength and Conditioning AssociationVolume 27, Number 4, pages 50–55

Keywords: weightlifting; Olympic lift; speed strength; power;performance

Weightlifting is a sport in whichathletes compete for the totalweight of 2 lifts: the snatch

and the clean and jerk. The trainingmethods used in this sport are also usedas a method of strength training for awide range of other sports. Weightlift-ing exercises can be effective for en-hancing athletic performance that re-quires high-load speed strength such asfootball, basketball, volleyball, andtrack and field events because of theirbiomechanical characteristics of highforce and power output (11, 21).

Weightlifting exercises include thesnatch, clean and jerk, and variations ofthese such as the hang snatch, hangclean, snatch pull, and clean pull. Thepurpose of this article is to provide abiomechanical and physiological dis-cussion as to why weightlifting exercisesare useful to improve athletic perfor-mance and how they should be per-formed in a training program.

Why Are Weightlifting ExercisesRecommended?

Expression and Development ofPower Power is the ability of the neuromuscu-lar system to perform work over a giventime period or, alternatively, the productof force that can be exerted at a given ve-locity of movement. For the majority ofsports performances, power output isthe critical mechanical quantity re-quired rather than force production,that is, strength (17). As proposed byNewton and Dugan (16), 7 independentqualities contribute to an athlete’s powercapacity: maximum strength, high-loadspeed strength, low-load speed strength,rate of force development, reactivestrength, skill performance, and powerendurance. Each sport requires variouscombinations of these strength quali-

ties, and this characterizes how power isbest developed to match these demands.Therefore, all the strength qualitiesshould be taken into account when eval-uating the power profile of athletes, andthe focus of training should be set fromthe point of not only specificity of asport but also the individual athlete’s ca-pacity in each of these qualities (16, 17).Newton and Kraemer (17) have pro-posed that greatest training efficiencyfor power development will occur whenthe athlete’s least developed power qual-ities are identified and then specificallytargeted for training emphasis in theprogram design.

In the process of diagnosing each ath-lete’s power qualities and planning thetraining program, speed strength is clas-sified into 2 qualities based on the load:high-load and low-load speed strength(16). High-load speed strength is evalu-ated by power output with a relativelyheavy load (i.e., >30% of max), and low-load speed strength is referred to aspower output without external load orwith a light external load (i.e., <30% ofmax). To assess speed strength of thelower extremities, jump squat is oftenused. Jump squat without load repre-sents low-load speed strength, and jumpsquat with a load of 55% of 1 repetition

s u m m a r y

Weightlifting exercises can be ef-

fective for enhancing athletic per-

formance. This article provides a

biomechanical and physiological

discussion as to why weightlifting

exercises are useful to improve ath-

letic performance and how they

may be integrated into a training

program.

50 August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

maximum (1RM), for example, indi-cates high-load speed strength. Poweroutput in jump squat with several differ-ent loads (i.e., 30, 55, and 80% of 1RM)gives us a profile of speed strength (16).However, relatively expensive equip-ment (e.g., position transducer or forceplate) is needed to measure power out-put in jump squat, and most athletesand coaches do not have access to suchequipment. When the equipment is notavailable, the combination of the fol-lowing measures may be useful to diag-nose power capacity for the lower ex-tremities: 1RM squat for maximumstrength, 1RM power clean for high-load speed strength, and vertical jumpfor low-load speed strength. If an ath-lete’s vertical jump height is good but1RM power clean is low, the athleteneeds to improve high-load speedstrength. If this is the case, training forhigh-load speed strength such as usingweightlifting exercises should be consid-ered.

Weightlifting Exercises ImproveHigh-Load Speed StrengthTo enhance maximal power, athletesneed to perform training movementsthat involve rapid acceleration againstresistance, and this acceleration shouldextend throughout the movement withno intention to decelerate at the end(19). Almost all rapid movements insports exhibit such an acceleration pro-file; therefore, the training method thatmimics this profile would likely inducedesirable sport-specific adaptation.During the pull phase of the clean andsnatch and the drive phase of the jerk,athletes extend their hips, knees, andankle joints to push against the groundas hard and as rapidly as possible at agiven weight, producing just such an ac-celeration profile for the barbell andbody. The kinematics and kinetics areremarkably similar to jumping (2, 8).Importantly, there is no need to controlthe upward movement of the weight toactively decelerate the barbell, for this isachieved by the influence of gravity. Infact, athletes never decelerate the up-

ward movement in weightlifting exercis-es until extension is complete. Thus,weightlifting exercises from a biome-chanical evaluation are an excellentmethod to train high-load speedstrength.

In contrast, other types of strength-training exercises intrinsically containdeceleration movements. Even if ath-letes try to keep accelerating their move-ments, they are required to deceleratethe weight at the end of range of mo-tion. Otherwise, the weight is releasedfrom their hands or injury may occur totheir musculoskeletal structures becauseof the kinetic energy they must absorb(5, 19). In this manner, speed strengthcannot be improved efficiently.

Plyometric exercises such as jumping,hopping, and bounding use the stretchshortening cycle and enhance athletes’power output in the concentric phase (1,5). These types of exercises have thesame characteristic as weightlifting exer-cises in that they do not require deceler-ating movements. Plyometric exercisescan be used to improve low-load speedstrength but not high-load speedstrength. Because these exercises are per-formed with only the athletes’ own bodyweight, or a relatively small weight suchas a medicine ball, the load is not highenough to improve high-load speedstrength.

When an athlete performs a jump exer-cise with high load, such as jump squats(countermovement vertical jump withbarbell or dumbbells), the result is a veryspecific and effective exercise for devel-oping high-load speed strength (25).However, this exercise may cause in-juries to the lower leg, knee, back, andneck because of the high impact at land-ing (13). To overcome this problem, sev-eral different electronic and mechanicalsystems have been developed. Studieshave reported that such systems enhancehigh-load speed strength effectivelywhile reducing the risk of injury (12, 13,18). For example, Newton et al. (18)

used a Smith machine equipped with anelectromagnetic braking system, whichremoved 75% of the barbell weight dur-ing the eccentric phase of jump squats.They reported significant improvementin vertical jump performance and thehigh-intensity power training to be welltolerated. However, limited numbers ofathletes have access to such systems atthis time because the systems are not inwidespread practical use.

Evidence to Support ThatWeightlifting Exercises Im-prove Athletic PerformanceSeveral studies have investigated the re-lationship between weightlifting exer-cises and jump performance (2, 3, 8,11, 21). Canavan et al. (2) comparedthe movements of the hang powersnatch from above the knee to those ofnoncountermovement (concentric only)vertical jump using collegiate athleteswho were familiar with these exercises.The authors reported similarities inmaximal power, time to maximalpower, relative power, maximal force,and time to maximal force between thehang power snatch and the verticaljump movements. Garhammer andGregor (8) showed that ground reac-tion force in the snatch was similar tothat of countermovement verticaljump. The biomechanical similaritiesbetween the snatch and the verticaljump help explain the findings fromStone et al. (21) and Carlock et al. (3).Stone et al. (21) reported that theweightlifting exercises improved verti-cal jump height and 1RM of snatch andclean significantly. Carlock et al. (3)also showed a strong correlation be-tween weightlifting performance andjump performance in weightlifters. Al-though these studies are not definitive,they suggest that weightlifting exercisesare effective for improving jump per-formance. However, further researchinvolving long-term training interven-tions is required.

In our laboratory, one subject per-formed the hang power clean and coun-

51August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

termovement squat jump on a forceplate. The kinematic similarities in hipand knee extension can be observedduring the hang power clean (transitionand second pull phase) and squat jump(ascending phase) from Figures 1 and 2.In addition, upon examination of thevertical ground reaction force, markedsimilarities were in both the magnitudeand the shape of the force time curve(Figure 3).

Few studies have addressed the effects ofweightlifting exercises on sprinting,stopping, changing direction, andthrowing. Stone et al. (23) reported astrong correlation between isometricclean pull and throwing performance(shot put and weight throw). But, ingeneral, few studies have investigated ef-fects of weightlifting training in com-parison with other types of resistancetraining on athletic performance. Hoff-man et al. (11) compared weightliftingand powerlifting in 20 college football

players. One group participated in aprogram consisting mainly of weightlift-ing exercises, and the other group par-ticipated in a program consisting pre-dominantly of powerlifting exercises(squat, bench press, and deadlift). Theauthors found that the weightliftinggroup improved jump performance sig-nificantly more than the powerliftinggroup. However, no significant differ-ence was found between groups for im-provement of sprint and agility perfor-mance. This may be because all subjectsparticipated in sprint form drills, agilitydrills, and conditioning sessions in addi-tion to weightlifting or powerlifting ex-ercises during the last 5 weeks of theirtraining periods.

As a research priority, biomechanicaland physiological studies are required toinvestigate the training effects ofweightlifting exercises on athletic per-formance other than jumping to addressthis gap in scientific knowledge.

How Weightlifting ExercisesAre Introduced into a TrainingProgram

EquipmentAs long as athletes perform with goodtechnique and use proper equipment,weightlifting exercises are as safe as orsafer than other sports and activities(22). The correct equipment, which in-cludes bumper plates and platforms, isdesired in order to safely introduceweightlifting training. This equipmentallows athletes to drop barbells afterthey receive the weight or whenever nec-essary. In addition, barbells themselvesshould have certain levels of quality be-cause the shafts need to rotate smoothlyduring the receiving phase of the cleanand snatch. Otherwise, athletes may in-jure their wrists, elbows, or shoulderwhen they receive the barbell. With a setof barbells, plates, and platforms, ath-letes can perform a variety of differentexercises and train almost all musclegroups. Although a set of weightliftingequipment can cost more than $1,000,purchasing weightlifting equipment ismuch less expensive than purchasingseveral single-movement machines,which is a further advantage of thistraining method. Also, as can be seen innumerous examples around the world,weightlifting training can be performedby large numbers of athletes simultane-ously.

TechniquesTeaching proper exercise technique isone of the most important tasks ofstrength coaches. It is readily apparentthat beginners have difficulty learningthe techniques of the clean and snatchfrom floor. Because the second pullphase exhibits higher force and poweroutput than the first pull (6, 7), it maybe better for strength coaches to intro-duce the clean and snatch from the hangposition (or from boxes) so that thetechnique is simplified and lifters stilltake advantage of the second pull phase.Newton (15) recommended that ath-letes should learn the receiving position

52 August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

Figure 1. Hang power clean (transition phase: 1–3; second pull phase: 4–6).

Figure 2. Squat jump (ascending phase).

first and then learn the second pull.Hedrick (10) has proposed 12 steps forteaching the clean: education, model-ling, foot position, hand position, grip,start position, jump shrug, low pull,high pull, clean, adjusting foot position,and squat clean. This teaching methodcan be also applied for teaching thesnatch. By following the 12 steps, ath-letes will learn the second pull phase ofthe snatch and clean more easily.

To learn techniques of weightlifting exer-cises, athletes should always use theweights that they can lift safely. At the be-ginning of training, athletes may preferto use a wooden pole or polyvinyl chlo-ride pipe and then a bar without weights.Eventually, athletes should add 10 to 20lb to each set depending on their skillprogression. If the strength coach noticesthat an athlete does not perform correcttechnique at any stage, he or she shouldhave the athlete use lighter weight untilproper technique is achieved.

Strength coaches must monitor the exer-cise techniques of their athletes duringthe training. Schilling et al. (20) havestated that if athletes perform the cleanand snatch with proper technique, theirfeet should not be displaced forward butrather slightly backward. Chiu andSchilling (4) have also described that thefeet remain in the same vertical plane inwhich they started the movement.Therefore, strength coaches need to ob-serve athletes’ feet displacement duringweightlifting exercises and give feedbackimmediately after every repetition (rep).

Designing a ProgramThere are 5 variables to design a weighttraining workout: exercises, loads, reps,sets, and rest periods. Strength coachesshould consider these variables carefullyto meet the purpose of training. If thepurpose of training is to improve high-load speed strength, weightlifting exer-cises are an excellent selection.

To train high-load speed strength byusing weightlifting exercises, athletes

need to use the weight that maximizesmechanical power output. Power is aproduct of force and velocity, and thereis an inverse relationship between thetwo (1, 5, 17). Therefore, when athletesuse heavy weights, force output is highbut velocity will be low, and vice versa.Haff et al. (9) reported that the clean pullat 80% of 1RM power clean producedhigher power output than that of 90%and 100%. Moore et al. (14) showed thatthe hang power clean at 70% or lighterloads produced lower power output thanthat of 75% or higher loads. These re-sults may suggest that loading 75 to 80%of the athletes’ 1RM maximizes poweroutput during weightlifting exercises.However, if athletes’ skill levels are inad-equate, they should focus on learningproper technique by using the weightthat they can lift safely. Further researchis required about the effects of trainingexperience on the optimal load for poweroutput in each of the lifts.

Theoretically, rep and load have an in-verse relationship. If an athlete needsto use a heavy weight, he or she cannotperform many reps. If an athlete needsto perform many reps, the load mustbe relatively low. If an athlete needs toimprove high-load speed strength, heor she should perform all reps withhigh power output. If an athlete’spower output becomes significantlylow (≤90% of initial value) during theset because of fatigue, either the repsare too many or the loads are tooheavy. Typically, when competitiveweightlifters or strength and powerathletes perform weightlifting exercis-es (snatch and clean), their number ofreps per set is 5 or fewer (1).

Athletes are generally recommended toperform 3 to 5 or 6 sets for each exercise(1, 5). Strength coaches should considerthe influence of fatigue if the aim oftraining is high-load speed strength. If

53August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

Figure 3. Force characteristics in second pull phase of the hang power clean and as-cending phase of squat jump.

athletes’ power outputs are significantlyimpaired at the fifth or sixth set becauseof fatigue, it would not be effective toimprove their high-load speed strength.At present, no study has monitored theinfluence of fatigue on performance ofweightlifting exercises during consecu-tive sets. However, Wendell et al. (24)monitored the change of performance(mean velocity) of weighted jump squattraining through 10 sets of 5 reps at70% load of their 1RM squat and foundthat the performance was significantlyimpaired by the sixth set. If the keypoint is to improve high-load speedstrength, athletes should perform everyrep and set at as high of a power outputas possible. Therefore, athletes are sug-gested to take 2-, 3-, or even 5-minuterests between sets to maximize poweroutput (1).

However, if the main focus of training ispower output under a fatigued condi-tion (e.g., to improve blocking perfor-mance in football after several consecu-tive drives), the rest period between setsis shortened. In this condition, it may benecessary to reduce the load regardingthe fatigue level to minimize decreasesin power output. It is also important forstrength coaches to consider the selec-tion of exercise such that exercises withrelatively less difficulty (e.g., clean pullfrom mid thigh) and not exercises thatrequire high skill (e.g., snatch fromfloor) are preferable.

ConclusionIn this article we have presented a bio-mechanical rationale as to whyweightlifting exercises are effective forimproving athletic performance that re-quires high-load speed strength. Whenstrength coaches include weightliftingexercises in training programs, it may bebetter for them to introduce variationssuch as the hang clean first so that theycan simplify their teaching process andthat athletes can still take advantage ofhigh velocity and high power output. Ifathletes have adequate levels of exercisetechnique, it is suggested that they use

75 to 80% of 1RM load, with 5 or fewerreps per set to improve high-load speedstrength.

However, it is also evident that more re-search is necessary to investigate the effi-cacy of weightlifting exercises in com-parison with other types of resistancetraining. More training studies are nec-essary to investigate the effect ofweightlifting exercise on athletic perfor-mance. ♦

References1. Baechle, T.R., and R.W. Earle. Essen-

tials of Strength Training and Condi-tioning (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics, 2000.

2. Canavan, P.K., G.E. Garrett, and L.E.Armstrong. Kinematic and kinetic re-lationships between an Olympic-stylelift and the vertical jump. J. StrengthCond. Res. 10(2):127–130. 1996.

3. Carlock, J.M., S.L. Smith, M.J. Hart-man, R.T. Morris, D.A. Ciroslan, K.C.Pierce, R.U. Newton, E.A. Harman,W.A. Sands, and M.H. Stone. The re-lationship between vertical jumppower estimates and weightlifting abil-ity: A field-test approach. J. StrengthCond. Res. 18(3):534–539. 2004.

4. Chiu, L.Z.F., and B.K. Schilling. Thestop clean and stop snatch: Alterna-tives to hang. Strength Cond. J.26(3):10–12. 2004.

5. Fleck, S.J., and W.J. Kraemer. Design-ing Resistance Training Program. (2nded.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,1997.

6. Garhammer, J. Power production byOlympic weightlifters. Med. Sci. SportsExerc. 12(1):54–60. 1980.

7. Garhammer, J. A review of power out-put studies of Olympic and powerlift-ing: Methodology, performance pre-diction, and evaluation tests. J.Strength Cond. Res. 7(2):76–89. 1993.

8. Garhammer, J., and R. Gregor.Propulsion force as a function of in-tensity for weightlifting and verticaljumping. J. Appl. Sports Sci. Res.6(3):129–134. 1992.

9. Haff, G.G., M. Stone, H.S. O’Bryant,

E. Harman, C. Dian, R. Johnson, andK.-H. Han. Force-time dependentcharacteristics of dynamic and isomet-ric muscle actions. J. Strength Cond.Res. 11(4):269–272. 1997.

10. Hedrick, A. Teaching the clean.Strength Cond. J. 26(4):70–72. 2004.

11. Hoffman, J.R., J. Cooper, M. Wendell,and J. Kang. Comparison of Olympicvs. traditional power lifting trainingprograms in football players. J.Strength Cond. Res. 18(1):129–135.2004.

12. McBride, J.M., T. Triplett-McBride, A.Davie, and R.U. Newton. The effect ofheavy- vs. light-load jump squats onthe development of strength, power,and speed. J. Strength Cond. Res.16(1):75–82. 1999.

13. McEvoy, K.P., and R.U. Newton.Baseball throwing speed and base run-ning speed: The effects of ballistic re-sistance training. J. Strength Cond. Res.12(4):216–221. 1998.

14. Moore, C.A., A.C. Fry, A.J. Melton,L.W. Weiss, and F.D. Rosato. Powerand velocity production for differentrelative intensities for the hang powerclean exercise. NSCA National Con-ference. Indianapolis, 2003.

15. Newton, H. Bridging the gap: Powerclean. Natl. Strength Cond. Assoc. J.6(3):41, 64–66. 1984.

16 Newton, R.U., and E. Dugan. Appli-cation of strength diagnosis. StrengthCond. J. 24(5):50–59. 2002.

17. Newton, R.U., and W.J. Kraemer. De-veloping explosive muscular power:Implications for a mixed methodstraining strategy. Strength Cond. J.16(4):20–31. 1994.

18. Newton, R.U., W.J. Kraemer, and K.Hakkinen. Effects of ballistic trainingon preseason preparation of elite vol-leyball players. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.31(2):323–330. 1999.

19. Newton, R.U., W.J. Kraemer, K.Hakkinen, B.J. Humphries, and A.J.Murphy. Kinematics, kinetics, andmuscle activation during explosiveupper body movements. J. Appl. Bio-mech. 12:31–43. 1996.

20. Schilling, B.K., M.H. Stone, H.S.

54 August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

O’Bryant, A.C. Fry, R.H. Coglianese,and K.C. Pierce. Snatch technique ofcollegiate national level weightlifters. J.Strength Cond. Res. 16(4):551–555.2002.

21. Stone, M.H., R. Byrd, J. Tew, and M.Wood. Relationship between anaero-bic power and Olympic weightliftingperformance. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit-ness. 20:99–102. 1980.

22. Stone, M.H., A.C. Fry, M. Ritchie, L.Stoessel-Ross, and J.L. Marsit. Injurypotential and safety aspects ofweightlifting movements. StrengthCond. J. 16(3):15–21. 1994.

23. Stone, M.H., K. Sanborn, H.S.O’Bryant, M. Hartman, M.E. Stone,C. Proulx, B. Ward, and J. Hruby.Maximum strength-power-perfor-mance relationships in college throw-ers. J. Strength Cond. Res. 17(4):739–745. 2003.

24. Wendell, M.P., L.W. Weiss, L.Z.F.Chiu, E.J. Johnson, A.C. Fry, B.K.Schilling, C.A. Moore, C.B. Richey,B.J. Miles, and M.W. Malone.Changes in exercise intensity duringhigh power resistance exercise per-formed not-to-failure. NSCA Nation-al Conference. Indianapolis, IN, 2003.

25. Wilson, G.J., R.U. Newton, A.J. Mur-phy, and B.J. Humphries. The optimaltraining load for the development ofdynamic athletic performance. Med.Sci. Sports Exerc. 25(11):1279–1286.1993.

Naruhiro Hori is a doctoral student in Ex-ercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences atEdith Cowan University, Perth, WesternAustralia. He is a USAW sport performancecoach.

Robert U. Newton is the foundation pro-fessor in Exercise, Biomedical and HealthSciences at Edith Cowan University, Perth,Western Australia.

Kazunori Nosaka is an associate profes-sor in Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sci-ences at the Edith Cowan University,Perth,Western Australia.

Michael H. Stone is the head of sportsphysiology for the United StatesOlympic Committee. His service and re-search interests are primarily concernedwith physiological and performanceadaptations to strength and power train-ing. He is also an adjunct professor atEdith Cowan University, Perth, WesternAustralia; Edinburgh University, Scot-land; and at Louisiana State University inShreveport.

55August 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

Hori

Newton

Nosaka